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MAX BILL

2015

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www.march.es
62

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62

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62

Fundación Juan March

 manuel fontán del junco
maría toledo
eds.

texts by max bill, jakob bill, karin gimmi,

manuel fontán del junco, neus moyano, gillermo zuaznabar,
fernando marzá and maría amalia garcía

Fundación Juan March

 a custom followed at the bauhaus, which max bill adopted,
was to write in lowercase letters. thus jakob bill’s essay,
his answers in the interview published in this catalog as well as
max bill’s writings and the technical details about the works on display
appear in lowercase. above, fragment of a handwritten text
by max bill from the catalog for his exhibition at the galerie denise rené,
paris, 1971.

Fundación Juan March

 this catalog has been published
in conjunction with the exhibition

fundación juan march

madrid
16 october 2015–17 january 2016

F U N DAC I Ó N J UAN MAR C H

www.march.es

Fundación Juan March

lenders

Institutions FRANCE Paris Centre Pompidou. Musée national d’art moderne/Centre de création industrielle
GERMANY Ingolstadt Museum für Konkrete Kunst
Stuttgart/Berlín Daimler Art Collection
Waldenbuch Museum Ritter
Wuppertal Von der Heydt Museum
ITALY Milan Lorenzelli Arte
LIECHTENSTEIN Liechtenstein Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein
PORTUGAL Lisbon Museu Coleção Berardo
SPAIN Barcelona Library of the Col·legi d’Arquitectes de Catalunya
Museu d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona
Madrid Fundación privada Allegro
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía
Palma de Mallorca Fundación Bartolomé March Servera
Santander Archivo Lafuente
Aarau SWITZERLAND Aargauer Kunsthaus
Adligenswil max, binia + jakob bill stiftung
Bern Anne-Marie und Victor Loeb-Stiftung
Hermann und Margrit Rupf-Stiftung
Kunstmuseum Bern
Männedorf Galerie Bruno Bischofberger
Winterthur Kunstmuseum Winterthur
Zurich Kunsthaus Zürich
UNITED KINGDOM London Annely Juda Fine Art
UNITED STATES Cambridge, MA Harvard Art Museums
Private collections BRAZIL Private collection, Rio de Janeiro. Courtesy of Galerie Denise René
ITALY Private collection
SPAIN Guillermo de Osma Collection
Hernando Pérez Collection, Malaga
Neus Moyano & Fernando Marzá Collection
SWITZERLAND chantal and jakob bill collection
Estate of Elsa Frey-Rutishauser
Private collection
Walter + Helga Sonanini Collection
UNITED KINGDOM Private collection. Courtesy of Annely Juda Fine Art
UNITED STATES Merrill C. Berman Collection
Patricia Phelps de Cisneros Collection

Fundación Juan March

acknowledgements

The Fundación Juan March wishes to thank the following individuals and max, binia + jakob bill stiftung
institutions for making this exhibition possible thanks to the generous loans chantal and jakob bill
of their works, their collaboration and constant support: Merrill C. Berman Collection
Merrill C. Berman, Joelle Jensen
Aargauer Kunsthaus
Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte
Thomas Schmutz, Madeleine Schuppli, Brigitta Vogler-Zimmerli
Elisa de Cabo de la Vega, Miguel Ángel Recio Crespo,
Annely Juda Fine Art José Luis Rodríguez Muñoz
Nina Fellmann, David Juda
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía
Archivo Lafuente Carmen Cabrera Lucio-Villegas, Victoria Fernández-Layos, Manuel Borja-Villel
José María Lafuente, Noelia Ordóñez
Museu d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona
Biblioteca del Col·legi d’Arquitectes de Catalunya Ferran Barenblit, Bartomeu Marí, Antònia M. Perelló Ferrer, Patricia Sorroche
Olga Egea i Ballester, Fernando Marzá
Museu Coleção Berardo
Centre Pompidou. Musée national d’art moderne/Centre de création Pedro Aguilar, José Manuel Rodrigues Berardo, Isabel Soares Alves
industrielle:
Museum für Konkrete Kunst
Bernard Blistène, Sennen Codjo, Karine Jonneaux, Galia Kotarowa,
Anna Katz, Simone Schimpf, Sarah Wöhler
Alfred Pacquement
Museum Ritter
Daimler Art Collection
Hsiaosung Kok, Barbara Willert
Susanne Bronner, Claudia Grimm, Irina Hiebert, Renate Wiehager
Patricia Phelps de Cisneros Collection
Fundación Bartolomé March Servera
Skye Amelia Monson, Gabriel Pérez-Barreiro, Patricia Phelps de Cisneros
Juan Fierro March, Juan Isern
Swiss Embassy in Spain
Fundación Privada Allegro
Franziska Heimgartner, Thomas Kolly, Christian Neukom, Bruno Ryff
Luis Benshimol, Amaya Gergoff Bengoa
Von der Heydt Museum
Galería Guillermo de Osma
Gerhard Finckh, Brigitte Müller
José Ignacio Abeijón, Guillermo de Osma
Galerie Bruno Bischofberger Our thanks as well to Francisco Arévalo, Llorenç Bonet, Charlote Frey (†),
Bruno Bischofberger, Tobias Mueller, Maya Pfeifer María Amalia García, Karin Gimmi, Marianne Keller, Peter Klimt, Klaus F. Künzi,
Galerie Denise René Marilù Martelli, Paolo Martelli, Fernando Marzá, Neus Moyano, Hernando
Denis Kilian, Isabelle Poncet Pérez Díaz, Walter + Helga Sonanini, Willy Stebler, Joana Teixidor and Gillermo
Harvard Art Museums Zuaznabar. And as always, to Banca March and the Corporación Financiera
Jessica Ficken, Francine Flynn, Thomas W. Lentz, Nicole Linderman, Alba.
Lola Sánchez-Jáuregui, Mary Schneider Enríquez, Carrie Van Horn
Kunsthaus Zürich
Christoph Becker, Cécile Brunner, Philippe Büttner, Karin Marti,
Christa Meienberg
Kunstmuseum Bern
Regina Bühlmann, Matthias Frehner
Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein
Robin Hemmer, Friedemann Malsch
Kunstmuseum Winterthur
Ludmilla Sala, Dieter Schwarz
Lorenzelli Arte
Matteo Lorenzelli, Federica Minesso

Fundación Juan March

contents

Fundación Juan March

 8  max bill: the good forms of art. foreword fundación juan march
11  on bill karin gimmi    
17  “everything goes hand in hand:” a conversation with jakob bill manuel fontán del junco
31  max bill at the bauhaus jakob bill    
47  max bill and the hfg ulm: lines of division gillermo zuaznabar and neus moyano

64  works on display

235 perspectives on max bill’s work in spanish architecture fernando marzá

243  max bill in argentina and brasil: south american episodes in concrete art maría amalia garcía

254  max bill: biography jakob bill

263   max bill: an anthology (1936-1968)
eds. neus moyano, gillermo zuaznabar, manuel fontán del junco, maría toledo and mariola gómez laínez
265   preface
266  editorial note
  268 texts by max bill
269  1. concrete art (1936–1949)     
270   2. [le corbusier] (1938)
272   3. a few words on painting and sculpture (1947)
274   4. beauty from function and as function (1949)
278   5. artistic expression in construction [robert maillart] (1949)
280   6. kandinsky, pedagogue and educator (1951)
282   7. from surface to space (1951)
285   8. at our school you can’t become a painter (1951)
286   9. the bauhaus idea from weimar to ulm (1952)
288   10. a, b, c, d... (1953)
293   11. mondrian (1955)
295   12. the designed environment of the future (1964)
298   13. well-being in a small state (1968)

302 works cited  

308 max bill bibliography
309 texts by max bill
315 texts on max bill
318 list of works on display

324 fundación juan march exhibition catalogs and other publications

Fundación Juan March

max bill:
the good
forms of art
foreword

Fundación Juan March

The Swiss artist Max Bill (Winterthur,
1908-Berlin, 1994) was a multitalented
individual whose life revolved around making
art and thinking about a few, albeit great, ideas:
form, concretion, function, figure, beauty and
design, among others; a real Renaissance man
or homo universalis, a “designer” who combined
the virtues of the homo faber and homo ludens
all throughout his intense life.
This first Max Bill retrospective in Spain
presents the artist’s complete oeuvre in a
concentrated way, as it covers —chronologically
and thematically— every aspect of his
multifaceted oeuvre: painting, graphic art,
sculpture, architecture, book and magazine
design, industrial and furniture design, graphic
design and typography for advertising (from
large posters to small inserts in periodicals)
as well as the design of exhibition spaces.
A meticulous selection of 170 works and
documents from public and private collections
in Europe and America reflect this idea of
“concentrated retrospective” that has guided
this exhibition and its catalog from the start.
Until now, the only opportunity to see the
Max Bill’s work in Spain had been as part of
collective exhibitions and above all, in the
individual show at the Museo Español de Arte
Contemporáneo in Madrid and the Fundació
Joan Miró in Barcelona in 1980, the first in
this country to bring together his paintings,
sculptures and graphic design. Bill’s architecture
–the subject of numerous studies and
publications– has also aroused our interest, as
has his time at the Bauhaus and his relationship
to the Hochschule für Gestaltung Ulm (HfG)
[Ulm School of Design], which he
co-founded in 1951.
Following a series of recent major shows
at the Kunstmuseum in Stuttgart, the
Kunstmuseum and the Gewerbemuseum in
Winterthur and the Haus Konstruktiv in Zürich
between 2005 and 2008 (on the latter date,
to celebrate the centennial of Bill’s birth) this
exhibition at the Fundación Juan March now
aims to offer an updated vision of the Swiss
artist’s work and its significance in the visual
arts, architecture and design.
The show has been designed and organized
in close collaboration with the max, binia &
jakob bill stiftung, with Jakob Bill as chief
advisor. The Fundación Juan March would like
to thank him and his wife Chantal in particular,
because without their generous loans and
continued guidance and support, this exhibition
would not have been possible.
The show features a selection of fundamental,
representative works from throughout the career
of an artist who studied at the Bauhaus from
1927 to 1928 and designed and co-founded the
Ulm School in 1951. He was also the greatest
exponent of konkrete kunst [concrete art], a
trend that has marked contemporary Swiss
art. Bill stands out not only for his influence on
Spanish architecture, but also for the impact
he made on geometric trends in Latin America,
an aspect that the Fundación Juan March
explored back in the exhibition América Fría. La
abstracción geométrica en Latinoamérica, 1934-
1973 [Cold America: Geometric Abstraction
in Latin America, 1934-1973 (cf. www.march.
es)]. But he also stands out for his essays, his
work as an educator and his political and social
ideas. All of these aspects of his life and work
(along with his painting and sculpture, which
Jakob Bill talks about in the interview that
appears on these pages) are reflected in this
catalog, copiously illustrated and published in
two editions, Spanish and English, with essays
by experts from Spain and abroad including
Jakob Bill himself, Karin Gimmi, María Amalia
García, Gillermo Zuaznabar, Neus Moyano and
Fernando Marzá.
The catalog also features an anthology of
texts by Max Bill, selected, annotated and edited
by Neus Moyano, Manuel Fontán del Junco,
Gillermo Zuaznabar, María Toledo and Mariola
Gómez Laínez, and some of them translated
for this volume by Russell Stockman. In the
introduction to this anthology, readers will also
find information about the criteria followed, as
well as the details behind the selection of texts
that touch upon every area of Bill’s work, his
relationships and intellectual interests.
The catalog also contains an updated Max
Bill bibliography and a list of all his exhibitions.
It includes complete references of the
monographs and articles cited in the texts in
this catalog, as well as a specific bibliography
of writings by and about Max Bill. As for
Fundación Juan March
the artist’s own texts, they are listed in
chronological order, the product of a strict
analysis intended to bring some order to the
dating and identification of the original sources
–the original versions as well as translations
into other languages– of all the pieces Bill
wrote from 1936 to 1994, to clear this up for
scholars. As a result of efforts to obtain the final
selection of thirteen pieces by Max Bill included
here (seven of them never published before in
English), we have presented the full, updated
bibliographical history of all fifty texts that were
initially preselected.
This exhibition includes some of the
works featured in the show organized by
the Fundación Juan March in Palma and
Cuenca, whose catalog [max bill: obras de arte
multiplicadas como originales (1938-1994) / max
bill: multiplied artworks as originals artworks
1938–1994]. Madrid: Fundación Juan March,
2015) is a complement to this publication.
In a 1948 essay on exhibition design, Max
Bill said that he had often wondered “why
people go to exhibitions. I’ve come to the
conclusion […] that most visitors hope to feel
something beyond the scope of their everyday
lives. Visiting an exhibition,” he added, “is an
opportunity to interrupt one’s daily routine with
a day of celebration.”
Bill’s work can be seen as an intense
celebration of forms: both those that find their
function in everyday life —such as design and
architecture— as well as those that celebrate
a beauty that has no material function: works
of art that Bill often described as “objects for
spiritual use”. The goal of this exhibition is to
celebrate both of them.
Fundación Juan March
October 2015
Fundación Juan March
on
bill
–
karin gimmi
curator, zhdk museum für gestaltung zürich

Max Bill in 1932.

Photo: Binia Bill

11

Fundación Juan March

It must have been sometime in the mid-1990s,
during a period of intense engagement with
Max Bill at the University of Zurich, that a
student brought me a bilious green poster with
black lettering –a kind of poster or handbill or
flyer that he’d found stuck on the wall of a house
somewhere in the city. Written on it, in capital
letters, was the following declaration:

ROLF KNIE AND MAX BILL

ARE NOT THE MOST IMPORTANT
SWISS ARTIST

Readers unacquainted with the local Zurich

scene at that time should know that Rolf
Knie was a scion of a Swiss circus dynasty
whose career path had taken him from clown
and performing artist to the fine arts. In
the 1990s Knie was not only present on the
cultural scene with matters related to the circus
world but was also busy experimenting with
acid etching on canvas, painting on circus
tent fabric and designing animal costumes
for Walt Disney World in Orlando (Florida).
Knie ranked as a successful artist, with the
public as well as commercially, and he was
often profiled in celebrity magazines. It is
impossible to reconstruct the exact provenance
of the abovementioned green poster. Given
its provocative, ironic content and ad-hoc
composition, it should perhaps be seen in the
context of those (street-)art movements of the
1980s and 90s in Zurich that used graffiti,
illegally painted Sponti slogans1 and anonymous
signs to turn public space into a stage for
cultural action and performance. Or perhaps the
whole thing was just some art history students’
idea of a joke. In any case, while textually Max Bill working on a his critics) sold out and translated his art into a
not very inspired, the words communicated a wire sculpture, ca. 1947. slick commercial formula.
message that was quite unequivocal and clearly Photo: Ernst Scheidegger These reservations about Bill and his art
symptomatic of a certain state of mind at the did not just stem from local politics, with all
time. its resentment and envy. More fundamentally,
Max Bill –born in 1908 in Winterthur, an they reflected a sense that there was an axis of
industrial town near Zurich– was, at the time of success that ran directly from the proponents
his death in 1994, a star on the international art of a politically irreproachable neutral, abstract
scene. Yet younger artists in Switzerland had or concrete art to the representatives of the
begun not only to question Bill’s modernity, but Capitalist system.5 The monumental marble
also to see the former avant-garde artist as part sculptures that large banking institutions
of an establishment that had wholeheartedly commissioned from Bill in the 1980s seem
embraced the socio-political status quo. This to lend weight to this perception. Thus, for
was the very same Bill who, on being awarded example, the pavillon-skulptur [pavilion sculpture]
the Zurich Art Prize in 1968, had titled his of 1983, financed by what was then the
acceptance speech das behagen im kleinstaat Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft [Swiss Banking
(meaning roughly “well-being in a small Association] (now UBS) and gifted to the city
state”).2 Hence the Bentley that Bill drove with of Zurich, tellingly (and despite protests from
a discernible sense of pride was no longer the man on the street) found a home on the
discussed only in terms of its “good design”3 but Bahnhofstrasse, the epicentre of the city’s luxury
as a status symbol that was simply inappropriate shopping, corporate and banking system. Three
for an artist who wished to be taken seriously.4 years later, Deutsche Bank chose a version of
Like Knie, albeit on a totally different stylistic Bill’s sculpture kontinuität [continuity], executed in
and artistic level, Bill had (at least according to polished marble of pharaonic dimensions, to adorn

12

Fundación Juan March

its Frankfurt headquarters. The alliance between
Bill and the banks now appeared to be literally set
in stone6.
By the mid-1990s, critical reception of
the ideology and impact of Concrete Art had
reached its (provisional) high-point and end-
point: Swiss Concrete Art offered a safe harbour
for those beset by worries and doubts as argued
Martin Heller, the then-charismatic chairman
of the Swiss Werkbund. More pointedly still,
he went on to suggest “This art is a safe
investment”7. In a continual stream of paintings,
sculptures, silkscreen prints, multiples8, posters
and mass-produced goods, the products of this
movement percolated into enlightened Swiss
living rooms and conquered the walls of banking
and insurance boardrooms –not to mention the
shelves of tasteful department stores. Heller
concluded that Concrete Art was, to date, the
Swiss art project with the greatest (boundlessly
enthusiastic) mass appeal. Bill helped to promote
this perception by presenting himself exclusively
as a painter and sculptor in his exhibitions and
publications in subsequent years. Applied art,
typography, poster design or produktform [product
design] (Bill used this term instead of the English
word “design”) now appeared to be marginal,
mere spin-offs of his work in fine art. 9
P.S.
Of course it is improper to reduce Max Bill
(and his reception) to Concrete Art alone. And
so it should be noted that concurrent with
these reservations about Bill’s art there was
a renewed interest in Bill as an architect.10 In
the context of an emerging “new simplicity”
in architecture –evident in the early works
of Peter Zumthor or Peter Märkli, say, or the
office of Herzog & de Meuron (and exemplified
in the use of so-called “poor materials” or a
reduced formal vocabulary)– the qualities of a
programmatically unspectacular architecture
such as Bill’s acquired renewed relevance.11
And as was impressively demonstrated by the
comprehensive exhibitions devoted to Bill in
Stuttgart, Zurich, Winterthur and Herfort in 2005
and 2008, the time was finally also ripe for a
reassessment of his output as a whole –that is,
his work as a painter, sculptor, architect, graphic
designer, typographer, critic, writer, publisher
and educator.12
From the Bauhaus to Ulm
Bill himself summed up his career most
concisely and pertinently under the rubric “from
the bauhaus to ulm”.13 When Bill was young
there were no art schools in Switzerland, so he
started off as an apprentice silversmith in the
Kunstgewerbeschule [School of Applied Arts]
in Zurich. A visit to the 1925 Paris Exposition
Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels
Modernes, along with a lecture by Le Corbusier,
organised by the Schweizerischer Werkbund
[Swiss Association of Artists, Craftsmen and
Industrialists] in Zurich in 1926, inspired his
subsequent decision to become an architect
and to enroll in the newly opened Bauhaus in
Dessau.14 He spent just a year and a half there,
but it laid the foundation for his future activities.
At Dessau Bill not only gained experience in
a range of artistic disciplines but also –and no
less importantly– built lasting relationships with
many well-known figures in the avant-garde
before he returned to Zurich, a 20-year-old
artist with the prestige of having studied at the
Bauhaus. There he lived, keeping his head above
water with small commissions for lettering or
advertisements –modest things, to be sure, but
done with the assurance that he was now part
of the international avant-garde. Following the
pioneers of modernism that he knew personally
–Theo van Doesburg, Wassily Kandinsky, Paul
Klee, Josef Albers, László Moholy-Nagy, Georges
Vantongerloo, Henry van de Velde and Le
Corbusier– Bill set out to define an independent
response to their achievements, one that was
appropriate to his time. He later described his
situation during this period as follows:
the bauhaus became for me the epicentre,
with its overlapping of disciplines and its
insistence that in everything we design we have
a personal responsibility to society or, as the
later formulation had it, the whole environment
created by us, from the spoon to the city, had to
be brought into harmony with social conditions,
which implied shaping those conditions too.15
Shuttling between Zurich and the art capital of
Paris, where he spent the 1930s in the circle
around Michel Seuphor and Theo van Doesburg,
Bill began to pursue new paths, initially in
painting and sculpture. The result of this was the
formulation of the principles of konkrete Gestaltung
[concrete design], a term originally coined by van
Doesburg; this art, Bill wrote in 1936:
arises out of its own means and laws, without
these having to be derived or borrowed from
external natural phenomena. The optical
Fundación Juan March
composition is based on colour, form, space,
light, movement.”16
From there Bill began to reformulate the entire
field of the modern visual arts, from painting
and sculpture to architecture, graphic design,
typography and the applied arts.
In Bill’s educational schema each discipline
was to be treated in accordance with its own
laws and techniques. A blurring of boundaries, as
practised by Le Corbusier, was decisively rejected.
For Bill, each design task had to be resolved with
respect to the nature of the specific medium and
the function that was to be fulfilled. This basic
principle inevitably engenders a plurality of forms.
But in Bill’s designs one often finds the opposite:
namely, formal themes are translated easily from
one discipline into another and back again.
Bill was given the opportunity to put his ideals
into practice in 1950, when the Geschwister
Scholl Stiftung [Scholl Siblings Foundation]
commissioned him to design both the curriculum
and the building for the Hochschule für
Gestaltung in Ulm (HfG Ulm) [Ulm School of
Design]. What he attempted there was not just
an overlapping of disciplines, as at the Bauhaus,
but an interplay within the framework of what he
would eventually call “environmental design”.
More than that: for Bill, the modern culture
of objects was to be expressed in the quasi-
mathematical formula of [form = beauty.] 17 The
ideal situation, said Bill in the small exhibition
catalog conceived for the Ulmer Museum [City
Museum of Ulm] in 1956, would be one where
all phenomena, from the smallest object up to
the city, were in the same way the sum of all
functions in harmonious unity = gestalt and thus
a self-evident component of daily life. one would
then be able to call this situation culture. that’s
what we’re striving towards.18
The illustrated pages of the catalog offered
a pictorial representation of this concept of
“culture”. Reproduced in a uniform scale, in
the size of postage stamps, they created a
kaleidoscopic array of Bill’s work, in forms ranging
from a power plug to a design for a memorial.
The aim of the Hochschule für Gestaltung,
Bill’s most important pedagogical experiment,
was, quite simply, to shape a better postwar
world. In contrast to the Bauhaus of the 1920s,
what stood at the forefront of Bill’s design theory
in the 1950s was not the concept of function but
rather the aesthetic aspect of form. Ultimately it
was precisely this aspect of the education at Ulm
that Bill’s younger successors later considered too
academic and rejected. The result of this rejection
was that in 1956 Bill resigned from his post as
rector and with it admitted the failure of his plan
to reshape design education.19
13

Beauty
For the generation of artists born after 1900,
reconstruction was a central theme –even for
those, like Bill, who had observed the war from
a protected enclave. In the years after 1945
a particular importance was attached to the
Werkbund and its promotion of industrially-
produced consumer goods: these mobile
objects represented a relatively quick means of
building a new world –one that was better, more
beautifully designed. Of course Bill had been
engaged with the applied arts and industrial
design for some time before he carried out
his first commission in this field, the redesign
of the Patria typewriter [cat. 61] in 1944.
Further commissions (for chairs, tables, lamps,
hairbrushes, mirrors and clocks) were to follow.
But what turned out to be even more crucial
than these objects –some of which remain very
attractive and usable today– were the design
reforms that Bill promoted under the banner
of die gute form [the good form]. These set
standards far beyond the borders of Switzerland,
so that Bill became a highly sought-after guest
speaker (for example at the International Design
Conference organised by Walter Paepcke in
Aspen, Colorado, among other places). The
initial impulse came from a lecture, entitled
“beauty from function and as function”, that Bill
delivered at the 1948 annual conference of the
Schweizerischer Werkbund. 20
His theoretical pronouncements must have
struck a nerve, because the association promptly
commissioned him to bring the topic to a wider
public with a practice-related design show. If, as
we may assume, Bill himself was responsible for
the exhibition title, good design [cat. 76], then he
scored a major triumph with it. It was his idea
not only to showcase exemplary products but
also to launch an annual design award under
the same label. This initiative, which lasted from
1952 right up to 1969, didn’t just create a pithy
brand name for the Schweizerischer Werkbund.
The idea was taken up outside Switzerland too,
under appellations such as Good Design (a 1954
exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, New
York) or Compasso d’oro (a prize for the best
industrial design created in 1954 by the Italian
company La Rinascente). Bill’s extensively-
illustrated publication FORM, which appeared
in 1952 in German, French and English, became
(and is still considered today) a cult book of the
1950s.21
Bill’s theoretical reflections on modern
product design triggered a vital paradigm shift
–they brought back into play the concept of
beauty, which up to then had been excluded
from modernist discourse. In opposition to a
14
purely utilitarian aesthetic, Bill now declared
formal quality to be a necessary part of design.
And he called for beauty to be treated on a par
with function:
it has become clear to us that beauty can no
longer be developed out of function alone; instead,
the demand for beauty has to be set on the same
level as a functional demand, since it is a function
too.22
In contrast to the early Werkbund, Bill did not
promote handcrafts or truth to materials; rather,
his aim was “an extreme utilization of materials,
where the maximum effect is achieved with
the minimum of materials”.23 With this Bill
established an aesthetic of spare elegance.24
His thinking found such resonance because it
synthesised demands for design reform with
an impulse to create types and standards and
a reconsideration of ‘the artistic design of
everyday objects’.25
Words
Measured against the enormous interest that
Bill has aroused as a painter, sculptor, architect,
graphic designer or teacher, Bill’s written
work seems to represent a blind spot in the
topography of his all-embracing oeuvre. Yet
he himself indicated the importance of this
medium on several occasions: “my activities as a
commentator must be the hardest to represent,
though they are often vital for understanding
the rest of my work and the motives underlying
many things”, was how he put it in the Ulm
catalogue.26 The fact is that Bill’s texts, criticism
and theories run parallel to the other media
in which he expressed himself, and so they
should be examined in terms of whether Bill
also used language in accordance with its own
laws and principles. So, we could say that this
language reached its ideal state when: [the sum
of all functions in harmonious unity] = [gestalt],
with its aims being expressed in simplified
mathematical prose: [form, function, beauty =
gestalt?]
As Eugen Gomringer, a proponent of Concrete
Poetry and a friend of Bill’s, aptly noted, “time
and again he reached for language in order to
report on motives and connections, not just in
his own work but in that of others too”.27 He
strived to do so with as much precision as
possible, by creating and popularizing expressions
for thinking about and articulating artistic
processes: “concrete art”28, “mathematical
thinking in art of our time”29, “beauty from
function and as function”30, “good design”31
and “from making to faking”32 are just a few
Fundación Juan March
of the emblematic tags that he attached, with
a certain linguistic intuition, to his essays.
Equally typically, if he found established orders
of speech and thought outmoded, he would
overturn them and build them up anew. The
following collection of essays bears impressive
testimony to this impulse. Gomringer sees
Bill’s great achievement as having been to
“stimulate an ordering of concepts within our
metalanguage about art and product design”.33
Needless to say that Concrete Poetry, as
Gomringer himself practised it, had developed in
close dependence on Concrete Art. In Concrete
Poetry language does not serve to describe a
content, a thought or a mood, but itself becomes
the aim and object of the poem. Yet Bill doesn’t
go this far. In his texts, for all their undeniable
linguistic individuality, meaning and function are
in no way to be found in self-referentiality.
In his graphic or typographic works, however,
Bill appears to pursue another principle. Here
he was interested in creating word-images,
in the optimal configuration of text and in the
architecture of language. As early as the 1930s
he developed a corporate typeface for the
Wohnbedarf firm in Zurich and then extracted
from this an individual character which was
ultimately used as a self-contained artistic
motif, not only in a graphic work but also in
a relief. For a purely typographic poster for
a 1944 exhibition of Concrete Art, Bill made
hundreds of pencil sketches in order to achieve
a universally valid subject as well as an optimal
text design. His exploration of language and
its communicative potential went further still
in the early 1960s, when Bill attempted to
compose a whole typeface out of word-images.
By emphasising the vowels, he intended to find
a correspondence between the appearance
of words and their acoustical form and so
increase, in an almost industrial sense, the
speed of reading. The typeface did not make it
into production at the time, but in 1997 a digital
version was produced, in both regular and italic.
Finally a word on lowercase, which Bill
used wherever and whenever possible after
his return from the Bauhaus (His heirs and
the administrators of his estate continue to do
so to this day.) This way of writing originated
in attempts to reform the German language
initiated in the 1920s by Walter Porstmann, the
theoretician of standardisation and founder of
the German standard paper size, DIN A4. So
it is rooted not in philological or philosophical
considerations but in office management
practices. At the Bauhaus, Herbert Bayer and
Josef Albers promoted it for economic reasons
as well: “we write everything small in order to
save time”. All attempts to simplify forms of
writing inherited from the Renaissance have thus
far failed to take hold in the German language.
The protagonists of modernism and their Under the title Josef Albers: medios mínimos, efecto
spiritual heirs, however, were not only thinking máximo [Josef Albers: Minimal Means, Maximum
Effect], the Fundación Juan March organized and
of greater ease of reading. Lowercase writing,
presented at its Madrid headquarters (March 28-July 6,
like the new Akzidenz-Grotesque typefaces34, 2014) the first retrospective dedicated to Josef Albers
symbolized the speed of the new means of in Spain. The show focused on his work –conceived
communication and generally stood for an open, with a firm commitment to simplicity and produced
“modern” approach to art and society. One of with intentionally limited resources– as the product of
the most outstanding and successful artists in a true “economy of form.” Ed.
25 Moos 1992, p. 258.
the postwar period, Bill was clearly aware not
26 Exh. cat. Ulm 1956, p. 4.
only of the function of words and the beauty 27 Gomringer 1958, pp. 56-62.
of their forms but also of their media impact. 28 “konkrete kunst” (1949). Cf. text nº 1 of the anthology
Writing in lowercase thus became part of a in this catalog.
personal trademark. 29 “die mathematische denkweise in der kunst unserer
zeit” (1949).
1 The Sponti were groups of left-wing political activists 30 “schönheit aus function und als funkion” (1949), cf.
of the 1970s and 1980s who regarded themselves the text nº 4 of the anthology in this catalog.
heirs to the Revolution of ‘68. For the Sponti, the true 31 “die gute form” (1948).
revolutionary element of history was “the spontaneity 32 “vom schleckzeug zum werkzeug” (1952).
of the masses”. Ed. 33 Gomringer 1958, p. 58.
2 “das behagen im kleinstaat” (1968), cf. text nº 13 of the 34 A sans-serif typeface designed in 1896 by the
anthology in this catalog. typefoundry H. Berthold of Berlin. Ed.
3 In reference to Max Bill’s theory of “die gute form” [the
good form], developed in the show of the same name
held in 1949 at the Museum für Gestaltung in Zurich.
Ed.
4 In a well-known, well-documented film, 22 Fragen an
Max Bill [22 Questions for Max Bill], from the period
of student unrest (directed by Georg Radanowicz in
1968-69), there are sequences in which Bill’s luxury
car appears as the antithesis to the monastic simplicity
of the Hochschule für Gestaltung Ulm (HfG Ulm)
[Ulm School of Design], contributing to a rather crude
cinematographic dismantling of the artist.
5 The classic on this theme remains: Guilbaut 1983.
Regarding the consolidation of avant-gardism in the
Swiss art system in particular, cf. Hans-Jörg Heusser,
in: Heusser et al. 1979; and regarding the situation in
the US, cf. Kozloff 1973, pp. 43-54; the connections
between concrete art and the Cold War are addressed
in: Moos 2008.
6 Philip Ursprung devoted an inspiring essay to these
connections regarding the specific case of Bill’s
sculpture continuity: Ursprung 2004, pp. 231-49.
7 Heller 1995.
8 In contemporary art, especially in the field of
printmaking, a multiple is a single work reproduced a
number of times. Regarding Max Bill’s multiples, see
also: exh. cat. Palma-Cuenca 2015. Ed.
9 Moos 1995, p. 69.
10 Frei 1991; Gimmi 2004c, pp. 58-59.
11 Cf. exh. cat. Milan 1996.
12 Cf. exhibition catalogs: Stuttgart 2005; Winterthur 2008
and Herford 2008.
13 Bill 1976, p. 13.
14 Documents about Bill’s year-and-a-half stay at the
Bauhaus can be found in the recent: Bill 2008b.
15 Bill 1976, p. 13.
16 Bill 1936, p. 9.
17 Max Bill put his formulas in brackets, as if they were
mathematical equations. Ed.
18 Ulm 1956, p. 20.
19 Rüegg 2008, p. 90.
20 Bill 1949, pp. 272-74. Cf. text nº 4 of the anthology in
this catalog.
21 Cf. Bill 1952.
22 Ibid., p. 272.
23 Ibid., p. 273.
24 In this aspect, Max Bill followed the teachings of a
former professor of his at the Bauhaus, Josef Albers.

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Fundación Juan March

Fundación Juan March
“everything
goes
hand in hand”
a conversation
with jakob bill
–
manuel fontán del junco
director of museums and exhibitions, fundación juan march

Max Bill with his son

Jakob at his home and
studio in Zurich-Höngg,
1950. Photo: Binia Bill

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Fundación Juan March

The following pages contain a long conversation about Max Bill –
especially his painting and sculpture–, which took place in the library of
the Fundación Juan March in Madrid on April 20, 2015. In view of the
abundant literature about the Swiss artist’s work, from texts by Margit
Staber and Eduard Hüttinger to more recent essays, the idea for this
interview emerged as an opportunity to enrich it with the testimony of
someone very familiar with Bill the artist: Jakob Bill. Born in Zurich in
1942, this doctor in archaeology and artist is the son of Max and Binia
Bill. As such, he has been a privileged observer not only of his father’s
life but also his work over the course of several decades. Apart from
being his son, Jakob Bill is also a particularly important witness for other
reasons: first, because he is an artist himself –not long ago the Haus
Konstruktiv in Zurich did a retrospective of his work1–; second, because
he has been a curator and advisor for many of the exhibitions by and
about his father; and finally, because, as the director of the max, binia +
jakob bill stiftung [max, binia + jakob bill foundation], his knowledge of
his father’s life and work2 extends to his writings, a good deal of which
he has already published, specifically the ones about architecture and
design.3

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Fundación Juan March

Manuel Fontán del Junco: Let’s start with
something that’s surprising about Max Bill:
the variety of his activities and his intensity.
Your father was what we might now call
a multi-talented man: he was an architect,
painter, sculptor, designer, educator, essayist,
publisher… My first question is: how did he
manage? How did he find the time to do so
many different things? Can you remember
anything about that?
jakob bill: you’ve put it very well: he was a
multi-talented man. there are those who have
referred to him using the medieval concept of
homo universalis. he was regularly informed
about what was going on in all those fields
and he never took any vacation; it was as if, by
going from one area of interest into another,
he regenerated himself. it filled him with
energy again and again every time he turned to
something different.
That is to say that for him, switching
activities helped him not get tired… What
was a day in the life of Max Bill like?
i can only answer part of that question. until
1949 bill4 worked at home. later he had an office
in the city. in the book about the exhibition die
gute form [good design]5 i’ve described bill’s
activities during the period of preparations
for the show, inaugurated in basel in 1949. i
tried to reconstruct his everyday activities over
the course of a few months. naturally, he had
people working for him. the teams that carry out
projects like the ones he and his team did are
much bigger today. if you visit an architecture or
a design studio you might find up to 20 or more
people working there. bill had, at most, two or
three assistants and one secretary; that’s the
ratio.
What kind of work did he do at that studio?
projects related to architecture, design… and he
also wrote.
And did he paint?
no, he painted at home only in the original
studio, in höngg6. most of the ideas for
sculptures occurred to him at home; sometimes
at the office. later, when he was working in
ulm7, he had some of the sculptures made in
the a workshop owned by the school specialized
in plaster and then he would touch them up, like
the monument to georg büchner for example8.
As a sculptor, did he always work with the
same workshops?
he used several different ones, depending on
the materials he was working with. in the 1930s
he worked with a turner on wood sculptures;
then with a workshop that soldered the metal
pieces, which were then sprayed by others.
there was also a former classmate of his from
his time at the school of arts and crafts, a
silversmith, who would make the sculptures.
the final touch, the polishing of the surfaces,
was partially done by bill himself, at least until
the 1950s. and the plaster casts for the large
sculptures were done by a plasterer.
Did Bill do any painting when he was at the
School of Arts and Crafts in Zurich, from
1925 to 1927?
yes, but not at the school.
By the way: Bill was not the first artist in the
family, because there’s an ancestor of yours
who was a painter.
yes. bill had an uncle on his mother’s side, ernst
geiger, a forest engineer, who subsequently
became a painter. and his godfather, adolf
weibel, was curator of the collection of the
canton of aargau since 1927; he was a drawing
teacher and a painter. and bill’s father, my
grandfather, was also the secretary of the
swiss art association; by profession he was
assistant stationmaster of the railway station
in winterthur, an industrial city north of zurich,
where bill was born.
Let’s jump ahead in time a few years. Whilst
studying in Zurich at the School of Arts and
Crafts, your father went to Paris to visit the
1925 International Exhibition.
that’s right. the works he did in silver as a
student at the school of arts and crafts in
zurich had been selected for the exposition
internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels
modernes [international exhibition of modern
decorative and industrial arts]. and he was able
to go to paris to see them on show. we still have
a picture he took of the showcase where they
were displayed. but in addition to visiting the
exhibition, he also had the chance to admire the
new modern architecture, which he had never
seen before, and was greatly impressed by the
pavilions designed by le corbusier, konstantín
mélnikov and frederick kiesler, among others.
And did he have the chance to discover
Parisian painting from that time?
well… i guess he was able to see modern
painting in the same le corbusier pavilion
“l’esprit nouveau”…
Yes: Le Corbusier’s own works and paintings
by Juan Gris, Pablo Picasso…
during his childhood he also had the chance to
visit several exhibitions with my grandfather. for
example, there is a little sketch he did at a very
young age of a painting by ferdinand hodler
at the winterthur museum. in any case, let me
tell you that at home, there was very little talk
Fundación Juan March
about my parents’ history and life before i was
born. i’ve had to research it myself many times
later on. the truth is, my parents did not find the
past particularly interesting. at home, we talked
about the present and future.
That seems very characteristic of your father.
You really never talked about the past?
well, hardly. with me it’s different: i’m a
historian, an archaeologist. my father was more
of… a futurist.
He concentrated on the present and looked
to the future. In other words, he lived in the
moment. Going back to my first question,
and to be more specific: how did he optimize
his time? How did he manage to fit it all in?
Did he work until late at night?
to answer that question, we have to talk about
his profession again. he saw himself as an
architect his entire life, and he always referred
to himself as such, although he never actually
got a degree in that field. at the bauhaus he was
finally able to study architecture, although first
he had to pass the vorkurs [preliminary course].
but it was while he was taking that course that
he entered his first architecture competition. he
tied for third place in a competition to design a
residential and office building in osaka (japan). a
japanese classmate of his at the bauhaus helped
him with the translations he needed to do. at
the bauhaus he finished three semesters and
went back to zurich in late 1928.
in the 1930s, he designed and built our family
home in zurich höngg (from 1932 to 1933),
and a house for some relatives in the vicinity
of basel (1936), as well as the swiss pavilion
at the milan triennale (1936). but to go back to
your question: the fact is, when there was an
interesting architecture competition, he would
set aside all his other work –graphic design for
advertising, painting, lectures, etc. –and work
on the project night and day.
Now that you’ve returned to the subject of
his career, let me ask you about your father’s
ideas about the “profession” of the artist. To
be precise, he believed (and he argued this
in his writings) that all artists should have
another job to earn their daily bread.
yes, that’s an idea that he spread later on; and i
see it as he did: artists only have the freedom to
do what they really want when they also have a
job to live on.
And Bill was an example of that belief you
and he share.
yes. in his case, he didn’t get many architecture
commissions and he won few competitions,
which is why he couldn’t make a living as an
architect alone.
19
In any case, with that stance he broke with
an entire artistic tradition. I’m talking about
that idea that took hold during Romanticism,
of the pure artist and art for art’s sake; the
idea that an artist must be only an artist.
yes.

Has that also been the case of the other

“concrete” artists?
well, for example, richard paul lohse started out
as a graphic designer…

And Theo van Doesburg also worked as a

designer and a graphic artist… What about
Georges Vantongerloo?
vantongerloo was a different story. he had
studied sculpture at the fine arts academy and
only worked as an artist.

So, let’s talk about painting. At the Bauhaus,

your father attended Josef Albers’ Vorkurs.
What other workshops did he take there?
both during and after the vorkurs, which was
mandatory, he attended the official bauhaus
workshops. during the second semester he took
the metal workshop, and during the third he
studied with hannes meyer in the architecture
department. he also took oskar schlemmer
and xanti schawinsky’s theater workshop. and
he attended the free painting classes [freie
malklassen] taught by paul klee and wassily
kandinsky, which took place in the teachers’
homes. with schawinsky and klee he was also
able speak swiss german, which was his native
tongue, not german.
Before that, at the School of Arts and Crafts
in Zurich, did Bill study painting?
there they had to pass different courses
depending on what profession they were
pursuing: drawing, modeling, metalworking…
But not painting.
no, not painting. that wasn’t one of the subjects
in the curriculum. he actually got his taste for
painting from his uncle, ernst geiger. bill would
spend his vacations at his home next to lake biel
or in the canton of ticino, painting.
You could say, then, that as a painter, and
probably as a sculptor, Bill was sort of a self-
taught artist trained at the Bauhaus, not an
academy artist.
that’s right. he wasn’t an academic artist but
rather self-taught, yes.
There wasn’t a Fine Arts Academy in Zurich?
no, there wasn’t. that wasn’t the swiss model.
swiss students who wanted to receive that type
of training would go to paris or munich...
Max Bill with Georges
Vantongerloo and Jakob
Bill at his home and studio
in Zurich-Höngg, 1946.
Photo: Binia Bill
Or Berlin or Vienna… Fine, now let’s go
back to Bill’s ability to optimize his time and
divide it up among his various projects. Did
Bill draw distinctions between his different
activities?
no, not very precise ones. in fact, in his writings
it’s clear how he applied concepts from one field
to another. when my father died, this is what
made me decide not to split up his archive. one
institution was interested in his architecture,
another in some other part of his work. and
i was against it, because breaking it up like
that went against his work, which brought
everything together: architecture, painting,
sculpture, spatial planning… everything is
interrelated: typography and painting and vice-
versa, etc. today, with hindsight, we might be
able to say: this should be put in this category
or the other… but my father was not in favor of
a very strict separation: this is this and that is
that. no: as he saw it, everything went hand in
hand.
And when did that constant transfer of ideas
among his different fields of activity begin?
examples of that way of going about things
can be found as early as the 1930s. there is, for
instance, his 1931 design for the poster for the
exhibition negerkunst [negro art, cat. 19] –back
then this expression was still acceptable–, an
oval in a vertical position with a hole in the

20

Fundación Juan March

middle that can be tied to his first well-relief
[relief with waves], a horizontal oval he did that
same year, or the “o” from the font bill created
for the company wohnbedarf [cat. 22-23].
the idea is the same, but applied differently
according to the field.
In the case you’ve just mentioned, we also
actually have a poster, a logo and an object,
which is a work of art. And in the well-relief
there is also a connection between painting
and sculpture…
that’s right.
Our recent exhibition in Palma and Cuenca9
shows in many cases –as you yourself have
explained from time to time– that painting has
influenced his graphic work, and vice-versa.
well, more like the other way around. in general,
graphic work has not influenced his painting.
with the graphic work, what happens is that
ultimately, other technical possibilities come into
play that allow a work to be reproduced exactly,
with the same qualities, allowing a wider
dissemination of the piece.
And how did his “architectural” mentality
influence his painting?
that’s hard to say because for him, the essential
thing in his architecture was the surroundings,
the topography, as in the case of the villiger
house10, the building for the ulm school of
design11, his project for a school in freudenberg
and the house in höngg, which bill also adapted
to the landscape. this is very dominant in his
architecture.
Topography, of course, has no use, no
application in painting…
painting is two-dimensional and has nothing to
do with the surrounding landscape.
Although it does have to do with architecture
and sculpture.
yes, but sculpture is closer to exhibition design.
sculpture is volume related to space.
Yet in one of his texts12, Bill clearly points
out that the design of exhibition spaces is a
function of architecture.
naturally. that’s why bill referred to it as
exhibition architecture. architecture essentially
has to do with the spatial. and from there we
have a link to painting.
the connection between architecture and
painting appears in the 1940s. in the exhibition
die gute form the two things are related in certain
paintings, such as unbegrenzt und begrenzt
[unlimited and limited], from 1947 [cat. 74].
there is also a connection between sculpture
and architecture, or between sculpture and
landscape; there is, for instance, the design
for the shore of lake zurich, where bill put a
fountain, a sculpture called konstruktion aus 7
kreisringen [construction from 7 circular rings,
cat. 60], where the disc that makes up the base
reminds us of a chinese pi-disc. on the disc
there are circular rings sculpted in such a way
that their diameter increases proportionately;
their cut surface changes by 15-degrees,
rotating from the vertical to the horizontal. the
rings are arranged in a spiral pattern on the
disc. as you can see, there are many interrelated
elements at play. my father did various
sculptures and paintings like that, where there
is not only one single order, but at least two or
three.
As we’ve already seen, Bill thought of
himself above all as architect. What was the
second most important field of activity to
him? Painting, sculpture, design?
that’s hard to say. if you look at his entire
oeuvre, the field where he was the most prolific
is painting.
More than architecture?
much more! around a dozen buildings have
survived. if you count his projects, there are 80
altogether. that’s very little for an architect.
In other words, quantitatively, painting was
his main focus.
yes. and there are quite a number of sculptures
as well.
What about graphic design?
are you talking about prints or graphic design
for advertising?
Prints. Graphic art.
about three hundred and fifty pieces of his
graphic art were printed. his early period includes
the years before the bauhaus and his time as a
student there. later, from 1935 to 1938, he did
the quinze variations [cat. 38, 39], and continued
to produce some more work until the 1950s. it
was in the 1960s, in the middle of the graphic art
boom, that his work exploded, with extensive,
mass-produced prints, sometimes with
thousands of copies. many of these prints were
also used as exhibition-posters.
but bill did not see himself as a printmaker.
his vision of graphic art can’t be compared to
pablo picasso’s, for example, for whom that art
form was as important as painting or sculpture.
for bill, it was more of a way to make it possible
for anyone to own an original for a small amount
of money. he wrote about this too, as you can
see in our catalog for the exhibition in palma and
cuenca i mentioned earlier. he saw it as a political
issue: it was about democratizing art.
Fundación Juan March
Could you add something about his way
–rather common in his work– of doing
series?
bill’s graphic oeuvre includes series that he
later numbered “1-14”. they were conceived as
portfolios that are closely related to the subject,
yet at the same time, in a very didactic way, they
provide the key to contemplating the series.
What about graphic design for advertising?
graphic design for advertising was very
important to my father in the 1930s, often
accompanied by the pictures my mother took.
that’s how they made a living at the time. as for
book design, he did that up until the final years
of his life, when he designed his own catalogs
or catalogs for his friends (for example, for
sophie taeuber and georges vantongerloo). bill
always felt that good design was important for
books, just like for posters.
He also designed everyday objects,
household items.
in the 1930s, a few. it wasn’t until the early
1940s that bill began to design objects for
everyday use. starting in 1949-50 the first of this
famous chairs and tables were produced [cat.
84. 87-89] and as of 1957 he designed watches
for junghans [cat. 99-101].
Despite all that design work, he still basically
considered himself an architect.
well, in spite of everything, he saw himself
first and foremost as an architect and then as
an artist. although we mustn’t forget that his
teaching work was very important to him as
well. from 1944 to 1945 he received his first
teaching-related job: to teach “theory of form”
at the zurich school of arts and crafts. then
came the ulm school [of design]. in addition
to being the architect who designed the
building, he was its first rector and head of the
architecture department from 1951 to 1956.
finally a professorship was created for him at
the school of fine arts in hamburg, a chair in
environmental design. he taught there from
1967 until he became a professor emeritus in
1974.
That is, he saw himself as an architect, but
he was also a prolific artist and designer as
well as a professor…
and he was also involved in politics.
That’s right, because in the 1960s Bill was
very active politically, as an independent.
at one point he was nominated by a political
party, but he was never a cardholding member.
that was during the period when he received the
support of the landesring der unabhängigen13 as
the freethinking swiss citizen he was. from 1961
21
to 1968 he served on the council of zurich (that
is, on the local level) and from 1967 to 1971 on
the national council, the swiss parliament.
Let’s go back to art. Can we say that for Bill,
there was a hierarchy between painting and
sculpture?
not really. but there is one major difference:
he did the paintings himself, whereas the
sculptures were done by other craftsmen under
his supervision, although he sometimes had a
hand in finishing them.
Commission can be interpreted two different
ways: do you mean that he commissioned
them or that he received commissions from
third parties?
he would have the plaster prototypes made.
then he’d wait for a commission from a third
party before making them out of stone or cast
metal. he needed someone to finance the bigger
sculptures.
What happened to the plaster prototypes
after that?
some of them broke. others have survived.
Are they interesting from an exhibition
standpoint? Can they be exhibited?
in 2008 we showed the original plaster model of
kontinuität [continuity], the sculpture in front of
the deutsche bank in frankfurt, at an exhibition
in zurich. that model still has all the measuring
points on it, which is why it’s a valuable record
of the process of creating such an important
work by my father. by the way: there is
also a wonderful documentary film by ernst
scheidegger that tells the story of the work’s
production from the moment the block of stone
is broken off in the quarry in sardinia until the
finished piece is displayed in frankfurt.
but most of the prototypes aren’t fit to be
exhibited. the plaster is old, and they generally
do not remain intact.
Jakob, let’s explore the idea of Bill’s painting
a bit more, the influence of the individuals
who we might call his four teachers in
painting: Kandinsky, Klee, Mondrian and
Vantongerloo. Shall we start with Kandinsky?
very well. kandinsky was bill’s professor at the
bauhaus in dessau in 1927 and 1928. in his
free painting classes –he took intuitive learning
classes14– bill learned various techniques.
kandinsky’s influence is evident in bill’s early
work, although the differences are significant.
here is an amusing anecdote for you: one time
kandinsky had to go to bill’s student flat to
see a painting he called tanzendes mädchen
[dancer] (1929, private collection), because it
was so large that it wouldn’t fit in the tramway
22
bill usually took to go to the bauhaus. years
later, when kandinsky was living in paris, bill
contacted him again. then after kandinsky’s
death, bill published, together with nina
kandinsky, his former teacher’s theoretical
writings, which had sold out. in 1949, bill won
the kandinsky award.
Let’s talk about Klee.
in dessau, klee was like a rock for bill: first of all,
because they spoke the same language, swiss-
german. he attended klee’s free painting classes
and also learned a great deal from him. theory
too. among other things, bill started mounting
his watercolors on passe-partouts and signing
them like klee did. he imitated his methods and
his handwriting. but unlike klee, bill never kept a
record of them.
bill’s watercolors from the bauhaus period
and the ones he did shortly thereafter went
back in forth, in type and technique, between
klee and kandinsky [cat. 6-8]. i’ll tell you another
story: in 1930, bill visited the gallery owner
jeanne bucher in paris and showed her his
portfolio. she told him that the gallery already
represented his models –kandinsky and klee–,
and to come back when he had developed his
own style of painting.
that inspired bill to work differently, marking
a turning point in his work: my father’s painting
can be divided into the works produced before
and after 1930.
bill stayed in touch with klee until the latter’s
death, and then he wanted to publish his
theoretical writings.
there is a painting my father did between
1944 and 1946 in which i think he confronts
both klee (in the color and the arrangement of
the signs in black) and mondrian (in the way the
painting is divided up) [cat. 62].
Now that you’ve mentioned him, let’s move
on to Mondrian.
there is some correspondence between my
father and mondrian from 1935 onwards,
although it isn’t very interesting. it consists
mostly of requests for illustrations for articles, or
stuff like “visit me when you’re in paris.” when
the war broke out, mondrian went to london
and then to new york.
He admired Mondrian of course, and he
wrote about him as well. Do you remember
that your father gave a lecture at the
Fundación Juan March in 1981 on Mondrian?
It was the opening lecture for the exhibition
about the founder of Neo-Plasticism entitled
“Mondrian und der Raum” [Mondrian and
Space], which you can listen to on our
website, and which we have been able to
read recently in Chantal’s transcription. But
Fundación Juan March
let’s move on to another one of his teachers,
perhaps the least known of all: Vantongerloo.
When did Bill meet him?
in 1933. in the show abstraction-création,
inaugurated in paris on december 22 of that
year, bill showed his lange plastik [elongated
sculpture]15. in that exhibition there were works
by vantongerloo, marlow moss and joaquín
torres-garcía, among others, as well as pieces
by artists who were living in paris or switzerland
like bill himself, hans fischli and hans erni. bill
got to be a part of that show thanks to hans
(jean) arp.
later, he and vantongerloo became very close
friends. correspondence with him also begins
in 1935, owing to the publication of the journal
abstraction-création, the exhibitions… then
the war broke out and my parents would send
him materials so he could work and eat. after
the war, georges would come to our home for
vacation every year, and he and bill got to spend
a lot of time together, discussing and sharing
knowledge and opinions.
Now I’m thinking about another key figure,
perhaps the fifth most influential: László
Moholy-Nagy.
bill also learned a great deal from him in dessau.
moholy would have his students create a work
out of the materials he gave them. bill learned
the theoretical foundations of how to go about
making a work. we know from photos taken
during that period of two abstract sculptures
by bill. before that, in 1925, he had done a
woman’s head cast in bronze [cat. 1].
Your father was also a student of Josef
Albers, who became a kind of one-man band
at the Bauhaus, because he would cover for
other teachers when they were absent and
someone else had to take over their classes.
albers played a decisive role in the preliminary
course at the bauhaus. he and bill corresponded
after albers had gone to black mountain college.
albers wanted bill to join him there, just as
moholy-nagy wanted him for the new bauhaus
in chicago. but bill couldn’t imagine moving to
america.
when my parents went to brazil in 1953,
albers and bill saw each other again in peru for
the first time in 25 years. then bill travelled on
to aspen (colorado), where he gave the lecture
entitled a, b, c, d…16.
Yet another name: Arp…
bill’s relationship with arp was important,
possibly because of the latter’s first wife, sophie
taeuber-arp. i don’t know exactly when bill met
sophie because there are different versions and
they had various things in common. sophie
was a member of the jury that chose bill’s

Max Bill working on the silver pieces in the 1925 international exhibition
set for the Novemberball
in paris. during their 1933 visit to the show
[November Ball] at the
Kunstmuseum Winterthur, abstraction-création my mother took pictures
1930. Photo: Binia Bill of arp and his work, but not of sophie, which is
curious.
later on bill published several books by
hans and sophie arp through allianz-verlag, a
publishing house he founded in 1941 [cat. 49,
56 and 72].
bill remained friends with arp until the
latter’s death. arp’s second wife, marguerite
hagenbach, was my “godmother” (as she liked
to call herself). there’s a letter that tells this story
in the catalog for the exhibition im mondquadrat
[on the square of the moon]17 at the former
museum liner (now the kunstmuseum
appenzell).
And there’s more…
yes. we have to talk about bill’s relationship with
hans hinterreiter and fritz glarner. hinterreiter
came from the same city as bill, winterthur,
and he worked with wilhelm ostwald’s theory
of forms and colors. at first he did small,
interesting works on paper. bill convinced
Fundación Juan March
him to do them in a bigger size, that is, to do
paintings, and he got him his first exhibition in
switzerland, because hinterreiter was living in
ibiza, relatively isolated.
glarner is a different story. he was also
swiss, he came from the world of abstract
art –influenced by mondrian–, and produced
independent works in the united states. during
his stay there, he kept in touch with bill. in 1966,
on his way back to new york by boat, he had
a serious head injury that caused permanent
damage. he went back to switzerland in 1971
and bill tried to keep him occupied. together,
the two of them created a portfolio based on
drawings that bill turned into silkscreen prints.
Finally, beyond painting, we mustn’t forget
Le Corbusier…
of course. it was le corbusier who inspired him
to become an architect. as i was saying earlier,
bill had seen his “l’esprit nouveau” pavilion in
paris in 1925 and then he attended at least one
of the lectures that le corbusier gave in zurich
in 1926, a year before bill entered the bauhaus.
later he would design, for the publishing house
h. gisberger, the covers of the first two volumes
of the complete works of le corbusier [cat. 35]
(published in 1935 and 1936 respectively), and
in 1939 he was in charge of the overall design of
the third volume [cat. 44].
Might we say that each one of these artists,
sculptors and architects influenced Bill’s
painting and sculpture?
i’d say yes, but not directly because of their
respective work, but because of who they were
as people and their artistic personalities. in
terms of his painting technique, first his uncle
ernst geiger and then kandinsky and klee were
more decisive influences.
And Marcel Duchamp, to whom Bill
dedicated at least one text and an exhibition
of documents?18
bill met duchamp in 1938 in paris. he was
there to work in the printer’s studio on the
abovementioned quinze variations. in paris he
was struck by duchamp’s rotoreliefs, and from
then on he took an interest in his work, which
he followed.
Let talk a bit more about influences. We
know that your father had a personal
collection of objects from early cultures:
African masks, figures from the Cyclades,
Chinese jades, etc. In 1976 he wrote an
article about this collection that appeared,
with illustrations of all of them, in the
journal Du, entitled the magic of designed
objects19. As an archaeologist, can you tell
us anything about that? For example, do you
23
see any connection between the little statues
designed by different cultures and Bill’s own
sculptures?
well, as an archaeologist those are territories
that i feel unsure about. from an aesthetic point
of view i can understand it: the objects “speak”
to me too. but they’ve been removed from their
cultural context, and on a professional level that
is conflicting to me. my father only looked at
them from a purely aesthetic perspective. he
saw them as beautiful objects that inspired him,
forms that said something to him aesthetically.
they were, if you will, objects “for spiritual use”
(für den geistigen gebrauch), to paraphrase my
father.
he had been familiar with the african objects
since 1931, since the exhibition negerkunst.
the jade discs from china have many things in
common with the project for the fountain we
mentioned earlier. but he didn’t collect those
objects until later on. he was not a systematic
collector of primitive art. he did not let himself
be inspired by it like picasso, for example.
Or like Willi Baumeister, who recreated
them artistically… But if we’re talking
about possible precursors to his art, at the
beginning of his career Bill defined himself
as… a Surrealist –if I’m not mistaken, he
even knew Max Ernst–, although in Bill’s later
works there isn’t even a trace of Surrealism,
in my opinion…
in 1929, back in zurich, bill tried to get involved
in exhibitions. in the end he only managed
to do one, in his own studio/home. siegfried
giedion20 was putting together an exhibition
about surrealism at the time and bill, who
wanted to be in it at all costs, sent him a letter
“recommending himself” as a “surrealist
painter.” he was rejected.
traces of surrealism in my father’s work can
be found, at most, in 1929. i’m thinking about
the hermaphroditen and some other figurative
works [cat. 12]. and ernst appears in this story
because he painted a fresco for the corso movie
theater, in 1934, and bill was also working there.
he was in charge of the signs and graphic art
and had designed a window for the bar. ernst
would come to stay at my parents’ house
sometimes.
Very well. Now let’s move on, if you don’t
mind, from Surrealism to concrete art. As
you know, konkrete kunst [concrete art] is a
concept invented by Theo van Doesburg, but
it was Bill who gave it intellectual muscle. I’d
like to know more about it. Especially about
the opposite nature of the words “concrete”
and “abstract.”
after van doesburg’s death, when leo luppi
founded the allianz group in zurich, bill was his
24
first theorist. he wrote about the subject for the
first time in 1936, and the correct definition,
derived from that initial one, would come later,
in 1942 and 194421.
Both Van Doesburg and Bill saw the abstract
and the concrete as opposing concepts.
at least they saw them as separate concepts.
the concrete comes from abstraction. this
can be seen in the cases of van doesburg and
vantongerloo: though their early works looked
like concrete art, they really were not, because
they were direct derivatives –abstractions– of
figurative images.
as for vantongerloo, for me his first concrete
work was a table from 1919 that he created out
of nothing; that is, he didn’t follow any model
from nature or start from a sketch of something
natural that he later abstracted.
the case of van doesburg is a bit more complex.
many of his paintings were not a product of
what we understand as “concrete”. they come
from abstraction, at least until 1920. only after
that does the concrete appear in his work. when
concrete art was born is a subjective matter; it
depends on how you define it. giacomo balla,
for instance, had already done pieces to that
effect back in 1912…
as for bill, in 1930 he was still doing things
like those heads that look at each other [cat. 15].
then that same year he broke away from that and
started to do concrete art.
Would you like to say anything about so-
called “concrete poetry”? About how it is
related to concrete art and painting?
that’s something that can be traced to
eugen gomringer. born in bolivia, he came to
switzerland and hung out with people from the
journal spirale: marcel wyss, dieter roth and bill.
then, when bill went to ulm, he took gomringer
with him as his secretary. naturally, they
mutually influenced each other. they were also
in contact with the brazilian concrete poets…
Max Bill in his home and
studio in Zurich-Höngg.
archiv max bill, c/o max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung
Fundación Juan March
Like Augusto and Haroldo de Campos... But
did the concept of “concrete poetry” exist
before Ulm?
i don’t think so. gomringer came up with the
definition. before ulm we can already find
certain texts that could fall under that term, by
bill as well. there are a couple of examples in
catalogs, where bill develops the titles of his
works in the form of concrete poetry –although
they’re really more like clarifications about
how to read a painting than titles. they played
with each other optically and verbally. concrete
poetry is visual, and in that respect bill took part
in it. unfortunately, concrete poetry does not
translate well into other languages.
Was your father interested in literature? Did
he read novels or poetry?
very little. he really didn’t have the time for it.
he did read bertold brecht, but above all he
read architecture journals: das werk, bauen und
wohnen, architectural forum... the newspaper
neue zürcher zeitung, and, when he was in
parliament, piles of papers...
Let’s switch subjects again. Sometimes
concrete painting is said to be somewhat
cold: geometry, no relationship with nature,
flat surfaces, primary colors, a composition
that is perhaps overly logical… You, who are
also a representative of Swiss concrete art,
do you think that is true? Is it cold?
that’s the title of karl gerstner’s famous book,
kalte kunst?22 [cold art?]. for me this is not the
case, because concrete art is not cold. it can
express a sensation and that sensation might be
very romantic or sensual, directly or indirectly…
there are many possibilities.
these sensations also arise when you look at
my father’s painting. there are transitions from
one color to another –using a technique that’s
different from mine–, and these shifts in color
these gradients, they’re not… you can’t say
they’re cold.
it may be hard for these paintings to appeal
to you if you’re not used to them, but that’s
always been the problem of the concrete “form”
of a work. where does the concrete idea come
from? not from a natural model, but from an
image of an idea that the artist has.
The image of an idea… now we’re getting
into the dialectics between the coldness of
reason versus the warmth of feelings, of
emotions…
that is precisely what’s behind the title of the
book: “cold” as a synonym of rational.
Would you say that Bill’s art is rational?
rational, yes. in any case, if someone wants
to use the word “cold” to describe one of his
Fundación Juan March
paintings, fine, but making it clear that it might
be loaded with feeling. in bill’s work there are
delicate colors, pastel tones, though not always.
that has to do with the artist’s own feelings,
with the need to paint in one palette or another.
color can even exude warmth…

All of that is very interesting because

where do these adjectives (“pastel” tones,
“delicate” colors) come from? They’re
extremely “natural”…
“subtle” you know why i say “subtle”. there was
a man who served as the mayor of zurich for a
long time, emil landolt, a real father of the city,
who came to all the openings of my exhibitions.
as you know, after graduating from university
i worked as an assistant in the prehistory
department of zurich’s national museum. one
day i was with the director and someone
knocked on the door. in came the former mayor,
who was also the president of the museum’s
foundation. the director wanted to introduce
me, since i was new, and landolt said: “oh yes, i
know him, he’s the painter of subtle colors!”

That’s a nice story. And I agree, the

adjective “subtle” can be used to describe
to concrete painting, as in your case. But
the thing is, concrete art somehow entails a
distance from nature (whereas abstract art
is abstraction based on nature). Yet it seems
that in order to define the former we also
need “naturalistic” adjectives. Might we say
that concrete art is concrete because of the
way in which it is created, not the way it is
received?
concrete art is a personal creation that starts out
with a concrete thought. it has a different effect
on the viewer, however. for the viewer, the work
becomes the object of contemplation.
And the effect is not “concrete”; that’s the
thing: concrete art provokes a combination
of rational impressions and non-rational
feelings.
yes. you conceive the ideas in a rational manner,
you assess them rationally, and the result is
the artwork. but what the painting or sculpture
transmits back to you does not necessarily have
to be rational. you consider it in relation to what
is going on outside.
Then concrete art aims not only to spark
our logic or understanding or reason, but
also our feelings; perhaps even our political
convictions.
political convictions or other convictions. as you
are well aware, i, for instance, worship caspar
david friedrich. and there are aspects of philipp
otto runge’s painting and other romantics that
reproduce sensations that a work of concrete
Max Bill in 1968.
Photo: Dölf Preisig
art can also create… without following any
figurative ideas.
Friedrich, Runge…Was your father also
interested in German Romanticism?
he was familiar with it, of course. but, as far as i
know, he didn’t go to exhibitions about german
romanticism.
Jakob, now that we’re back in Germany, let’s
return to the Bauhaus: Klee, Kandinsky, Albers,
they were all teachers there and they were all
artists. But at the Bauhaus, as you know, the
goal was not to train artists. Yet Bill, a painter
and sculptor –in other words, an artist– studied
at the Bauhaus. Is there any characteristic that
defines the “Bauhaus artist”?
bill tried to apply the methods of the bauhaus
over and over. in 1929, just after he returned to
zurich, he proposed a preliminary course at the
city’s school of arts and crafts. in the 1940s he
presented another program to modernize that
school, based on his experiences as a student at
the bauhaus.
then he went to germany, where after the
war there was no school to properly study
architecture. the americans sent bill on tour all
around germany to give lectures and test the
waters with the goal of opening a new school.
that was how he came into contact with the
volkshochschule [popular university] in ulm. there
grew the idea, together with inge scholl and otl
aicher, to do something new. when they were

26

Fundación Juan March

trying to come up with a name, “geschwister
scholl schule”23 which was ruled out because of
the political connotations. my father neutralized
it and it ended up being called “hochschule für
gestaltung” [ulm school of design], the name
he had proposed. walter gropius had given him
permission to even use the name “bauhaus”,
and honored the inauguration ceremony with his
presence in 1955.
We often refer to phases or periods in an
artist’s work. Would you say that there are
any periods in Bill’s work?
it’s hard to talk about periods in his case, at
least in the sense of, say, someone like picasso,
with his blue and rose periods, cubism…
with bill, as i was saying before, we can talk
about two periods in his work: one, which goes
from his beginnings as a sculptor and painter
to 1930, when he arrives at abstraction through
nature; and a second, from that date on, when
his work is fully defined as concrete art. dividing
up those two phases any more than that is
problematic. in the second half of the 1940s, until
1950 or 1951, there was a period when he tended
to mix colors, but that was just a temporary thing,
something that he was particularly interested in at
the time, but that doesn’t necessarily mean that
he abandoned all other forms of expression.
Listening to you, it occurred to me that when
we talk about concrete art, we’re usually
referring to concrete painting, but there is
concrete sculpture as well. Would you apply
the adjective “concrete” to sculpture as
rigorously as it is applied to painting?
definitely. one example of this is the
pythagorean theorem, the relationship 3:4:5. it
appears over and over in my father’s sculptures
from the 1930s until the end of his life. this is a
specific problem that he thought about a lot, so
much that you could almost say that it came to
him naturally.
in fact, my father spoke, precisely, about
mathematical thinking in art24, which is related
to what we were talking about. one example
of this would be the different results you can
obtain from sectioning a sphere [cat. 123].
Can we say that in Bill’s sculptures, you can
see more natural forms than in his paintings?
It would be easy to call them organic forms. but
they too have a mathematical basis. the organic
is generated through the density of material
in the stone or metal structures, such as for
example in rhythmus im raum [rhythm in space],
from 1947-48.
by the way: there is one thing that we haven’t
mentioned yet: the jewelry that my father made
for my mother. those are indeed very organic,
very closely related to the jugendstil [cat. 59].
Are they from the 1930s?
well, he made them until my mother’s death in
1988. the settings often have something very
organic to them, hardly mathematical. although
there is the bracelet binia und bill [binia and bill],
made for my parents’ wedding, which is purely
typographical.
Let’s talk now about the techniques and
materials Bill used. Which ones did he prefer
and why?
that depends on the period and the interests of
wherever he was at the time. at the bauhaus, for
example, he experimented with techniques and
materials, though all of them were traditional:
printmaking, watercolors, oil on canvas, oil on
pavatex… and he painted in a conventional
manner, spattering with a brush, etc.: many
of the techniques, in short, used by klee and
kandinsky.
in the 1930s bill often painted with tempera on
pavatex and in the late 1930s with oil on canvas,
his medium of choice from then on. and until
1950 or 1951 he alternated applying oil with a
normal brush and distributing it with touches of a
blunt brush. after that he used a palette knife.
And what about his sculptures?
first he worked in wood and metal, for two
reasons: the durability of these materials
and cost –a metal sheet and a pipe are not
expensive. in the case of metal, copper and tin
deteriorate with time and they need a protective
layer. the metal sculptures are yellow, red or
white. the yellow and red ones are gilded; the
white ones are chrome plated. in the 1970s, a
new method appeared, optalloy 25, a procedure
that replaced chrome plating.
® he prefer; which ones dominate his pictures?
Did he use lacquers?
yes. there are lacquered metals very early on,
starting in the 1930s.
Before you mentioned plaster prototypes.
Were they done only for sculptures that were
to be later crafted out of marble or stone?
no. in the 1936 milan triennale he showed
some plaster models –there is a picture of him
painting one using a spray gun, in white. it was
done that way because it was cheaper. the
subsequent plaster models were made to be
produced later out of stone or metal.
Did he use acrylics in his paintings?
barely. he brought some acrylics from the united
states, to try, but he almost never painted with
them.
Did you ever hear you father explain why
he only used oil paint on canvas instead of
trying other possibilities or combinations?
Fundación Juan March
in that regard, the truth is that he worked in a
very conventional way: he used what he was
familiar with and had mastered. i do the same. a
while back i used acrylics and i might use them
again, but only if the colors are pure. acrylic
dries very quickly and it’s hard to do gradients.
with oil colors you can attain gradient tones;
you can control the color much better. my father
and i have that in common.
And because the oil dries so slowly, many
painters usually work on several paintings at
once…
well, yes. you can work on a series of paintings
at the same time, because oil paintings can take
at least a month to dry.
Did Bill paint on an easel or on a horizontal
surface?
usually on an easel, but sometimes on a table.
as for me, i paint almost exclusively on a table.
Would you like to add anything about frames
in Bill’s work?
in the 1940s, he had frames made with different
cross-sections. then he used white laths that
served to protect the work, which could be
replaced.
Let’s talk about color. Bill’s work is festive
and colorful.
color… there are several things we must talk
about here. for example, color as material. we
have colors in oil, acrylic, tempera or watercolor.
they’re all colors; the only thing that changes
is that the pigment is applied on different
supports. another question is: which colors did
greens, yellows, reds, blues, blacks, whites? or
mixed colors like brown?
Sure. Did Bill have any preferences?
in bill’s work all the colors are in there, really.
there are some that he used less, like earth
tones, although he did when they suited what
he wanted to paint. but he also used pure
colors, exactly as they came out of the tube, as
well as mixed colors.
And which ones did he use the most?
mainly the mixtures, which he usually made
on a piece of glass. but he never mixed them
according to exact proportions like karl gerstner
did, for example.
Or Josef Albers. The fact is, in that flexibility
of mixtures, in that imprecision, Bill seems
“romantic” to me somehow…
you could say that. there is a certain romantic
spontaneity, yes. but you could also say that bill
pointed his “nose” right at where he wanted
27
to go. he had a kind of very keen sense of
color. the same occurs with me, only i apply it
differently.
Are there any main colors in your father’s
work?
yes, of course. especially starting in the 1960s,
when he regulated the size of the surfaces
he painted on or structured them in a similar
way. he used yellows, reds, greens, blues and
also intermediate tones: oranges, violets and
turquoises, often combined with whites, and
sometimes with contrasting blacks and whites.
Whites and blacks. We talked about that
before. Did Bill use white as a color?
yes, he let the white background of the canvas
act as a color. in part he also used it so that a
painting hung from a white wall would give the
impression that it was spilling over the canvas.
suddenly the white background –in other words,
the white wall– matched the white center of the
painting or its surface, giving rise to a picture
that went beyond the edges of the frame.
And the color black (if black is even a color)?
he used it in his paintings to contrast with
white. his sculptures are a different story. they
depended on the colour of the material, black
granite or different shades of stone colors.
for his sculptures bill used marble, granite,
calcareous stone from belgium and also artificial
material.
And what about the pedestals for his
sculptures?
the pedestals for his small sculptures were
usually wooden. the ones for the large outdoor
sculptures were usually made of stone or
reinforced concrete.
And the giant size of some of the sculptures?
his last sculptures were bigger and bigger. he
wanted to push the limits of the feasible. the
granite version of kontinuität [continuity] for
deutsche bank (1986, frankfurt) was, at the
time, the largest monolithic sculpture in the
world.
Did he try to do something like that in other
cases, with other materials?
yes, with steel. the konstruktion aus drei gleichen
kreisscheiben [construction from three circular
discs]. there weren’t any sheets of steel big
enough at the time to cut pieces with a diameter
of three meters out of them. or with high-
tech ceramic, like the kind rado uses to make
their watches. the company commissioned
some artists to do a series of artworks. only
bill used that type of ceramic to make the
biggest sculpture that the material would allow,
28
technically speaking, einheit aus sechs gleichen
elementen [unity from six identical elements],
one stick 50 centimeters in length. it couldn’t be
any bigger, and a new type of glue also had to
be developed, because the material didn’t have
any pores!
With his sculptures, then, Bill was obsessed
with pushing the limits of the feasible.
Would you say that this was something that
also interested him in painting?
no. two by two meters is the largest possible
surface one can paint with a palette knife
without any assistance.
Don’t you find it surprising that, considering
all the time he spent on architecture and
design, Max Bill never painted any frescoes?
well, not exactly: to do paintings on a wall he
used another method, enameled plates, which
can also be used outdoors. and he also did
a multiple with this type of paint. the sheets
can be either mounted on a wall or as a free-
standing sculpture. that’s the method that he
used in his columns: in the two columns in front
of the bauhaus-archiv in berlin, the one at the
university clinic in ulm, the one at the mercedes-
museum in stuttgart, the one at the münchen-
grosshadern university clinic in munich, etc.
Why did he use a diamond format in some of
his paintings?
it’s a very interesting format: it allows you to
create the illusion that the painting penetrates
more into the surrounding space. bill didn’t
invent it though. mondrian, van doesburg and
marlow moss, a student of mondrian’s, used
it before he did. when you hang a painting in
that position, there’s an outward movement
that goes beyond the format of the picture,
strictly speaking. our eye completes, for
instance, a square, even though its corners
are cut off. this can be seen, in fact, in the
series acht transcolorationen (12. reihe) [eight
transcolorations (12th series)] [cat. 167].
We’re coming to the end of our interview.
But before we finish I wanted to ask you,
even though you’ve already mentioned it,
about the presence of science (mathematics
and physics) in Bill’s work; about positive
science as a source of inspiration.
it is hard to say whether they were sources of
inspiration, but he was interested in scientific
questions. he knew physicists such as fritz
zwicky and mathematicians like norbert wiener
and adrien turel… it’s a subject that sparked
bill’s interest in the 1950s. during that period
he set up exhibitions –the most well-known
of them, die gute form, which we’ve already
mentioned, or one that he did later in the shop
Fundación Juan March
windows of the department store chain globus,
called die unbekannte gegenwart [the unknown
present]–, in which he tried to incorporate the
latest breakthroughs in science and technology.
bill confronted for what was current at the time,
and once again he pushed the limits. during that
period there was a very interesting american
journal, fortune, more or less scientific, which
was a good source of ideas…
Did Bill read any scientific publications?
only with precise objectives, concentrating on
what interested him. what interests me? what
is the current situation in the field of science?
what is interesting in terms of the evolution of
the history of culture? those are the kinds of
questions he asked himself.
And many other times, his approach to
science would be more intuitive, as in the
case of the sculpture unendlichen schleife
[infinite loop], of which he did many
variations.
he designed that sculpture in 1935. only later
did he realize that it was the already-known
moebius strip. but that didn’t dissuade him, and
he actually did a lot of structures and sculptures
based on that idea [cat. 148, 149, 154].
What do you think Bill would have thought
about new media in art? About the internet,
about video?
he was interested in videos, but he thought that,
as art, they were nothing special. film already
existed. they didn’t need to be regarded as art.
Do you think that Bill’s work is still a source
of inspiration for painting?
you should say “for today’s art”, because
the word “painting” seems to denote an
“antiquated model”. bill’s work may be a
source of inspiration, although now materiality
is different, more in keeping with modern-day
technology. i myself am like a dinosaur in that
respect.
Finally, how would you define Bill’s particular
contribution to art of the 20th century?
that is hard for me to answer, because i’m both
judge and jury. i can’t answer objectively.
You are right, but that doesn’t keep you
from being objective. And I can think of
nothing better now, for future readers, than
to recall, here, something that your father
wrote about you in a lovely essay that I’ve
already mentioned, the one that appeared
in the journal Du in 1976 entitled “the
magic of designed objects”. In these pages,
Bill reviewed and commented on many of
the works of art and objects that he kept
around him in his studio. “I need,” he said,
“primitive objects and artifacts from foreign
cultures. I draw energy from all these objects
in my everyday surroundings. It is their
standards of quality that really interest me.”
The last of these “objects” is a painting of
yours from 1973, and the text your father
wrote that appears next to the illustration
of your work reads:
jakob bill (born in 1943) is a prehistorian
by profession, and is employed as such at
the schweizerisches landesmuseum [Swiss
National Museum] in zürich. he is a scholar
deeply committed to scientific research and
his dissertation, the bell-beaker culture and
the early bronze age in the French rhone
basin and its relationship to southwestern
Switzerland26, has received considerable
attention. since childhood he has constantly
painted for his own amusement and has
found his own way despite obstacles:
obstacles because he is my son, and so
according to the general opinion, he should
have rebelled against his father. but since
that didn’t happen, and since he even
followed in his grandfather and great-
grandfather’s footsteps by specializing in
prehistory, i can only admit that even with all
the independence that characterizes his work
i still think of him as an outstanding example
of an uninterrupted tradition. he paints
pictures that are related to mine only in their
orientation, pictures that i myself would
never paint: that is why i treasure them and
hang them in my workplace as if they were
by any other young artist. the picture shown
here is typical of his work from a few years
ago: nr. 12 [nº 12], 1973. oil on canvas, 120 x
120 cm.27
The underline is mine, Jakob: “even with
all the independence that characterizes
his work,” said Bill Sr. of Bill Jr. Like your
father, I have found your answers to be “an
outstanding example of an uninterrupted
tradition.” Thank you.
1 Jakob Bill. Eine Retrospektive, exhibition at the Haus
Konstruktiv (Zurich) from December 13, 2012 to
February 17, 2013.
2 Cf. Jakob Bill, Max Bill en la Bauhaus (text published
on pp. 31-45 of this catalog).
3 Cf. Bill 2008d.
4 In the family circle, both his wife Binia, his son Jakob
and daughter-in-law Chantal and their children as well
as many of his contemporaries and friends called Max
Bill simply “Bill”. [A/N]
5 Müller 2015.
6 District of Zurich.
7 At the Hochschule für Gestaltung Ulm [Ulm School of
Design], from 1950 to 1957.
8 The monument was never built.
9 Exh. cat. Palma-Cuenca 2015.
10 Haus Villiger, a single family home in Bremgarten
(Switzerland), 1942. It was torn down in 1978. Ed.
11 The building was inaugurated on October 2, 1955.
12 Cf. Bill 1948.
13 Alliance of the Independents, a center-left party.
Founded in 1936 by Gottfried Duttweiler (also known
as founder of MIGROS), it came to be an important
political party with representation in Parliament. It
broke up in 1999. Ed.
14 Anschauungsunterricht.
15 Made out of wood and steel, it is two meters tall and
belongs to a private collection.
16 The transcription of this lecture appears on pp. 288-93
of this catalog.
17 Exh. cat. Appenzell 2003, p. 24-27.
18 Cf. Zurich 1960b.
19 Bill 1976, pp. 22-49.
20 Siegfried Giedion (1888-1968) was a Swiss
architectural historian born in Prague. In 1923 he
visited the Bauhaus and met Walter Gropius. After
that he started to concentrate more and more, from
a professional standpoint, on the Bauhaus and its
key figures, and he himself became a precursor
of modernity. Giedion is the author, among other
important books, of a history of modern architecture:
Space, Time and Architecture (Harvard University
Press, 5th edition, 2003), and Mechanization Takes
Command (Oxford University Press 1948), a work
that paved the way for a new genre of historiography
related to technique. He taught at the University of
Zurich, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
and Harvard University. Ed.
21 Cf. Bill’s piece about concrete art, reproduced as text
nº 1 in the anthology of this catalog.
22 Gerstner 1957.
23 The Geschwister-Scholl-Stiftung [Scholl Siblings
Foundation] was founded in December 1950 by Inge
Scholl in memory of her brother and sister who were
executed by the Nazis, with the goal of creating a
private, politically independent school: the HfG Ulm. Ed.
24 Cf. Bill 1949a.
25 Optalloy® is the registered trademark of an alloy of
copper, tin and zinc. It contains no nickel, has no
magnetic properties and high corrosion resistance.
Note: Fundación Juan March’s art restorer.
26 Bill, 1973.
27 Bill 1976, p. 49.
29
Fundación Juan March
Fundación Juan March
max bill
at the
bauhaus
–
jakob bill

Max Bill at the School of

Arts and Crafts in Zurich.
archiv max bill, c/o max,
binia + jakob stiftung

31

Fundación Juan March

the curricula vitae published by max bill himself
or supplied to other writers have changed
over time. several of them indicate that he
spent three years at the bauhaus. yet on the
questionnaire he filled out in 1965 for the
bauhaus-archiv in berlin1 it says only “spring
1927–winter 1929.” on earlier résumés,
however, the dates of his stay at the bauhaus
are less precise, suggesting that in his later
years, my father was less meticulous about
documenting his past. since his time at the
bauhaus had such a decisive influence on the
rest of his life, in retrospect he probably wished
to make it last as long as possible.
the information provided here is the product
of research carried out over the last two years in
connection with preparations for an exhibition
commemorating the 100th anniversary of max
bill’s birth in 2008. particular attention has
been paid to various documents housed at the
archiv max bill. this research reveals the need
for parts of certain studies about bill —and not
just the older ones— to be corrected to bring
them up to date with the current literature
(without diminishing their importance in the
historiography of art2. unfortunately, however,
due to the scattered state of the pertinent
records, there is no way to be sure that they
have all been found and incorporated into the
history of art.
this text3 was inspired by the fact that the
exhibition max bill. apekte seines werkes [max
bill. aspects of his work] –first shown in 2008 at
the gewerbemuseum [museum of applied arts]
in winterthur4– had been moved to the bauhaus-
archiv. naturally, the works created by bill during
his time at the bauhaus were added to the rest
of the objects on display in berlin.
i would like to express my sincere gratitude to
the bauhaus-archiv for its unwavering support
and the stimulating debate that has been
generated. in particular, my thanks go out to dr.
annemarie jaeggi, dr. christian wolsdorff and dr.
peter hahn, as well as to benteli verlag books
and its editor till schaap for agreeing to publish
this work –which would not be what it is, either,
without the invaluable collaboration of my dear
wife chantal.
32
1. electric samovar.
hammered brass.
collection unknown,
possibly destroyed
Fundación Juan March
background
bill’s decision to go to dessau in the spring
of 1927 at the age of 18 to study architecture
at the bauhaus was not a whim;5 he had
embarked upon the path that led him there two
years earlier. in 1925 he had the opportunity
to see some of the works he had done at the
kunstgewerbeschule [school of applied arts] in
zurich in the swiss section of the international
exhibition of modern industrial and decorative
arts. they were hammered metal objects,
including a particularly remarkable samovar [fig.
1]. on his own curriculum vitae he describes
this paris visit as a study trip. on the side, the
16-year-old bill was confronted with the other
pavilions of this exhibition inaugurated on
april 28, 1925. he had never seen anything like
them before. bill was particularly impressed
by le corbusier’s “l’esprit nouveau” pavilion
and konstantin melnikov’s russian pavilion;
though he most certainly also had the chance
to see josef hoffmann’s austrian pavilion and
robert mallet-stevens’s tourism pavilion. from
then on he could not get these revolutionary
structures out of his head, and they would play
a decisive role in his future work. nonetheless,
he continued to train as a silversmith in zurich.
that same year, chocolat suchard announced
a poster competition for its upcoming centenary
in 1926. it is not clear when bill submitted his
entry. it may have been before his trip to paris,
since his submission or-rouge-noir [gold-red-
black, fig. 2] does not reflect his impressions
of the french capital. this design is totally
consistent with the work he had done at the
kunstgewerbeschule. of the 61 submissions,
bill’s sketch won first prize6. It came with an
award of 2,500 francs, a sizable sum at the time,
and enough to cover a good share of his future
expenses in dessau.
in the summer of 1926 bill spent roughly two
weeks traveling around italy. genoa, fiesole, and
naples made a profound impression on him,
and he did a number of watercolor sketches.7
interestingly enough, they are often impressions
of architecture from a certain distance, the
buildings reduced to cubist forms and the colors
accentuated.
in november 1926 le corbusier was invited
to give two lectures in zurich, and bill attended
at least one of them8. so fascinated was he by
what he heard that he decided he wanted to
become an architect.9
during the carnival of february 1927 he
showed up at the kunstgewerbeschule still in
makeup and was expelled for “disciplinary”
reasons that march.10 before that, however,
he had learned from journals in the school
library —probably bauhaus 1, published to 2. poster design for the
centennial of chocolat
commemorate the institution’s reopening— that suchard, 1925. gouache,
the school was going to reopen its doors after gold, red, and black.
moving to the buildings walter gropius had collection of the musée
designed in dessau, and that it would have an d’art et d’histoire,
neuchâtel, fonds suchard-
architecture department as of the following
tobler.
semester. this struck him as the place where
he might study architecture, and he applied at
once.
surely bill had personal reasons as well
for not wanting to stay in switzerland at the
time, for his parents were getting a divorce.11
his father would get custody of bill, while his
younger brother hugo would live with
his mother.12
while waiting to hear from the bauhaus,
bill was not idle. the health food store egli
in zurich gave him the chance to design a
display stand for its products. two meters by
two meters in size, the stand was designed
and built in the spring, and used that summer
at the gastwirtschaftsausstellung [hospitality
exhibition] in zurich. apparently, bill had
received this commission without having any
prior knowledge of exhibition architecture,
but he managed to carry it out to his client’s
satisfaction.

33

Fundación Juan March

 4-5. bauhaus, dessau,
identification card, front.
arrival at the bauhaus max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung

the bauhaus confirmed receipt of bill’s

application on march 31, 1927 [fig. 3], and
on april 5 admitted him “provisionally to
the preliminary course – 1st semester”.13 the
summer semester commenced on april 20. at
the beginning of his studies he had to register
in person in the secretary’s office, and appears
under number 151.14 he was then issued his
student identification card [figs. 4 and 5],
but bill must have realized that he couldn’t
start studying architecture yet without having
completed the josef albers and lászló moholy-
nagy’s preliminary course. he also had to look
for a room outside the school. he found one at
the outskirts of town and moved in on july 1.15
bill later described his first impression of the
bauhaus as follows:16

i can still vividly recall that morning when,

before the train entered the dessau station, the
front of the bauhaus building suddenly appeared
before us. we had never seen anything like it:
white walls and big façades of dark glass, and
then in the foreground the student building with
red lead balcony doors providing the accent of
color.

of the photos bill took in albers’ preliminary

course, few are of any historical value [fig. 6].17
in these classes he probably also learned how to
“use the most diverse materials in an industrial,
economical and aesthetic way, particularly
wood, paper, and metal.”18 he also took wassily
kandinsky’s mandatory course on form, which
focused mainly on elementary training of the
eye. these basic courses provided students
with a foundation for their subsequent design
activities.19
summer vacation ran from mid-july to the end
of august. bill spent part of this time with his
father.20 the semester ended on october 12.21

3. Acceptance letter from

the Bauhaus. max, binia +
jakob bill stiftung

34

Fundación Juan March

 7. competition design for
the swiss national library,
early architecture bern, 1927, axonometric
drawing, ink and colored
pencil on paper. max,
bill could not stop thinking about architecture. binia + jakob bill stiftung
in may, the swiss newspaper schweizerische
bauzeitung (sbz) announced a design contest
for the schweizerischen landesbibliothek [swiss
national library] in bern.22 the deadline for
submissions was october 1, 1927. bill, still a
student with hardly any practical experience in
architecture, plunged into his first architectural
adventure. an original axonometric drawing still
survives, as well as a film negative showing
additional side elevations [fig. 7]. there is no
record in the archive of the swiss national library
that indicates whether bill’s design was actually
submitted on time or not.23 but it is striking that
that it is entirely done in black, white, and red,
which can be interpreted as a result of bill’s
first impression of the bauhaus.24 for example,
the red doors of the school’s student residence
wing reappear as entrance doors. the elevations
show a clear internal distribution. large surfaces
covered with windows, strongly reminiscent of
the workshop wing of the bauhaus, emphasize
the horizontal line of the three abutting,
interlocking structures.
6. preliminary course
around that same time, a competition for with josef albers, summer
an office building in osaka was announced by semester 1927. max, binia
the japanese architectural journal shinkenchiku + jakob bill stiftung
[new architecture], the second such contest
organized by that publication. the submission
deadline was october 30. a fellow student
from japan, takehiko mizutani,25 most likely
told bill about it. he is probably also the one
who provided bill with the correct japanese
inscriptions for his drawings and translated the
accompanying text. the archiv max bill has an
original axonometric projection [fig. 8] as well
as a handwritten explanatory text in german.
the documents sent to japan have been lost;26
fortunately, however, his design was published
in shinkenchiku, complete with floor plans and 8. competition design
for the construction of a
elevations [fig. 9].27 on december 1, 1927, the
commercial building in
osaka, 1927. axonometric
drawing, pencil, ink, letter
stamps. max, binia +
jakob bill stiftung

35

Fundación Juan March

winners were selected: two japanese architects
and bill, who received third prize. his project
appears to be the first ever submitted to a
japanese competition by a “foreigner”—of
the 114 architects who submitted designs he
is described as an “unusual applicant from
overseas.” he received 20 yen, or roughly 50
francs, in prize money.
there is no need to describe the project, for in
a few short phrases bill managed to cover all the
essentials in his explanatory report:28
1 task and goal:
construction of a commercial building with
apartments in the center of the city of osaka.
practical distribution of the space and good light
in every room. earthquake and fire protection.
3 the building:
iron frame construction.
cross-section of the outer wall: steel plate;
cellular concrete slab; air pocket; cork
insulation; air pocket; iron sheeting.
reinforced concrete foundations.
an elevator connecting all floors.
4 technical features:
iron double-glazed windows with polished plate
glass.
sheet metal doors.
stairs and corridors: ribbed rubber flooring
rooms and office, etc.: linoleum flooring
2 distribution:
basement
1st floor: entirely occupied by the business,
presumably a bookshop.
2nd floor: owner’s apartment.
3rd and 4th floors: on each floor, an apartment
on one side and two rental office spaces with a
reception area on the other.
5th floor: rooms for domestic staff and office
employees, shop personnel, etc.
roof: rooftop garden, one part completely open,
another part covered or glass-enclosed. next to
it, a laundry room with drying area, both with
sawtooth skylights that can be opened.
6 signage:
the projecting wall on the east side of the
building is made of milk glass and illuminated
from inside, with the logo and names of the
business and on it.
above the doors to the salesroom there is an
empty surface to put a sign, as well as another
space on the south entrance for the owner’s
name and address, etc.
7 basic assumptions:
a building is a reflection of the activities it
houses, so it should be simple. the dynamic
structure should allow the building to function
like a machine. construction and maintenance
should be as economical as possible.
5 financial aspects:
the entire structure is built out of standardized
36
9. competition design
for the construction of
a commercial building
in osaka, 1927.
axonometric drawing.
version published in the
journal shinkenchiku [new
architecture], 4 (1928.2)
Fundación Juan March
modules. the steel and iron plates etc. are
protected from oxidation by schoop’s metal-
spraying process, the only way ensure the long-
term durability of a steel structure.
the floor plan is based on the square modules
deriving from the proposed construction
technique. the façade has this same modular
structure, with lighter window areas that
emphasize its horizontality. the stairs and
elevator serve all floors; making up a section
that projects out into the interior courtyard. it
is interesting to note that the floor plan and the
axonometric projection do not coincide. though
a mirror image of the latter was probably printed
by mistake, the entrances to the ground-floor
bookshop, especially the one on the long side,
do not appear on the floor plan.
one has to wonder how bill could have
acquired this knowledge of basic construction
principles and the logic of functionality so
quickly without having officially been allowed
to study architecture at the bauhaus. he clearly
had a gift for readily grasping situations and
analyzing them with precision. so he may have
managed to learn, in record time, certain basic
notions from structural construction textbooks,
the direct example of the bauhaus building itself
and by grilling older classmates with questions.
it is also possible that mizutani helped him on
more than just the translations.
on october 13, 1927, probably while he
was finishing up his project for the osaka
competition, bill received a note from walter
gropius confirming his acceptance for the
second semester [fig. 10] which was to begin on
october 17. since bill was able to demonstrate
his achievements as a silversmith’s apprentice,
he was admitted to the workshop he was so
eager to take after just a single semester of the
basic course.29 thus in the second semester we
find him enrolled in the metal workshop.
on april 12, 1928, the summer semester
began at the bauhaus with a new director. it
was hannes meyer, who had been teaching in 10. Notice of admission to
the bauhaus in the second
the architecture department since the summer
semester. max, binia +
semester of 1927. among the new arrivals jakob bill stiftung
was another swiss student, hans fischli30, who
was also eager to study architecture. the two
students teamed up to enter the competition
published in the schweizerische bauzeitung
on february 4 for the design of a kindergarten
in district 3 of zurich (zurich-wiedikon
neighborhood), also described as a kindergarten
building and community center.31 [fig. 11]
the deadline was june 25, and a total of 78
designs were submitted. bill and fischli, who
both called themselves “architects”, sent in an
entry entitled “20. jahrhundert” [20th century].
they were not among the finalists, and there is
no further mention of them.
their project consisted of two building
complexes connected by a shared entrance. the
kindergarten wing follows an l-shaped layout
along the boundaries of the site. it is a single-
story structure with sawtooth roofs. a wide
corridor runs along the side facing the interior
courtyard, providing access to eight workrooms
and four spacious playrooms, a teachers’ room,
and service rooms facing the street. the central
playground is designed as courtyard bordered
by trees. the other wing has multiple uses: a hall
conceived as a theater, lecture hall or cinema,
which rises at an angle toward the exterior and
is supported by columns of different heights.
this is the central element, joined by a stairwell
and the building superintendent’s apartment
at the top. the entrance and lobby area is
illuminated by three gabled skylights running
perpendicular to the main axis. one particularly
striking aspect of this design is the arrangement
of the windows: on one side rows of windows
emphasize the horizontals, while on the other, in
contrast, tall mulitpanel windows emphasize the
verticals. this may have been directly influenced
by the bauhaus buildings, yet the auditorium
–which cantilevers outwards with its chamfered
bottom side resting on pilotis– has no parallel in
dessau.
there is an undated design, whose basic
structure is essentially rendered in the same
way, that we might call a “housing development
with prefabricated double housing units” 11. design by max bill
and hanns fischli for a
[fig. 12]. the north arrows, the axonometric
kindergarten building
projections and blueprints are the same as the and community center
ones bill and fischli had used in the kindergarten in district 3 of zurich
competition. thus, this design is obviously from (zurich-wiedikon), 1928,
axonometric blueprint,
the summer semester of 1928 at the bauhaus.
detail from sheet 3. max,
it has not been possible to confirm fischli’s binia + jakob bill stiftung
collaboration on this design.32 it may have been
an assignment for the architecture department,
presented as follows: on a certain site, plan a
development of standardized structures with
optimal natural light. the site is roughly 130,000
square meters in size, elongated, slightly

37

Fundación Juan March

trapezoidal and nearly level, with northwest/
southeast orientation.
bill divided the site into seven strips of
roughly equal size perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis, then divided these strips in
half. the individual parcels measure roughly
1,600 square meters apiece, save for the angled
end lots. on each parcel, closer to the cross
street, there are two structures touching at their
corners, with due south orientation. there are no
basements, and the layout of the two floors is
identical, save for different entrances. thus, each
pair of structures contains four apartments. the
living areas face to south, while the bedrooms
face east. there are no balconies. once again
the façade design is interesting due to the
arrangement of the windows: on the south side
there are two continuous strips of windows, on
the west side, there are only windows on the
back half; on the north side, only the entrance,
and on the east side, something like a “repeated
t-shaped arrangement” (actually a continuous
narrow strip of windows at the top of the
outside wall of the bedrooms, which had small
work tables placed against them. the surface
with the windows drops sharply at regular
intervals, forming a string of “t”s , and they
could probably be opened. the buildings would
have had a structural steel skeleton, though this
is not explicitly mentioned.
both the competition entry for osaka as well
as this housing development were essentially
designed to rely primarily on prefabricated
structural elements. this type of housing is
particularly economical in terms of construction
time, and bill would take this into account
one way or another in most of his subsequent
buildings and designs. modular forms and
the logical development of movement also
determine the interior layout. openings to let
in light are placed where needed. during his
“bauhaus period” bill showed a predilection
for horizontal strips of windows joined by other
vertical strips. when a skylight was called for, he
generally used the sawtooth variety.
38
12. design of a housing
project with standardized
double units, 1928, floor
plan of one double unit.
max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung
Fundación Juan March
artwork
but bill did not devote all his time at the
bauhaus to architecture. he never lost his
interest in art – incidentally, save for a few
exceptions, the precise dates of his work cannot
be determined. in 1927 he did watercolored
pen and ink drawings [cat. 7, 8], a handful of oil
paintings and a number of etchings, some of
them using mixed media, whereas in 1928 he
painted more oils. at this point, it is impossible
to know which of them were directly tied to
his work in the basic course and which were
a product of the “free painting classes” with
paul klee and wassily kandinsky. of all his
fellow students, he was especially fond of katt
both, who appears as a model in several of his
paintings [figs. 13 and 14].
his works from 1927 reflect several
characteristic features, including figures with
cigarettes in their mouth and the symbolic
representation of eyes, which appear in a
series of similar self-portraits produced using
a wide range of techniques [fig. 15]. some of
these works still survive; the ones done on
loose sheets are mounted on passe-partouts,
inscribed and signed, and as of 1928 numbered
as well, undoubtedly imitating klee. this shows
what an influence klee had on bill, and not only
on his art.33
bill also took kandinsky’s painting class. on
one occasion he invited kandinsky to his student
apartment as he had painted a picture [fig.
16] that was too large to take to school on the
streetcar. later bill liked to describe this episode
in detail.34 toward the end of the summer
semester of 1928 kandinsky organized an
exhibition at the anhaltischer kunstverein dessau
[art association in anhalt, dessau], in the palais
reina, featuring works by the three “masters” –
kandinsky, klee, and feininger– alongside others
by their “pupils.” it opened on may 25, and bill
had several works in it.35
 15. der künstler selber
[the artist himself],
1927, ink and
watercolor on paper.
chantal and jakob bill
collection

16. max bill playing a

lute in his room with a
friend. on the walls are
two of his pictures,
1928. max, binia +
jakob bill stiftung

13. portrait of katt

both, ca. 1927. max,
binia + jakob bill
stiftung

14. tanzendes
mädchen [dancing
girl], 1927-28, oil on
canvas. chantal and
jakob bill collection

39

Fundación Juan March


18-19. small sculpture
in various materials,
ca. 1927-28. destroyed
40
Fundación Juan March
17. frühsonne
[morning sun],
1927, oil on canvas.
collection unknown
20. bauhaus, dessau,
undated. max, binia +
jakob bill stiftung
21. self-portrait of max bill
with turning head, taken
in his student apartment,
multiple exposure,
1927-28. max, binia +
jakob bill stiftung
 in july 1928 the exhibition aquarelle von max
bill und albert braun [watercolors by max bill and
albert braun] was presented at the bauhaus.36
in addition to experimenting with the
techniques of klee and kandinsky in his
watercolor sketches, bill also did a series of at
least nine numbered pictures entitled räumliche
komposition [spatial composition, cat. 10].
although some of these pictures have been
lost, we can assume that they were all the
product of an assignment —namely on “spatial
composition”— and make up a separate group
of works from bill’s “bauhaus period.” the 1927
picture frühsonne [early sun; fig. 17] was also
probably part of a similar assignment.
a number of small sculptures, possibly also
done as class assignments, have also been lost.
they were likely related to bill’s metalsmithing
workshop with lászló moholy-nagy in the winter
semester of 1927 [figs. 18 and 19].
as for the photos he took during this period, it
is worth noting that many of them are blurry and
not especially well-composed. bill was obviously
unable to accomplish much with photography.37
nonetheless, he enjoyed experimenting, not
only in his rather documentary photographs
of the bauhaus building [fig. 20] but also in
his classwork. in his self-portraits —relatively
frequent in his oeuvre— he generally captured
himself with a dramatic gesture. this is
especially true of one picture taken in his
student room, a multiple exposure of his turning
head [fig. 21].
23. xanti schawinsky,
1927-28. max, binia +
jakob bill stiftung
the stage
at the bauhaus there was theater, too! bill took
part in it with enthusiasm. it is easy to imagine
that this was a dream come true for him in
many ways, for he showed a flair for drama
early on. he received basic instruction from
oskar schlemmer. of one of the face masks
worn in these classes was immortalized in a
photograph [fig. 22]; in another picture, xanti
schawinsky poses as a model in front of a
mirror, wearing a schlemmer costume [fig. 23].
as far as music is concerned, bill played
both the lute and the banjo, though we do not
know if he really knew how to play the cello he
had brought with him to dessau. as occurred
with painting, he had succumbed to the virus
of theater and self-dramatization long ago, and
would never get over it.
22. dance mask from
oskar schlemmer’s
theater course, 1927-
28. max, binia + jakob
bill stiftung
41
Fundación Juan March

final days at the bauhaus
the july 1, 1928 issue of bauhaus contains a
public statement made by bill.38 when he wrote
the following lines, it seems that he still felt
comfortable at the bauhaus:
before i came to the bauhaus i worked at
the kunstgewerbeschule in zurich, but was
unsatisfied.
at first, i wanted to study architecture at the
bauhaus, for corbusier had turned my head.
the bauhaus was not what i had expected, i
was somewhat disappointed, but little by little i
found what had actually drawn me here: clarity.
i did not obtain a new outlook on life, i found
my old one confirmed to an ever stronger degree:
living creatures are motivated by a blind egoism.
this being the case, man’s greatest demand with
respect to society is: personal freedom (gesell:39
physiocracy through free land and free money).
that is why technology is so important.
technology was supposed to liberate mankind,
but in the capitalist system it has enslaved him
more than ever.
when personal freedom is achieved, perhaps
everyone will be his own artist. some will be
better, some will be worse (just like today). there
will be those who merely produce art and those
who e x p e r i e n c e40 art for themselves.
leaving the bauhaus makes no sense so long
as things outside look as they do today.
even so, bill left his studio in dessau at the end
of july. it is no longer possible to know what
happened for sure. supposedly he once said
that it was because of a accident on stage in
which he lost a few teeth, requiring him to get
a bridge. but that alone does not seem to have
been the reason. it is more likely that in those
three semesters he had learned so many things
that he felt that he knew enough to make it on
his own. also, he had already used up the prize
money from the suchard poster competition
and was constantly required to ask his father for
cash.41
when describing his subsequent quarrel
with fischli he notes: “aug. departed dessau
for abroad.” around mid-august he visited his
uncle ernst geiger in ligerz.42 in the meantime,
however, he must already have received another
commission from the health food store egli in
zurich, for he designed its stand for the saffa in
bern, which was to open in late august.43 bill
then spent some time in italy, where he was
particularly impressed by salerno and especially
positano. the painter arne meel44 –whom he had
portrayed in a pencil drawing in 1927)– took him
along on a visit to paestum.
42
in september, at his father’s home in
winterthur, he did a studie zu einem arbeitshaus
[“sketch for a live-in studio”] on a level site.45
on a 8.5 by 8.5 square meter plot of land he
planned a one-story dwelling with tiny cell-like
rooms around a 4 by 5 meter studio. stairs on
the exterior provided access to a boiler room
in the basement. it is interesting to note that
here, once again, he envisioned the use of a
steel skeleton and prefabricated, dry-assembled
components.
the lease on his dessau studio was up on
october 1.46 he had apparently reached a verbal
agreement that fischli was to sell its contents
to settle his debts with bill. in effect, fischli
sold some of these items to the landlord and
others, but this led to disagreements between
the two.47 in october bill decided not to return to
dessau.48 he did not officially leave the bauhaus
until the 30th of that same month, even though
the winter semester had already begun on the
19th. however in late november/early december
bill made another brief visit to dessau.49
on december 9, he did a watercolor there
entitled der eilbote, 1928 nº 40 [the courier,
1928 no. 40] which bears a telling inscription:
“sometimes i also paint when i feel like it, i feel
like it quite often, at times so often that i think
of myself as a painter” [fig. 24]. this is the last
known date he was in dessau. bill would no
longer participate in the junge bauhausmaler
[young bauhaus painters] exhibition in halle.
Fundación Juan March
a new beginning in zurich
from september to december bill probably
lived in zurich, on the mühlegasse, and did the
painting that decorates the façade of the radium
cinema.50
in 1929 he moved to stadelhoferstrasse 27
and tried to support himself by taking on a
number of different projects. one of his ideas
was to found his own art school in zurich.
he went so far as to draw up the following
proposal, which includes bill’s experiences at
the bauhaus. it is worth noting that, according
to bauhaus practice, he wrote the entire text
in lowercase letters but signed his name in the
traditional way with a capital “B”.51
proposal for a preliminary course at the
school of arts and crafts in the city of
zurich
requirements
the pupil must enter the school at age fifteen at
the earliest, after completing primary school.
primary school has tainted his perceptions.
the pupil enters the kunstgewerbeschule to
learn a craft; yet as a result of his upbringing
he is burdened with traditional ideas, because
he comes from an extremely conservative,
uncreative environment.
partly owing to this lack of clarity, he arrives
at the kunstgewerbeschule with the impression
that there he will become an artist who will
later, in his studio, create fantastic things of
his own, but useless from an utilitarian point of
view. it is impossible for him to be fully aware of
this: at fifteen no one at the school of arts and
crafts knows for sure what he wants, one first
has to awaken him so that he sees himself and
his surroundings with a critical eye.
this pupil is to be made into a person who
is already lurking inside him, who finally has
a sense of his surroundings and is clearly
conscious of it.
by being educated to become himself, he
becomes a conscious person, and as such
capable of judging his actions and functioning
creatively.
a conscious person will act as he must if he
applies the greatest possible amount of thought
and logic.
24. der eilbote, 1928
n.º 40 [the courier,
1928 nº 40]. pencil
and watercolor
on paper. private
collection
 schematic organization of the course
the starting point is the person, the only one
who can control himself, the only one who
holds him back if he is not clear about it (aside
from external circumstances, which are,
however, irrelevant in terms of instruction).
this is joined by: the person’s surroundings,
the products of nature in the broadest sense.
the products that arise from the person’s reason
and thoughts. material (nature + product of the
intellect). the essence of specific materials with
respect to their utility. design in keeping with
the material. design and tradition. form and
matter.
form and space, the scheme of how forms
combine with each other, in nature, observation
of nature.
color. color as an element, as a psychological
factor. color as matter, its application, basic
ways of manipulating it. color and form. surface
and form.
the plane. the relationship of points on
the plane. primary design of the surface.
design of the surface and its practical
application. proportions, lack of proportion and
compensation. form in format and practical
usefulness with respect to text, color, etc.
the abovementioned fundamentals should
be the foundation for every creative individual.
thanks to them he will have total confidence
and clarity when it comes to handling the basic
elements with which he is required to work, on
which his existence is based.
the acquisition of these fundamentals comes
from alternating lectures and practical exercises.
creators must be able to defend their work,
everyone should have the right to challenge
another person’s work so long as he argues
objectively. through discussion, an individual’s
ideas become clearer; moreover, he learns to
make himself understood by others, which is
very important.
through mastery of abstract form and an
understanding of the various relationships a
foundation is created for becoming active in
a profession. through mastery of material and
form an awareness of a rational way of working
is created. through mastery of the abstract and
an understanding of it one attains a broader
understanding of the function of nature, the
basis of all creativity.
in connection with these classes, the
following can be added as lectures woven in at
appropriate moments: craft and industry, the
craftsman as industrial worker, art and design,
design and applied art, rationality in work, work
and need. responsibility and egoism, etc.
max bill
signed: Bill, zurich 1929
25. uniform and
nonstop garage
system bill, project
sketch, 1929, pencil
on paper. max, binia +
jakob bill stiftung
n.b. the fundamentals for this compilation
derived from my thoughts about founding an
art school in zurich, which i had intended to
do in the spring, but since i feel i can see an
improvement in the situation at the school of
applied arts thanks to the appointment of meyer,
i have refrained from fully developing my project
and carrying it out.
bill also continued to produce works of art in
zurich, and in a letter to sigfried giedion he
described himself as a “surrealist painter,” in
an attempt to express his desire to participate
in the upcoming surrealist exhibition at the
kunsthaus zürich. he was not invited, so he
held an exhibition in his own studio instead in
november. he also dabbled in caricature and
designed title pages for the journal nebelspalter.
as for architecture, in 1929 he designed a
structure, utopian for its time, that he called
uniform and nonstop garage system bill [fig.
25]. he planned 840 parking spaces on the
upper floors and a gas station and repair
shops on the ground floor. on the roof he put a
swimming pool, a solarium and a restaurant. as
a requirement for smooth flow of traffic inside
the building he mentions:
cars must be able to drive easily in the garage in
a direct route.
no car drives in the opposite direction of
another, so collisions are virtually impossible.
there can be no backing up, all traffic must
always move forward: nonstop.
wide lanes, well-lit spaces, good ventilation.
43
Fundación Juan March

epilogue
in addition to the home of his parents and his
two uncles ernst geiger and adolf weibel,52 the
bauhaus and le corbusier were also decisive
influences on bill’s future career. throughout his
life he referred to himself as an “architect,” and
whenever there was any architectural task that
interested him he would set his other activities
aside. equally important to him was the magic
word “bauhaus”. both of these terms would
accompany him until his death.
in his final days he completed his design for
an addition to the bauhaus archiv in berlin, a
project he had been working on since the late
1980s. on december 8, 1994, he presented
the directors of the bauhaus archiv and the
berlin senate with his latest version in the form
of plans, on a scale of 1:200, for a series of
different possibilities for combining the entire
spatial program in a single structure along von-
der-heydt street [fig. 26].
on the morning of december 9, 1994, on his
way home from that meeting, he died at berlin’s
tegel airport.
1 the bauhaus-archiv was constructed in berlin by the
founder of the bauhaus in weimar, walter gropius,
from 1976 to 1979, to house the permanent archive of
the school, which was forced to close in 1933 when
the nazis came to power. it also serves as a museum.
ed.
44
2 several essays have already been written about bill’s
time at the bauhaus. they are: thomas, 1993, pp.
98–119; bestgen 2007, pp. 11-21; hahn 2008, pp. 73-
83 and koella 2008, pp. 27-39.
3 here jakob bill is referring to the version of this text
published in: bill 2008d.
4 the exhibition was actually held in parallel, at the
kunstmuseum winterthur and the gewerbemuseum in
the same city, from january 20 to may 12, 2008. the
former featured bill’s paintings and sculptures and
the latter, his work in the applied arts: architecture,
typography, design, pedagogical material and
advertising. according to the curator of the show,
claude lichtenstein, bill always drew a clear distinction
between what he regarded as “utilitarian art” (“kunst
für den nützlichen gebrauch”; that is, the applied
arts or “angewandte kunst”) and “art for spiritual
use” (“kunst für den geistigen gebrauch”; that is, the
fine arts or “schöne künste”), though he often made
connections between the two. cf. “winterthur / max
bill”, in: www. art-tv.ch/. ed.
5 the bauhaus moved from weimar to dessau in 1925,
where it would remain until 1932, when it relocated to
berlin. ed.
6 letter from chocolat suchard to bill the alance. aterials
as you want. exercise blisehd. Primo attore del
reproduced a certain number of times. Regarding Max
Bill’tdated november 9, 1925. (archiv max bill/max,
26. design for an
extension of the bauhaus-
archiv, berlin, november/
december 1994,
axonometric drawing.
max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung
Fundación Juan March
binia + jakob bill stiftung [max bill archive /max, binia
+ jakob bill foundation]).
7 the “travel visa for swiss nationals,” which was
required at the time, has an exit stamp from
switzerland chiasso/entry into italy on july 31. he
returned on august 13 (archiv max bill/max, binia +
jakob bill stiftung). cf. quintavalle 1977, figs. 2-5.
8 november 24 and 25, 1926. cf. koella 2008, note nº 18.
9 it is probably sheer coincidence that in 1925-26 his
future wife, binia spoerri, was studying cello at the
école normale de musique in paris with pau casals and
diran alexanian. she was not content with music alone,
either. after completing her studies, she met alfred
roth, who had just started working at le corbusier’s
studio. together they also attended his lectures in
paris.
10 on his certificate for the winter semester at the
kunstgewerbeschule in zürich no grades appear
(as opposed to earlier semesters), only the notation
“expelled iii”, which means that he had been
dismissed from the school in march for disciplinary
reasons. (archiv max bill/max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung).
11 they were divorced on april 1, 1927.
12 hugo bill (1911–1989). on his business card hugo bill
presented himself as a chemist, but he was actually
a rather unsuccessful inventor. his most successful
inventions were “bill’s parkblitz,” a parking meter
that functioned with a rotating cylinder, and a “tilting
bathtub for invalids.”
13 acceptance letter from the bauhaus dessau. (archiv
max bill/max, binia + jakob bill stiftung). it also
confirmed receipt of the works he had submitted
which, owing to a poor packing job, had arrived “not
wholly in flawless condition” and informed bill that
the 28 live-in studios in the studio building were fully
occupied by students who had been at the institute
longer, so he would have to rent a furnished room
elsewhere.
14 wingler 1968, pp. 558ff.
15 on the list of dates in the archiv max bill: “purchase
and occupation of the live-in studio (invoice from j.
niegemann, architect, and lease contract with herr
krause as landlord).” the “last payment to niegemann”
is mentioned on “nov. 17”). cf. note 42.
16 bill describes his first impression on arriving in dessau
in: bill 1976, pp. 12–21.
17 at the bauhaus-archiv in berlin they also have a
medium-sized copy of a negative (inv. nº f850). on the
attached note it says: “preliminary course with albers.
last month. combination of as many materials as you
want. exercise in balance. max bill”. it was written by
josef albers, so the work must date from september
1927.
18 cf. hahn 2008, pp. 73-83.
19 ibid.
20 bill stayed with his father in winterthur from july 25 to
31 and august 15 to 21, 1927.
21 regarding the organization and learning opportunities
available to bill in dessau, cf. hahn 2008, pp. 73-83.
22 sbz 1927, pp. 258-59. founded in 1883, the sbz [swiss
construction newspaper], is actually a technical journal
dedicated to engineering and architecture, the oldest
in switzerland. ed.
23 fuchs 2001, pp. 305–375, especially pp. 310, 322, 336.
(in light of what we know now, however, the history of
the origin and development of bill’s project needs to
be revised). gimmi 2004c, pp. 58–59.
24 cf. note 15.
25 takehiko mizutani (1898–1969) arrived at the bauhaus
 the summer semester of 1927 and was assigned the
number 150 [cf. note 10], the number just before bill’s.
but mizutani, who had already studied architectural
drawing in japan, stayed at the bauhaus until 1929.
26 according to the research and the information
gathered there by professor shutaro mukai of tokyo,
whose work is very much appreciated.
27 shinkenchiku, nº 4 (1928.2), pp. 46–53 and 56. i
am greatly indebted to atsuko and jason bill of
norwich (norfolk, united kingdom) for translating the
corresponding japanese texts into english, which
made it possible to identify the original source of the
explanatory text. the plan’s original legends have been
lost (archiv max bill/max, binia + jakob bill stiftung).
28 handwritten manuscript in german (archiv max bill/
max, binia + jakob bill stiftung. the order of the
paragraphs was inverted before being translated into
japanese, assigning each one of them a number in red
(from 1 to 7).
29 letter from october 13, 1927, signed: “gropius.” archiv
max bill/max, binia + jakob bill stiftung.
30 during this period he called himself “hanns” and was
assigned the number 247.
31 sbz 91 (1928), pp. 65, 330; sbz 92 (1928), pp. 12, 27,
59–63; sbz 93 (1929), p. 48.
32 no record of this collaboration could be found in hans
fischli’s papers at the schweizerisches institut für
kunstwissenschaft [swiss institute for art history] in
zürich.
33 on paul klee’s fiftieth birthday, motivated by his
great admiration for the artist, max bill gave him
a watercolored drawing entitled hermaphrodith
[hermaphrodite], with a dedication (klee-stiftung,
bern). yet the “similarity” to works by klee, still present
in 1929, would be his death sentence in paris in 1930,
when he presented a portfolio of his own work at the
gallery run by jeanne bucher, the leading promoter
of avant-garde art at the time. ms. bucher told him
how much she admired klee and suggested that bill
come back in a year, when he had developed his own
style of painting. cf. thomas, 1993, p. 105, and op. cit
note 15. this is probably why, later on in life, he rarely
showed his early works and kept them under lock and
key.
34 bill 1951b. endicott barnett 1995, pp. 138–45.
buchsteiner and letze 2005, pp. 22–24.
35 h. b. 1928 and e. w. 1928a and e. w. 1928b.
36 bauhaus, nº 4 (1928), p. 24.
37 this might also explain another harmonious
collaboration in the 1930s with his wife binia, who
might have been able to supply him with the photos
he wanted.
38 public statement by bill, bauhaus, nos. 2/3 (1928), p.
25. the publication date appears as july 1, 1927. this
brief note is the first text by bill that appears entirely in
lowercase letters, although in this case, it was because
this was one of the features of the journal’s design. it
was only beginning in 1930 that bill consistently used
lowercase letters in his personal correspondence.
39 gesell or geselle is an apprentice in a trade guild,
workshop or school of arts and crafts who has
completed several years of training but is not yet
a master craftsman. to achieve this status, it was
necessary to spend another five years as a journeyman
(wanderjahre), traveling around other regions and/or
countries. ed.
40 the word erlebnis is underlined like that in the original
german text. ed.
41 it is true that bill paid his own way in dessau at first.
but as early as late october of 1927, he began to
receive regular transfers from his father to cover his
monthly expenses, and they continued until june 1928.
in early august of 1928 there was another transfer
from his father, this time 100 francs more than usual,
probably used to settle debts.
42 this was followed by a stay with his father from august
20 to 26.
43 the first saffa (schweizerische ausstellung für
frauenarbeit [swiss exhibition of women’s work])
was organized by the league of swiss women’s
associations in bern. it took place from august 24 to
september 30, 1928.
44 the name of this fellow student appears with various
spellings. on the enrollment list he appears under
number 149 as arnold fernand mass from königsberg
[cf. note 1 ig. 15 p e. w. 1928b. is catalog)on wassily
kandinsky t date from september ed a certain number
of times. Regarding Max Bill’t3]. on a photo of a
picture by meel, bill added the handwritten inscription
“arn. fern. meel königsberg.”
45 from september 17 to 23 he was at his father’s home
in winterthur again. the design is dated september 20,
1928 (archiv max bill/max, binia + jakob bill stiftung).
46 coincidence or not, on october 1, 1928, his father
married his second wife, lina wolf.
47 “hanns fischli sold my effects and furniture without
my knowledge and without reimbursing me and is
therefore liable for the injury done to me.” cf. note 48.
48 mentioned explicitly in the description of his quarrel
with fischli of august 1, 1929. (archiv max bill/max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung).
49 he probably made the trip in order to secure his last
remaining personal effects and have them shipped to
switzerland. on december 5, his father paid a bill for
the shipment of the cello to winterthur. before that,
however, he had once again made two transfers, for
significant sums at the time, to settle bill’s debts in
dessau.
50 this is one of the few pieces of information about his
early period in zurich preserved by the family. cf. bill
2008a, pp. 171–75.
51 typescript. (archiv max bill/max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung).
52 ernst geiger (february 1, 1875 – december 16, 1965)
was a brother of marie geiger, bill’s mother. he had a
phd in botany and was the second forestry engineer
to earn a doctorate in switzerland. he went on to be a
teacher. in 1918 he settled in ligerz, where bill visited
him as often as possible when during his youth. geiger
is known above all as a painter and graphic artist. adolf
weibel (july 6, 1870–march 12, 1952) was married to
sophie geiger, marie geiger’s sister. he was a drawing
teacher, and from 1927 to 1940 he served as curator
of the aargau art collection. bill received his first box of
paints as a gift from him.
45
Fundación Juan March
Fundación Juan March
bill and
the hfg ulm:
lines
of division
–
gillermo zuaznabar and neus moyano
department of architecture. universitat rovira i virgili

Max Bill sitting on the

stairs inside the Ulm
School of Design (HfG
Ulm), 1957. Photo:
Michael Friedel

47

Fundación Juan March

1-2. Inge Scholl, Walther
Hinsch, Walter Gropius
and Dr. Christmann.
Inauguration ceremony
for the Ulm School of
Design (HfG Ulm),
October 2, 1955.
Photos: Ike and Hannes
Rosenberg

48

Fundación Juan March

The main task of the artist is to divide, to
separate matter from the rest, to draw lines
that establish limits and boundaries between
form and all else: the formless.1 This task
raises his craft to the creation of the world,2
to the first Word that contained all time and
all things mingled together but as yet without
name: light, darkness, the stars, liquids, solids,
plants, animals… Through precise division the
following were defined: day and night, sun and
moon, water and earth, plants and animals,
man and woman; and then, with new divisions
came the days and nights, weeks, cycles.3 And
through the passing of the voice through time,
sentences were constructed with a beginning
and end, with a before and after, with time.
To organize, we use dividing lines: above and
below, inside and out, right and left, before and
after: all these things exist thanks to lines of
division. Through words that pass through time
and make time pass, history is constructed.
Thus, the true beginning of a story –any story–
is not found at either end of events, but at their
very center, on the line that is drawn through
the middle of a jumble of days or events in their
boring stability, which are instantly activated by
a shift of matter.
In order to examine Max Bill’s history with
the Hochschule für Gestaltung Ulm (HfG Ulm)
[Ulm School of Design], the lines that defined
and divided that relationship must be located.
The outermost ones are clear-cut, marked as
they are by the beginning and end of Bill’s
association with that institution: 1948-1957.
Yet if we truly want to understand it, we must
organize the events of those nine years, when
balances were upset.
Where is the line of division between Max Bill
and the HfG Ulm? If we look at these events, it
is easy to find a moment when a material shift
took place between Bill and the HfG: October 2,
1955, at the start of the new school year [figs. 1
and 2]. Unlike the last two terms, this time the
building designed by Bill – fit for use but as yet
still unfinished – was also inaugurated. Walter
Gropius, the guest of honor, gave the first
speech. Then came Bill’s turn:
our goal is clear: everything we do at the school
is geared toward working together to build a
new culture, in order to create a way of life in
keeping with our technological age. the path
that leads there has yet to be mapped out. […]
today’s culture has been too profoundly shaken
to start rebuilding at the top of the pyramid,
as it were. we must begin at the bottom, and
reexamine the foundations.4
When he finished his speech the building was
inaugurated, and in a sense Bill ceased to be
its architect. With the project presented and
delivered, for the next six months –that is, until
March of 1956— he would primarily be the
director of the school. His role there became
more defined, as was the school, through a
design that conveys the values it was eager to
instill in its students and in society.5 In order to
understand the building’s architecture and the
program that motivated it, one must understand
the ideals upheld by the institution in its
educational project. Since form and content
make up an inseparable whole, to explore this
simultaneity is to explore one of the ideals of the
school’s first director.
but today our efforts must be aimed at
two goals. first, on diligently enlightening
manufacturers and raising their awareness of
cultural responsibility. second, on training a
qualified new generation of industrial designers
who, based on their own experience, their
own observation and their own sense of
responsibility, create the things we use every
day, from pins to household furnishings, formed
with a beauty derived from their function,
whose beauty fulfills a function of its own.” 6
49
Fundación Juan March
 3. Inge Scholl, ca.
November 1949, next
to the poster for the Early history of the HfG
“Volkshochschule”
[Popular University]
designed by Otl Aicher. The school was built to house the activities
Photo: Hannes Rosenberg described in the program that Max Bill, Inge
Scholl and Otl Aicher had drawn up between
1950 and 1951.7 This program defined the
new school and differentiated it from the first
educational project, the Volkshochschule
[Popular University], which had opened in the
center of Ulm in 1947 to educate a generation
that had come of age under the Nazi regime.
The project sought to honor the memory
4. Diagram of the HfG
of Inge’s siblings, Sophie and Hans Scholl,
Ulm curriculum, devised
by Max Bill, Inge Scholl, executed by guillotine on February 22, 1943,
Otl Aicher and Walter for fighting the powerful Third Reich with
Zeischegg, 1951. COAC their bare hands and a cyclostyle, printing
Archive, Barcelona. and distributing pamphlets against Hitler
Lanfranco Bombelli
Collection
and the war. After World War II, Inge and Otl
organized literacy classes for adults as well
as courses on general knowledge, history, art
and politics, to spread the democratic values
that had been eradicated between 1933 and
1946. The term used at the time to describe
these activities was “denazification.”8 In May
of 1948 they travelled to Switzerland to attend
a conference for Volkshochschule directors,
sponsored by the U.S. government in its efforts
to coordinate –and also control– the various
educational projects that were springing up
around Germany. On Inge’s initiative, they took
advantage of the trip to contact Bill, a former
Bauhaus student, to invite him to be a professor
at the Volkshochschule in Ulm.
In late 1928, after a year and a half at the
Bauhaus, Bill returned to Zurich. Following
the war he wrote a series of articles,
organized exhibitions related to art and
industrial production and published a book
on reconstruction: wiederaufbau: dokumente
über zerstörungen, planungen, konstruktionen
[reconstruction: documents on destruction,
planning, construction, 1945]. Due to his
collaboration on the exhibition USA baut
[USA builds] at the Kunstgewerbemuseum
[Museum of Decorative Arts] in Zurich9 and the
publication of his book on reconstruction, the
U.S. administration invited Bill to travel around
Germany as an advisor. Reconstruction was also
the driving force behind the school. Inge Scholl
and Otl Aicher believed that reconstruction had
to be at once physical and intellectual [fig. 3].
This is hardly surprising, since it is easy to
imagine that in their own lives and selves they
had experienced how it is form that conveys
the ideas and values that make up a society.
They knew that if they wanted to rebuild their
city, they had to pay as much attention to the
ideas and the discourse as to the forms used in
its reconstruction. In the first piece they wrote

50

Fundación Juan March

 5. Josef Albers in a class Bauhaus pupil. Like them, Bill understood that
at the HfG Ulm, 1955.
ideas contained in forms are also inseparable
Photo: Eva-Maria Koch
from them. Moreover, he would be able to
rebuild ties with the Bauhaus and what was left
of that school. Rekindling relationships with the
individuals who had created the Bauhaus and
bringing their experience to the Ulm project
would become Bill’s primary mission from 1950
to 1951. In designing the curriculum for the
new school [fig. 4], Bill sought the approval and
advice of the Bauhaus founders Henry van de
Velde and Walter Gropius, to whom he wrote of
“reopening” the Bauhaus in Ulm.11
His work was joined by the guidelines set by
the Geschwister Scholl Stiftung [Scholl Siblings
Foundation],12 whose members included the
writer Hans Werner Richter, among others.
At this point, Bill’s interests and intentions did
not quite match those of the foundation. As
we have seen, the school had been founded as
a political and cultural initiative to honour the
memory of Hans and Sophie Scholl. Considering
the social dimension of the project, Bill saw it
as an opportunity to construct, putting all of his
ideas into practice: namely, reconstruction and a
new concept of design.13
Whereas Aicher and Scholl sought
reconstruction from within –in a circle that was
both physically and emotionally close to them,
made up of personalities such as Romano
Guardini as well as writers and academics tied
to Gruppe 47 [Group 47]–, Bill went further
afield: he proposed literally acting as a bridge
between a devastated Germany and the new
ideas that were arriving from America, where
Bauhaus émigrés were playing a key role in the
development of Western art and architecture.
The fact that the school was to be financed
to achieve their objective, studio null 16.6.1948 by the U.S. High Commission for Germany
“fangen wir an” [studio zero 16.6.1948 “let’s (HICOG), and that Bill had secured the support
begin”], they express this with enthusiasm and of the likes of Josef Albers [fig. 5], Ludwig Mies
determination: van der Rohe, Walter Gropius and Sybil
Moholy-Nagy –all respected academics at
the new school should not be a business where American universities and German Speakers
anyone can buy an education as if it were a like himself –, gave the U.S. authorities certain
department store. it should be a communal political guarantees that he was not involved in
endeavour. with this school we intend to give the internal conflicts that were resurfacing in
students a feel for collaborative tasks and arouse Europe after the war. Bill offered an international
the initiative that lies within the common man. milieu; many of the professors and students at
through this communal endeavour, a few years Ulm were not from Germany, but from countries
from now we also want to give the ‘new school’ on the Atlantic. Considering the political
an outward form. we want to start building. this divisions in Europe, this strategic positioning led
training institute needs to impose itself, externally the HICOG to choose him as director of the HfG
even, on the image of the city. it must take on over the German candidate, Richter, a former
form, become an image. […] we have to construct left-wing activist.14
a cultural center of our own. […] in their forms the
buildings must express a new attitude towards
life. faith in the future, hope.10

It is easy to understand why they sought the

help of an artist, architect, designer and former

51

Fundación Juan March


Curriculum
The school received the funds for the
construction of a new building on July 23, 1952.
In the absence of a written description of the
construction project, one can only suppose
that the document Bill used to define it was the
same curriculum of June 1951, which he and
Inge Scholl and Otl Aicher had been working on
since January of 1950.15
Bill drew from his experience at the Bauhaus
in Dessau, which he had attempted to adapt in
1929, to draft a syllabus for an introductory
course at the School of Applied Arts in Zurich.16
In it, he defended a type of education that was
both theoretical and practical, with a method
grounded in the oral defense and discussion
of one’s own works with classmates and
professors. Following the war, in 1948, Bill gave
a lecture in Bern17 in which he said the following
about teaching design:
the starting point is man and his understanding of
his environment. in addition to the foundation
of his practical training, the student must also
receive a perfect artistic, technical and spiritual
training. a designer of industrial products must
also be a true artist.
The ideal of the union of disciplines was
reflected in die gute form [the good form] 18, an
exhibition Bill curated for the Swiss Werkbund,
first shown in Basel in 1949 before travelling
to Ulm in the fall of that same year; as well
as in the book entitled form: eine bilanz über
die formentwicklung um die mitte des XX.
jahrhunderts, (1952). The discussion of the
value of art in a designer’s training is central
to his ideas about the teaching of design and
the role of the designer. Art and its relationship
with other disciplines such as design and
architecture were at the core of his plan to
modernize the teachings of the Bauhaus. Bill
explained these ideas in 1952:
i am increasingly convinced that in design,
it has become paramount for painters and
sculptors to produce autonomous works of art
in a contemporary spirit. they are the standard
and the inspiration for all other creative designs.
i am also convinced that incompetent painters
and sculptors (“bad artists”) must not be
allowed to dominate the mass production of
consumer goods. rather, true artists with a
sense of responsibility should collaborate in this
pressing task. […] we regard art as the highest
degree of expression in life, and strive to make
life a work of art.19
52
This statement stands in sharp contrast to his
repeated objections to teaching art at the school
of design. On September 11, 1951, Die Neue
Zeitung published a letter from Bill responding
to a student entitled “bei uns kann man nicht
maler warden” [at our school you can’t become
a painter] Bill’s argument was based on an ideal:
the presence of harmony and beauty in all areas
of human life, “from the spoon to the city”.20
The apparent contradiction between Bill´s
defense of art instruction at the school and
his refusal to train artists can be explained by his
belief that knowledge of the arts was a tool for
designing objects. Yet in design, as Bill saw
it, this artistic knowledge must be applied by
the designer not to express his own ideas but
rather to support the logic of the project. Thus,
although he defended the use of the arts to
develop students’ sensibilities, he was explicitly
against training artists at the school. This was
the condition for bringing artistic processes
into the fields of design, architecture and urban
planning.21
Throughout his career, Bill developed the
concept of Umweltgestaltung, which can be
translated as “environmental design”. He
believed that all things must fulfill their function;
thus, they acquire a form that suits this function,
endowed with a natural elegance. This way,
all areas of life can achieve a harmonious, and
therefore beautiful, formal resolution. Form, in
the sense of the German word Gestalt, is always
suited to the essence of a thing and consists of
the sum of all of its functions in one harmonious
unit. The designer must not only address the
purely formal aspects of objects, but also the
sociological, anthropological and economic
aspects that organize life and the societies for
which these objects are made. “The further
a pair of scissors is from the value of its use,
the less aesthetic it is.”22 For Bill, art creates
objects for the spirit, while industry makes
objects for life; for life, it is industry that must
create objects. Yet in both fields, the creation of
objects and works of art is possible through an
understanding of the logic of design processes.
This idea led Bill to create institutions that
would bring together the agents of this design
in discussion and action groups, which also had
an educational purpose. In 1947 Bill co-founded,
together with Lanfranco Bombelli, the Institut
für Progressive Kultur (i.p.c.) [Institute for
Progressive Culture] to help spread the idea of a
culture suited to its time. In 1958, he proposed
the creation of an Institut für Praktische
Ästhethik [Institute for Aesthetic Practice],
with a similar universal mission of connecting
aesthetics and everyday life.23
The new school faced competition from
other decorative arts projects, schools of art
Fundación Juan March
and architecture that were being developed in
Germany. Bill could not take a lax attitude and
had to fight against preconceived notions and
different interpretations of Bauhaus teachings.
The models created by the masters in exile
in the United States, such as Walter Gropius
overshadowed his own ideas. Nevertheless, Bill
staunchly defended his position and presented
his idea for modernizing the Bauhaus:
the generation of the Bauhaus masters was still
divided between artists and technicians. my
generation has produced the type of designer
for whom art is a vital issue, yet for whom
collaborating on the tasks of society, on solving
everyday problems, has become his life’s
work.”24
As we have seen, the first curriculum for the
school –Hochschule für Gestaltung, partly
named after the Bauhaus– was drawn up in
1951.
The new method was based on the
coexistence of teaching and research through
individual experimentation and group work in
laboratories, workshops and studios. Student
participation in the school’s management and
administration underscored its democratic
nature. Following Gropius’s advice, architecture
and urban planning, together with courses
related to design, took precedence, while courses
of a political nature were eliminated.25 Following
the Bauhaus model, the first year of study was
a basic course or Grundkurs, after which the
curriculum branched out into the departments
of Visual Design and Information, Product
Design, and Architecture and Urban Planning.
Sociology, Economics, Politics, Psychology and
Philosophy were also taught in seminars.26
The preliminary course began in the summer
of 1953. Its purpose was to rid students of
their preconceived ideas and introduce them
to morphology, proportion and color. They also
attended conferences and lectures as part of
what Bill called Kulturelle Integration [Cultural
Integration]. This fulfilled Bill’s idea that a
designer’s training must include two aspects: the
accumulation of practical design experience and
immersion in contemporary culture and society.
The importance Bill attached to this preliminary
course –based on the Bauhaus model and
adapted to the needs of contemporary culture– is
reflected in his response to five questions the
HICOG High Commissioner John Jay McCloy in
1952 asked him before deciding to fund the HfG
Ulm:
There is no school in Germany, Switzerland,
Holland, England or in the U.S. that has properly
applied the Bauhaus Grundkurs. Those who truly
know the Bauhaus are discomforted to find that
the Grundkurs has been adopted in a superficial
and decorative manner, and not as it was truly
conceived. The reason is the lack of suitable
professors, and generally that the structure and
pedagogical objectives of these schools are
not suitable for the inclusion of a preliminary
course. Currently, the only ones that are done
properly and could be useful for the subsequent
years of study are those which I understand are
offered at MIT, IIT, Syracuse University and
the department of design at Yale University. If the
preliminary course were implemented on a
broader basis (that is, not only in departments
of architecture, as has been done in Germany)
it is safe to say that other institutions will
follow suit. There is no doubt that our school
will be revolutionary beyond Germany. This is
already evident, judging from the reactions,
some positive and some negative, that we have
already received…”27

During that first year, Bill made sure to surround

himself with former Bauhaus professors and
students who were teaching at American
universities, whose ideas about design
education were similar to his own. Walter
Peterhans (1897-1960) was a professor at
the Illinois Institute of Technology, and Josef
Albers (Bottrop, Germany, (1888-1976) at
Yale; Bauhaus alumni included Helene Nonné-
Schmidt. The HfG’s founders, Max Bill, Otl
Aicher and Walter Zeischegg, were also on
the faculty in 1954, the HfG hired three more
professors who would play a decisive role at the
school:28 Hans Gugelot, Tomás Maldonado [fig.
6] and Friedrich Vordemberge-Gildewart. They
would revolutionize the teaching of design and
initiate a collaboration between the school and
the German manufacturer Braun. 6. Tomás Maldonado and
Otl Aicher on the deck of
The seminars taught by Peterhans and Albers
the HfG Ulm, in front of
reflected the kind of Bauhaus renewal that Bill the area that separates
wished to establish. The aim of Peterhans’s the deck and the studio
course “Visual Training” was to train the eye apartments, 1955.
Photo: Sigrid “Sisi” von
and develop a sense of design. Albers taught a
Schweinitz
basic course on color, drawing and form, and
based his teaching on the conscious exercise
of perception and design, with the aim of
“establishing a method that provides a basis for
all visual art, a practical study of the principles
that underpin and connect all of the arts.”29
These principles were largely abandoned when
Itten, whose classes were based on individual
expression, joined the faculty in 1955, angering
Albers.30
Starting in 1955, Bill was the director of
the architecture program. Students in the
department who had a technical background
participated in the construction of the school’s
new building, just as students had done under

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Fundación Juan March

Walter Gropius at the Bauhaus. Likewise, the
furnishings and light fixtures were designed
and made with the help of students in the
school’s workshops, applying the principle that
an education in architecture must be a practical
experience and that educational exercises must
take place within the context of real life. 31 Soon
thereafter, the school began to receive outside
commissions, reinforcing its commitment to be
integrated in society.
In 1956, the younger professors began to
question Bill’s views. While Bill still felt that
aesthetics was based on mathematical logic and
thus eluded any equation, Tomás Maldonado
challenged thought based on the “learning by
doing” theories of the Bauhaus, which he felt
no longer met the needs of product design.
This intellectual disagreement, joined by
personal differences, led to Bill’s resignation
from the school in 1957 [fig. 7]. Following his
departure Maldonado took charge, together
with Aicher and Gugelot, and the HfG entered
its most scientistic phase; geometry, topology,
mathematical equation and semiotics become
central to their concept of design.32
In parallel with the new curriculum, 1957 saw
the formation of the first Entwicklungsgruppen,
or “development groups”. The purpose of these
groups was to test the design hypotheses
of industrial mass production and to find the
proper flow between teaching and professional
work, company and production. The designer
no longer directs the design of a product
according to aesthetic lines, but rather becomes
54
part of a work group in the production process.
The Entwicklungsgruppen worked closely with
companies, carrying out direct orders for them.
This led to ties with Braun and Dieter Rams, but
by that time Max Bill was no longer there. He
had left the school, leaving behind a building
that marks a turning point and a dividing line: a
watershed in European architecture.33
When Bill sat down at the drafting table in
1950 to design his school, in addition to the
curriculum he was devising together with Inge
Scholl and Otl Aicher there were other factors
that would influence his work: the sloping
terrain, financial and time constraints that
forced him to develop an affordable, flexible
construction system; and the inconvenient
presence of an old fort, the Oberer Kuhberg.
7. Inge Scholl, to the left
of Günther Schlensag,
explaining to the students
the reasons for Max Bill’s
leaving the HfG Ulm,
February 21 or 22, 1956.
Photo: Hans G. Conrad
Fundación Juan March
Location. Noli me tangere.
The school is located about 3.5 kilometers
from the center of Ulm, on the Kuhberg hill that
overlooks the Danube Valley [Donautal] and
the river that hugs and shapes Mitteleuropa.
The official source of the Danube is in the town
of Donaueschingen (Baden-Württemberg) –
though it may actually originate in the nearby
town of Furtwangen or the faucet of some
old home that collects the waters of the Breg
before running through and connecting lands
and cities from the Black Forest to the Black
Sea. Ulm is the first city it meets on its course
through the Upper Danube region. In front of
the school, the river divides two states and
two communities: Catholic Bavaria on its south
bank, and Protestant Baden-Württemberg on
its north bank. The land on which the school
is built faces southwest, overlooking the river
on its way into town. Ulm lies at its back and
to one side, to the northeast. Its eminently
strategic position is indicated by the presence
of the Oberer Kuhberg fort, built between 1848
and 1857 as part of a system to defend the
city (“Bundesfestung Ulm”). On November 24,
1949, the fort and its land were handed over to
the school’s founders by the Oberfinanzdirektion
Stuttgart [Stuttgart Regional Tax Office].34 Inge
Scholl and Otl Aicher considered using the old
military construction, but Bill wouldn’t have
it: “A military facility is still a military facility.
I feel that it would be better not to use this
as a foundation.”35 In addition to its formal
inoperability, there were ideological reasons
behind that decision. The symbolic weight
of the fort did not encourage its use as the
headquarters of a school that intended to spread
the ideals of Western democracy. Twenty years
earlier, from 1933 to 1935, the Oberer Kuhberg
fort had been used as a detention center for
opponents of the National Socialist Party. Bill
felt that it was inappropriate to erect a facility
for peace on the foundations of a military
building.36 Even so, it is not entirely true that the
old fort was not “useful” to the design of the
school; many aspects of Bill’s new building are
conditioned by the old fort.
The L-shaped layout of the school sought
good orientation, natural light and views of
the Danube River Basin, but above all to take
advantage of the areas of the land untouched
by the fort, and runs parallel to its south and
west walls. Although Bill stayed away from the
old construction, in the end he had to echo
two of its sides and angle. In photographs and
illustrations of the project included in the 1951
curriculum [figs. 8 and 9], there was a small
forest to the northeast of the building. Far from

being portrayed as a bucolic place of recreation,
these woods form a dark background that make
the new school stand out in contrast while
covering up the old fort. The height of the fort and
the hill were also factors that Bill respected,
and he did not try to compete with them. In
other words, the design for the new school
arose from a disaffection of sorts, a desire to
keep a careful physical and emotional distance
from the fort and its past while obeying the
conditions dictated by it. And here we have a
8. The HfG Ulm from
the air with the city in the
background, 1955.
Photo: Otl Aicher
9. Sketch of the HfG Ulm
by Max Bill, included in
the school’s program,
1951. COAC Archive,
Barcelona. Lanfranco
Bombelli Collection
new dividing line: between an imposed distance
and a past and a memory which, due to its
physical proximity, is best left untouched.
Fundación Juan March
architecture program
When Bill started designing the new building,
the school’s curriculum was already well-
defined37 [fig. 10]. In determining its layout on
the side of the Kuhberg, he knew he would
have to make room for seven departments, four
workshops, one hundred and fifty students and
twenty professors.38
The curriculum and the building are divided
into three main sections: a pavilion for the
workshops and departments, four areas for
classrooms, administrative offices and a
cafeteria, and student apartments and studios.
Slightly apart, to the west, Bill also planned
some professor’s residences. The pavilion
for the workshops and the departments is
48.25 x 43.25 meters in size and looks more
like a factory than a school. Closed to the
south, without a view of the valley, it creates
appropriate conditions for work; the attention
of students and professors is directed towards
the interior of the building. To ensure constant
light without any major variations, Bill included
six interior courtyards. Three (3 x 3 m) brought
light and order to the Department of Form,
while three (3 x 4 m) on the other side did the
same for the departments of Typography, Visual
Communication and Photography, as well as
the metal, wood, plaster and plastic workshops
[figs. 11 and 12]. To differentiate the workshops
from the departments, Bill raised the roof from
3 to 4.75 meters and added high windows.
Construction materials were limited to a small
number of industrial-looking elements. The
whole building is organized according to an
orthogonal system of four 30 x 30 cm pillars,
2.75, 3 and 5.45 meters apart, that support two
main beams, on top of which sits a secondary
structure of prefabricated concrete panels 3 and
4.75 meters in height. On the façades you can
see the exposed edge of the panels, which are
272.5 centimeters tall. The mass-produced pine
woodwork is arranged in four vertical and three
horizontal partitions. The materials are: concrete
(exposed or painted white), pine wood, brick
painted white, prefabricated grey terrazzo on the
steps of the stairs and asphalt and concrete for
the flooring. The logic of the building plan, the
humble treatment of materials, the simplicity
of the system and the color scheme –wood,
white, grey and black– give us a foretaste of
the design strategies and forms that would be
applied and developed by the school’s students
until its closure in 1968.39 The building looks
prefabricated without being so; it looks like a
factory without being one.
In order for this building to be a school,
it had to make room for the second part of
55
10. Max Bill working
on the model of the HfG
Ulm, 1953.
Photo: Ernst Scheidegger 11

the architectural program: the areas for the

classrooms, administrative offices and cafeteria,
with spaces for reading, meetings, discussions
and breaks [fig. 13]. These activities were all
put a large podium slightly off to the east, but
with the same amount of floor space as the
workshops pavilion (45.5 x 47 meters). The area
containing the entrance, administrative offices
and library is halfway up the hill. The common
areas –cafeteria, dining hall and conference/
exhibition room (4.50 m in height)– are located
above the podium, separated from the ground
(3.90 m) and topped by a large chimney on
the south side. While the school adapts to
the gradient of the hill, the more exposed part
of the building is elevated. This is one of the
hallmarks of the project. The design adapts
to the terrain, but “adapting” does not mean
simply following what the land dictates. Instead,
it means developing and expressing a certain
degree of autonomy and the ability to correct
and compensate for events, like a kind of
buffer. This adaptation, this accompanying and
correcting and this displacement of material
must be signaled by another dividing line,
between architecture and terrain. To indicate
13
that this is not a building that simply adheres to
the dictates of the existing conditions, but one
that defines a way of being and approaching the
landscape, understanding it and thus correcting
and constructing it, Bill finishes off the podium

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 with a continuous bank that rims the perimeter.
The building creates an urban environment on
an inviting scale: visitors never feel that they
are in a large building with six levels, but more
like a two-story residential dwelling. It evokes
domestic architecture although it is not.
Whereas the first area containing the
workshops is static and introverted, without
orientation and embedded into the terrain [fig.
14], the second is extroverted and faces every
direction, like an artillery battery. In view of
the two main areas, Bill is acting like a painter,
balancing out one set of gestures with opposing
or complementary ones to create tension and
balance. For the third part of the program, the
student apartments and studios, Bill applied
the same compositional strategy, alternating
horizontal and vertical elements.
The studios occupy two partially sunken
wings (28.24 x 7.50m) containing sixteen
studios, (7.50 x 3.75m), eight on each wing,
for last-year students and visiting professors.
Each studio has three levels: the lower level
containing the entrance and basement on the
south side, the middle level with the kitchen/
dining area and work table on the north –
overlooking a small field–; and the upper level
12 with a bedroom open to the kitchen/dining area
once again on the south side of the building,
facing the valley [fig. 15]. The horizontal
strip of the workshops is offset by a vertical
element that brings order and rhythm to the
composition, in the form of a five-story tower.
The horizontal section and the tower work like
links of a chain, marking a rhythm and creating
the conditions so that it could be expanded at
any time. Though the project called for six of
these links, only three were built. The tower,
next to the entrance path, is slightly turned, with
three recesses in its façade; it faces southwest
to receive afternoon light and provide some
privacy. Inside, each of the apartments was
slightly different but they all featured the same
basic elements (bed, wardrobe, open kitchen
and working-table). The bathrooms, located
on the mezzanine level by the stairwell, were
initially shared.

14
11-14. Floor plan of the HfG Ulm. 3 x 3 m. module (11); level containing the
workshops and the Grundkurs or basic course (12); floor containing the cafeteria,
deck and studio apartments (13); part of the building containing the
workshops and western elevation (14). Drawings by: Juan Fernando Ródenas
and Gillermo Zuaznabar

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 the two sections come together, vertically and
horizontally, like the interlocking teeth of a
Points of convergence and dissonance
saw. The differences between the two façades
create an eye-catching dissonance. The
Though the building has a single construction facing grids of the vertical walls drop down,
system, it has three programs, three formal and Bill took advantage of the space below
orders and two transition zones. It is in these the continuous flat roof to bring in light from
zones that the system’s order is interrupted the southeast. And here we find yet another
or broken. Like Le Corbusier and Mies van clear dissonance in the overall order of the
der Rohe, Bill had not gone to architecture building, which reveals its complexity and
school, and in that sense was not a trained sophistication. In describing the building, Bill
architect.40 This is evident in his approach to explained that there is a rigorous order to the
resolving the breaks or ruptures in the system. floor plan, whereas the roof was more freely
The overall plan is orderly and constant, but designed.42 Yet in these two transition zones
at the twists and turns there are “accidents” –where the building changes in character,
which the architect must resolve. Le Corbusier use and orientation– it is the roof acts as the
resolved junctions by overlapping planes, element of reference, ordering the movements
covering up one with another and thus below it.
generating a new form. Mies did so with the These alterations in order and breaks in
austerity and precision of a stonemason. If continuity distance the building from its
Greek sculptors used intermediate elements original systematic conception and also from
such as capitals, metopes and cornices to its own time. The way in which it respects the
hide the junctions between pillars, beams dissonances of the transition zones without
and girders, Mies dispensed with ornament, trying to camouflage them propels the building
hiding them by inserting new contours in the ten, twenty or even thirty years into the future,
shadows or working the edges of the pieces closer to architectural concepts of the 1970s,
to create a precise yet invisible joint. At the 80s and 90s than to those of the 1950s. The
HfG, Bill simply left these elements exposed, school reminds us of a building from the 1980s
showing their repetitions and inconsistencies. or 90s, although it is not.
15. HfG Ulm. Area
In the building, at two junctions, two areas of
between the deck and
division, there are two key “discrepancies”, studio apartments.
one major and one minor. Photo: Gillermo Zuaznabar
The minor discrepancy occurs where the
kitchen/cafeteria meets the first link in the
chain of the student workshops. Here we can
see two ground levels, the differences in scale
of the two types, some stairs, a non-load-
bearing wall that separates the school from
the living quarters and a roof that adapts to
the cross-sectional and longitudinal directions
of the two roads. Next to the party wall of the
first workshop where the cantilever section
is visible, the elements are grouped together
but unconnected, impossible to articulate,
separate.41 The other discrepancy, more well-
known and illustrated, is the large trapezoidal
interior gallery known as die Säge [The Saw],
the product of a residual space between the
workshop pavilion and the area containing
the classrooms and offices [figs. 16 and 17].
Shifting the north-south orientation of the
workshop pavilion, the gallery is wedged in at
105º angle, projecting the building towards the
southwest and forcing the overall composition
to turn towards the east. This area housed
the classrooms for the Grundlehre [Basic
Education], the Information and Construction
departments and a small conference room.
The students nicknamed the 6.27-meter void
resulting from this junction “the saw” either
because of its trapezoidal floor plan or because

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16. HfG Ulm. “The Saw”
under construction, fall of
1952. Photo: Rolf Lauhus
17. HfG Ulm. “The Saw”,
2014.
Photo: Fernando Marzá
Architecture and city
The interplay of heights, the counterbalances
and disjunctions, obey a logic and a complexity
that transcend the building’s structure. Its
relationship to the landscape and memory and
its acceptance of disorder within the limits
of the system make the building much more
than what it was intended to be, which was
apparently just functional and affordable. Its
architecture reveals an urban complexity already
evident in the first document that helped bring
the school into being:
this training institute needs to impose itself on
the image of the city physically as well. It has to
take on form, become an image […] we have to
build a cultural center of our own. […] in their
form the buildings have to express a new feeling
for life. faith in the future, hope.43
The school –Bill’s work– effectively projects to
society the image of an order that arises from
industrial systematization, where economy
of means and a constructive logic without
any displays of technological sophistication
define a new language while revealing its own
dissonances, without rhetoric. The school and
those who worked there would imbue the city
with their designs; and yet at its origins the
school also impregnated itself with the city and
its urban environment. It was Alison and Peter
Smithson who highlighted its urban qualities:
This is why we know instinctively that a
reduction of urban densities is a human
necessity: we know when we are overcrowded
no matter how cleverly stacked one on another.
This is why we will return so often to Lafayette
Park in Detroit: to feel again its decent calm, its
openness, to study its methods of putting the
car in its place, all achieved without rhetoric.
This is why Chase Manhattan fascinates
–its technology and its mechanism are under
control– it has no rhetoric.
This is why we think about the Hochschule
für Gestaltung at Ulm –of its ease, of its
ordinariness that has a kind of understated
lyricism which is full of potential and does not
disturb the peace of the hillside on which it
is situated. Chandigarh/Lafayette Park/Chase
Manhattan/Ulm are for us the buildings of the
hinge-point.44
1 This definition, which can be attributed to
Michelangelo (1475-1564), was cited by the Greek
artist Jannis Kounellis (b. 1936) in the classrooms
Fundación Juan March
and workshops of the Düsseldorf Kunstakademie [Art
Academy] during the 1994-95 and 1995-96 terms.
2 “And, therefore, unto the Word coeternal with
You, You say once and forever all that You say, and
whatever You say shall be made, is made,” in: Saint
Augustine, The Confessions, Book XI, Chapter VII.
3 “If then in sounding and passing words You said
that heaven and earth should be made, and so made
heaven and earth, there was a corporeal creature
before heaven and earth, by whose motions in time
that voice might take his course in time […]”, Ibid.
4 “das ziel ist uns klar: die gesamte tätigkeit an der
hochschule ist darauf gerichtete, die aufbau einer
neuen kultur mitzuarbeiten, mit dem ziel, eine mit
unserem technischen zeitalter übereinstimmende
lebensform schaffen zu helfen […] der weg der
dazu führt […] muss erarbeitet werden. […] die
heutige kultur ist zu tief erschüttert, als dass man
gewissermassen an der spitze der pyramide anfangen
könnte mit weiterbauen. wir müssen unten anfangen
und die fundamente überprüfen”. Speech given by
Max Bill at the inauguration of the HfG Ulm building
on October 2, 1955 (HfG-Archiv Ulm).
5 “It is essential that the exterior form of the school
conforms to its spirit, and helps to form its pupils.” [Es
ist entscheidend, dass die äussere Form der Schule
ihrem Geist entspricht und die Schüler mitformen
hilft], in: Quijano 2002, p. 21.
6 “unsere anstrengungen müssen aber heute in
zwei richtungen gehen: erstens in der sorgfältigen
aufklärung der produzenten und der hebung ihres
kulturellen verantwortungsbewusstseins. zweitens
in der ausbildung geeigneten nachwuchses als
industrie-entwerfer, die aus eigener erfahrung, eigener
59
 anschauung und eigenem verantwortungsgefühl
heraus jene dinge gestalten, die wir gern täglich
und jederzeit brauchen, von der stecknadel bis zur
hauseinrichtung, gestaltet im sinne einer schönheit,
die aus der funktion heraus entwickelt ist und durch
ihre schönheit, eine eigene funktion erfüllt.” Bill
1949b, pp. 272-74 (Cf. text nº. 4 of the anthology
found in this catalog), This echoes the idea expressed
by Hermann Muthesius, the founder of the Deutsche
Werkbund “vom Sofakissen zum Städtebau”, [“From
the sofa cushion to urban planning”] in a lecture he
gave in Dresden (1911) during the Jahresversammlung
des deutschen Werkbundes [Annual Meeting of the
Deutsche Werkbund]: cf. Muthesius 1912, p. 16.
7 In 1949-50, Inge Scholl and Otl Aicher drafted the
first project for the Geschwister Scholl Hochschule
(GSH), the Gelbes Heft [Yellow Notebook], which had
a clear political bent. In 1950, Bill signed a contract as
director of the school and architect of the building that
would house it. In June of 1951, the program of the
HfG Ulm and the Forschungsinstitut für Produktform
[Product Design Research Institute] was defined.
8 Inge Scholl and Otl Aicher, the first program for the
school, 1949 (HfG-Archiv, Ulm).
9 USA baut, Zurich, Kunstgewerbemuseum, September
8 – October 7, 1945.
10 “die neue schule soll kein unternehmen sein, in dem
jeder sich erziehung einkaufen kann wie in einem
grosskaufhaus. sie soll ein gemeinschaftswerk
werden. mit dieser schule wollen wir beginnen, ein
gefühl für gemeinschaftsaufgaben und für die initiative
zu wecken, die beim gemeinen mann liegt. aus diesem
gemeinschaftswerk heraus wollen wir uns dann
nach einige jahren daran machen, der “neue schule”
auch eine äussere form zu geben. wir wollen bauen
beginnen. dieses erziehungsinstitut muss sich auch
äusserlich im bild der Stadt einprägen. es muss Gestalt
annehmen, bild warden […] wir müssen ein eigenes
kulturelles zentrum bauen […] die bauten müssten
in ihrer forme in neues lebensgefühl zum ausdruck
bringen. den glauben an die zukunft, die hoffnung. In
Quijano 2002, p. 20.
11 Letter to Walter Gropius, Ulm, November 22, 1951
(Bauhaus Archiv Berlin); and letter to Van de Velde,
June 26, 1950 (HfG-Archiv, Ulm).
12 The Geschwister Scholl Stiftung was a foundation
created in December 1949 to establish the HfG Ulm.
13 Cf. Bill 1945; moderne schweizer architektur, 1925-
1945 (1949); and the exhibition catalog die gute form
(1949).
14 This positioning turned out to be decisive. If the favorite
candidate to direct the new school was initially Hans
Werner Richter, the writer and organizer of Gruppe 47,
the telegram sent by Walter Gropius on April 25, 1950
to the home of Shepard Stone, the Information Officer
for HICOG, recommending he appoint Max Bill to the
position made up the Americans’ mind: much better
have him occupy the post than a former Communist.
Cf. Frei (1990), pp. 9-10.
15 The first curriculum Bill received was the Gelbes Heft
of January 24, 1950, cf. note 7. From then on, he
was kept informed of the school’s needs. On January
26, Inge Scholl sent him extensive documentation
regarding the curricula for the new school. In April of
1950, they both drafted the school’s first curriculum
together, which would be revised over and over
until they had the definitive curriculum for the HfG
and the Forchungsinstitut für Produktform [Institute
for Product Design Research], dated June 1951, to
which Otl Aicher also contributed. On December 16,
60
1950, Bill received his first invitation to participate in
a meeting with the school’s backers in Meersburg,
near Konstanz. On July 12, 1950, he presented his first
designs for the school in Stuttgart. Cf. Spitz 2002, pp.
72, 77 and 93. The original 1951 curriculum was used
from 1953 to 1957. Cf. von Seckendorff 1989.
16 “vorschlag eines vorkurses an der Kunstgewervbe
Schule der Stadt Zürich”, 1929, in: Bill 2008b, pp.
83–85.
17 “schönheit aus funktion und als funktion” [beauty
from function and as function].
18 Die gute form, literally “the good form” or “the right
form” as a synonym of “good design”. The exhibition
was held at the Museum für Gestaltung in Basel
from June 15 to October 15, 1949. It included eighty
panels designed by Bill which showed a selection of
consumer goods chosen by him as examples of good
design. Ed. There is a precedent to it, the exhibition
“Realta Nuova” –never realized– that Bill had put
together with Lanfranco Bombelli for the 8th Triennale
di Milano in 1947. Fabbri 2011, pp. 49f; and Müller, Bill
et al. 2015
19 “ich bin nach wie vor davon überzeugt, dass der
freien kunst das primat zukommt innerhalb der
gestaltung, dass die fortschrittlichsten maler und
bildhauer die autonomen werke des zeitgenössischen
geistes schaffen. diese sind anregung und mass für
alle andern schöpferischen gestaltungen: ich bin
auch überzeugt davon, dass nicht unfähige maler
und bildhauer (“schlechte künstler”) sich der massen
produktion der konsumgüter bewältigen dürfen,
sondern dass verantwortungsbewusste wirkliche
künstler an diesen dringenden aufgaben mitarbeiten
sollen […]. wir betrachten die kunst als höchste
ausdruckstufe des lebens und erstreben, das leben als
ein kunstwerk einzurichten.” In: Bill 1952, p. 15.
20 “das bezieht sich sowohl auf die kleinen dinge wie
auf die grossen, auf den löffel wie auf eine siedlung,
auf ein möbelstück wie auf die lage einer strasse in
der landschaft”. Cf. Bill 2008c, p. 174. This article was
published in 1964 (cf. Bill 1964).
21 This tension was already apparent at the Deutsche
Werkbund, which had to decide whether to include
artists in systems of production. This “conflict”
affected the Bauhaus, where professors such as
Gropius and Albers were opposed to others like
Johannes Itten, who defended individual expression
over objective, anonymous production methods.
The conflict was most clearly expressed in 1898 and
1920 by Adolf Loos, who seems to have inspired Bill,
drawing a dividing line between art and the trades that
help improve people’s lives. In 1920, Loos said: “Little
by little, humanity has been able to establish a clear
line of demarcation between spirit and matter. The
struggle between the two ended in the 19th century.
Until then, artist and artisan were one. The work of art
was employed and used. For today’s man, this is an
act of barbarity. One after another, all industries were
separated from the realm of art […]. Is this sad news
that I bring to my comrades? Have I caused them
distress? It is through a wearisome struggle that I, as
architect, have arrived at this truth. Yet I have stopped
struggling and today am a happy man. I know that I
have a trade that can serve man, right now. But this is
how I know that art exists. I am aware of art. I know
that it is not done on order, that it exists in and of
itself.” Adolf Loos, “Art et Architecture”, in: Loos 1993
[1920], p. 161
22 Cf. Bill 2008c, p. 174. The article was published in
1964 (cf. Bill 1964).
Fundación Juan March
23 In his lecture “funktion und gestalt”, delivered at the
Technische Hochschule [Superior Technical School]
in Zurich on February 26, 1958, Bill mentioned the
creation of both institutions; Cf. Bill 2008e, op cit. note
6, pp. 129-47.
24 “Die Generation der Bauhausmeister war noch
gespalten in Künstler und Techniker. Meine Generation
hat jenen typ des Gestalters hervorgebracht, dem
die Kunst eine Lebesfrage ist, dem aber die Mitarbeit
an den Aufgaben der Gesellschaft an den täglich
zu losenden Problemen mit zur Lebensaufgabe
geworden Ist”, in: Bill 1952, p. 15. One year later,
in 1953, this article was published in English in the
journal Architect’s Year Book as “The Bauhaus Idea
from Weimar to Ulm”, which indicates the impact Bill
hoped his project would have.
25 The curriculum shared some similarities with that
of the New Bauhaus in Chicago. The Information
Department, which studied the more literary
techniques related to visual communication, as well as
the Urban Planning Department, were the only ones
that did not have anything similar at the Bauhaus or
László Moholy Nagy’s New Bauhaus.
26 Geschwister Scholl Stiftung, “Hochschule für
Gestaltung. Forschungsinstitut für Produktform”,
1951 (HfG Archiv Ulm).
27 Response to five questions asked by HICOG High
Commissioner John Jay McCloy dated April 15, 1952.
Document attached to Bill’s letter to Gropius of April
18, 1952. Bill´s letter to Gropius from April 15, 1952
includes Commissioner McCloy’s questions in an
attached document. (Bauhaus-Archiv Berlin).
28 Seckendorff 1989, p. 96.
29 Albers 2014 [1954], pp. 274ff.
30 Cf. note 21.
31 In 1953, Bill participated in the section on the
teaching of architecture at the 9th International Modern
Architecture Congress (CIAM) in Aix-en-Provençe
and briefly presented his ideas on the subject: “The
educational goal that a school of architects and
city planners should set is to train independent,
reliable individuals with critical minds and a sense
of responsibility. This goal must be achieved by
developing their creative faculties so they are capable
of giving shape to the environments where we live
and responding to the complex demands of people
and society in our machine age. […] Education must
take place in the context of real life.” in: Staber 1962,
p. 5. In the letter from Bill to Gropius dated June
1, 1950, he agrees with Gropius that the teaching
of design must be a practical experience. Bauhaus
Archiv Berlin.
32 Tomás Maldonado 1958, pp. 25-40. Lecture given at the
Brussels International Expo on September 18, 1958.
33 “What springs to mind is Bill’s Höchschule fur
Gestaltung in Ulm, which I think is the best building of
the 20th century in Germany”, in Smithson: 2004, p. 27.
34 “Am 24 November 1949 stellte die Oberfinanzdirektion
Stuttgart das Fort ‘Oberer Kuhberg’ mit angrenzendem
Gelände den Initiatoren der neuen Hochschule in
Aussicht” [On November 24, 1949, the regional tax
office in Stuttgart offered the ‘Oberer Kuhberg’ camp
with its adjacent property to the founders of the new
school], in Quijano 2002, p. 20.
35 “[...] eine kriegsanlage bleibt eine kriegsanlage. ich
glaube es wäre besser, diese nichts als grundlage zu
benutzen”, ibid., p. 21.
36 “[...] findet ihn [Bill] zu symbolisch, wenn man auf
ein militärisches Fundament eine friedensstiftende
Einrichtung errichten will”, ibid., p. 21
37 Bill started working on the design of the school on
June 22, 1950. On July 11, 1950 they presented
a draft plan of the building, with a budget of two
million deutschemarks, to the HICOG in Stuttgart.
They received the funds on July 23, and Bill signed
a contract as its architect in August. Construction
began on September 8, 1953. The building was
officially inaugurated on October 2, 1955.
38 In any given year the school had approximately 150
students. There was a body of between ten-fifteen
full-time tutors and about forty guest lecturers”, in:
Jacob 1988, p. 222.
39 All the students wore clothes of a simple, straight
cut, preferably in black or grey — color was thought
frivolous. If you had been a painter previously, you
stopped painting; it was considered unbecoming
for a functionalist. Music was acceptable only if it
had the mathematical clarity of J. S. Bach or the
syncopated lucidity of the Modern Jazz Quartet.
[…] The optimal use of space and light, the absence
of any color other than that of natural materials,
the honesty with which service installations
were exposed to full view, the excellence of the
craftsmanship… these were all aspects of your
everyday habitat that subliminally filtered into your
system. The environment began to determine your
behavior. In any case, you were inhabiting a working
manifestation of functionalism.] ibid., pp. 224 and
226.
40 As a student at the Bauhaus, Bill was not accepted
to Gropius or Meyer’s architecture courses.
After attending the basic course taught by Josef
Albers and László Moholy-Nagy, he entered the
metal workshop and then took courses taught by
Schlemmer, Kandinsky and Klee. Bill 2008, p. 11ff.
41 At the junction between the tower and the second
horizontal block of studios, on the west end, there is
a similar discrepancy.
42 “Vorrei richiamare ancora una volta l‘atenzione su
un particolare carattere che è decisivo per l‘effetto
complessivo, il sistema strutturale. L‘edificio vero e
proprio della scuola ha un modulo-base di 3 metri.
Questo modulo si è rivelato la soluzione più adatta
ai nostri scopi. Da questa misura ci si è discostati
soltanto nell‘altezza là dove erano necessari ambienti
più alti.” [I would like to once again draw attention
to a specific aspect that is essential to the overall
effect: the structural system. The building proper of
the school has a 3-meter base-module. This module
seemed the most appropriate solution for our
purposes. We have departed from this measurement
in height only, and where a higher space was
needed.] Max Bill, in: Staber 1962, p. 4.
43 “dieses erziehungsinstitut muss sich auch äusserlich
im bild der stadt einprägen. es muss gestalt annehmen,
bild werden […] wir müssen ein eigenes kulturelles
zentrum bauen […] die bauten müssten in ihrer formen
ein neues lebensgefühl zum ausdruck bringen. den
glauben an die zukunft, die hoffnung.” In: Quijano
2002, p. 20.
44 In: Smithson 1973, pp. 17-19.

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works on
display

all works on display are by max

bill. in the references to books and
catalogs designed by him, their
authors’ names are cited first.

the titles of all the works in this

section appear in lowercase, except
cat. 1, being a piece produced
before max bill arrived at the
bauhaus.

cat. nos. 38, 118, 145, 152, 153,

160, 164, 165 and 167 have not
been included in this publication
because they appear in the catalog
that complements it: max bill: obras
de arte multiplicadas como originales
(1938–1994) [max bill: multiplied
artworks as original artworks
(1938–1994)] [exh. cat. palma:
museu fundación juan march,
february 25–may 30, 2015; cuenca:
Self-portrait of Binia Bill at
museo de arte abstracto español, the Bill’s home and studio
june 24–september 18, 2015]. in Zürich-Höngg, 1933. In
madrid: fundación juan march, 2014. the background, cat. 16.

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1. Frauenkopf [female head], 1925
bronze
12.3 x 6.7 x 5.3 cm

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4. pitcher with lid, 1926
hammered copper
32.5 x 20.5 x 16.5 cm

3. tall vase, 1925-26

copper and brass
40 x 14 x 14 cm

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2. tray with two goblets, 1925
silver
goblets: h. 9.7 cm; tray: 16.4 x 8.6 cm
inscription on tray: “paris, october 1925”

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5. self-portrait, 1926
oil on canvas
40 x 30 cm
9. kokettes mädchen [coquettish girl], 1928
oil on cardboard
38 x 24 cm

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6. [naples], 1926
ink and watercolor on paper
17 x 22 cm

7. amüsante erinnerungen [amusing recollections], 1927

watercolor on paper
16 x 15 cm

8. untitled, 1927
mixed media on paper
18 x 14 cm

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11. schewebende organismen 1929 nr. 14
[floating organisms 1929 nº 14], 1929
watercolor on paper
48 x 30 cm

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12. gefangene riesenkatze, bewacht [caged giant cat, guarded], 1929
oil on canvas
50 x 65 cm

10. räumliche komposition nr. 9 [spatial composition no. 9], 1928

oil on plywood
68 x 44 cm

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13. zwiegespräch [dialog], 1929
etching on japanese paper
35 x 25 cm

14. albert ehrismann lächeln auf dem asphalt, gedichte [smile on the asphalt, poems].
zurich/leipzig: orell füsli, 1930
designed by max bill
book. photomechanical print on paper
18.6 x 11 cm

77

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15. ohne titel, zwei köpfe [untitled, two heads], 1930
oil on plywood
48 x 58 cm

16. relief mit weisser kugel [relief with white sphere], 1931
iron and painted wood
120 x 60 cm

78

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17. brochure for
wohnausstellung neubühl
[housing exhibition at neubühl],
berichthaus, zurich,
september 19–27, 1931
photomechanical print on paper
21.4 x 9.9 cm

18. poster for the

wohnausstellung neubühl
[housing exhibition at neubühl],
berichthaus, zurich, september
19–27, 1931
relief print on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

81

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19. poster for the exhibition negerkunst, prähistorische felsbilder südafrikas
[negro art: prehistoric rock art from south africa], kunstgewerbemuseum zürich, august 2–30, 1931
linocut and letterpress on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

82

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 83

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 20. poster for the matinee
performance of tanzstudio wulff
[wulff dance studio],
stadttheater, basel, april 24, 1932
photomecanical print on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

21. poster for the concert

at the main auditorium of the tonhalle,
zurich, october 30, 1932
linocut on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

84

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 85

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23. tag for wohnbedarf, 1932
photomecanical print on paper
10.5 x 14.8 cm
22. poster for wohnbedarf, zurich, 1932
linocut on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

86

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24.1 24.2

88

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24.3 24.4

24. zett-haus advertisements, neue zürcher zeitung newspaper,

december 1931–september 1932
photomecanical print on paper
24.1. december 18, 1931
24.2. january 15, 1932
24.3. february 11, 1932
24.4. september 16, 1932
24.5. september 18, 1932
24.6. september 25, 1932
full page advertisements: 49 x 33 cm
24.7. march 9, 1932
14 x 14.5 cm

89

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24.5 24.6

90

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24.7

91

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 25. information magazine,
1932-34
photomechanical print on paper
21 x 14.8 cm

92

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 93

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26. ignazio silone
fontamara. zurich: oprecht, 1933
designed by max bill
book. photomechanical print on paper
20.6 x 13.7 cm

27. eduard keller

ascona bau-buch [ascona building book], zurich: oprecht, 1934
designed by max bill
photomechanical print on paper
29.4 x 21 cm

30. schwarze plastik [black sculpture], 1934-35 (1992 version)

black granite
88 x 35 x 35 cm

94

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 95

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28. zweiteilige konstruktion [two-part construction], 1934
oil on pavatex
50 x 60 cm

29. variationen [variations], 1934

oil on pavatex
60 x 50 cm

96

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 97

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31. vladimir vogel
tripartita [tripartite], 1936
designed by max bill
musical score. photomechanical print on paper
29.7 x 21 cm

35. le corbusier & p. jeanneret 1910–1929, œuvre complète [complete works], vol. 1, zurich: les éditions d’architecture, 1937 [11th ed. 1984]
designed by max bill
book. photomechanical print on paper
23.5 x 29 cm

34. kongress-und konzertgebäude in zürich [conference center and concert hall in zurich], 1936
mixed media on paper mounted on cardboard
72 x 84 cm

98

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 99

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100

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32. poster for the schweizerisches freiheitskomitee –
kundgebung der kampf um die freiheit
[swiss freedom committee – struggle for freedom rally],
stadthalle, february 5, 1936
photomechanical print on paper
127 x 90 cm

33. poster for the exhibition zeitprobleme in der schweizer malerei und plastik
[contemporary problems in swiss painting and sculpture],
kunsthaus zürich, june 13–july 22, 1936
linocut and photomechanical print on paper
100 x 70 cm

101

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36. konstruktion auf der formel a2 + b2 = c2 [construction from the formula a2 + b2 = c2], 1937
ink on cardboard
35 x 52 cm

41. konstruktion mit zwei gruppen [construction with two groups], 1938
gouache on cardboard
30 x 50 cm

102

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 103

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39. quinze variations sur un même thème [fifteen variations on a single theme]. paris: éditions des chroniques du jour, 1935-38
bound portfolio with 16 lithographs
and notes by max bill in german, english and french
32 x 30.3 cm

37. vier konstruktionen über das gleiche thema [four constructions on a single theme], 1935-38
3 reliefs on brass painted white on glass,
2 paintings under glass
102 x 122 cm

104

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 105

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43. aline valangin
tessiner novellen [tessin novellas]. zurich: girsberger, 1939
designed by max bill
book. photomechanical print on paper
20 x 12 cm

44. le corbusier & p. jeanneret 1934–1938. œuvre complète [complete works], vol. 3. zurich: girsberger, 1939 [9th ed. 1975]
designed by max bill
book. photomechanical print on paper
23.5 x 29 cm

45. alfred roth

die neue architektur. la nouvelle architecture. the new architecture. zurich: girsberger, 1940
designed by max bill
book. photomechanical print on paper
24.2 x 29.5 cm

106

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 107

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40. schweizer pavillon weltausstellung new york [swiss pavilion, new york world’s fair], 1938
mixed media on paper mounted on cardboard
72 x 84 cm

42. konstruktion mit 30 gleichen elementen [construction with 30 identical elements], 1938
photograph mounted on cardboard
72 x 84 cm

108

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 46. konstruktion mit weissem dreieck
[construction with white triangle], 1941
tempera on cardboard
102 x 73 cm

47. konstruktion mit 12 teiligem zentrum

[construction with 12-part center], 1941
tempera on cardboard
102 x 73 cm

110

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 111

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49. x = x. zurich: allianz verlag, 1942
designed by max bill
book. photomechanical print on paper
21.7 x 15.3 cm

112

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48. horizontal-vertikal rhythmus
[horizontal–vertical rhythm], 1941
gouache on cardboard
102 x 72.5 cm

113

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50. konstruktion aus zwei kreisringen [construction from two circular rings], 1942
oil on canvas
39 x 105 cm

53. sechs stufen progression [six-step progression], 1942-43

oil on canvas
60.7 x 40.6 cm

114

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116

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51. progression mit vier quadraten [progression with four squares], 1942
tempera on canvas
120 x 30 cm

54. horizontal-vertikal-diagonal rhythmus [horizontal-vertical-diagonal rhythm], 1943

oil on canvas
50 x 75.5 cm

117

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62. quadrat aus neun vierecken [square from nine rectangles], 1944
acrylic on canvas
36.2 x 36.2 cm

52. konstruktion mit 10 vierecken [construction with 10 squares], 1940-43

oil on canvas
89.7 x 75 cm

118

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 119

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55. rhythmus in vier quadraten [rhythm in four squares], 1943
oil on canvas
30 x 120 cm

120

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 121

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56. allianz verlag brochure, 1943
photomechanical print on paper
58.2 x 10.4 cm

122

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 123

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124

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63. poster for the exhibition die farbe
[color], kunstgewerbemuseum zürich,
january 23–march 5, 1944
lithograph on paper
128 x 90.5 cm
58. poster for the music festival musik-sommer, gstaad,
july 16–august 15, 1943
linocut on paper
104 x 62 cm

125

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66. wiederaufbau [reconstruction]. erlenbach-zurich: verlag für architektur ag, 1945
book. photomechanical print on paper
20.9 x 15.5 cm
57. catalog for the exhibition moderne malerei [modern painting], part of the festival musik-sommer, gstaad, july 30–august 15, 1943
designed by max bill
photomechanical print on paper
21 x 14.8 cm

126

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128

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64. poster for the exhibition konkrete kunst [concrete art], kunsthalle basel, march 18–april 16, 1944
linocut on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

65. konstruktion aus schwarz, lila, orange, und weiss [construction from black, lavender, orange and white], 1944-45
oil on canvas
84.5 x 71.5 cm

129

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130

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59. jewelry, 1936-44
photographs mounted on cardboard
72 x 84 cm

61. patria typewriter, 1944

metal
12 x 35 x 34 cm

131

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60. konstruktion aus sieben kreisringen [construction from seven circular rings], 1942-44
schist and gilt bronze
7.2 h. x 38 cm (ø)

68. magische chromographie [magical chromography], 1944-46

oil on canvas
72 x 108 cm

132

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 133

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69. rotes quadrat [red square], 1946 (1984 - 2nd version)
oil on canvas
62 x 62 cm; 88 cm (diagonal)

67. poster for the exhibition usa baut [usa builds], kunstgewerbemuseum zürich, september 9–october 7, 1945
offset lithograph on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

134

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71. zwei grüne akzente [two green accents], 1946
oil on canvas
42 x 42 cm

70. bunte akzente [colorful accents], 1946

oil on canvas
50 x 50 cm

136

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 137

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75. gelbes feld [yellow field], 1948
oil on canvas
81 x 81 cm

138

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 139

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72. catalog for the exhibition allianz. vereinigung moderner schweizer künstler
[allianz. association of modern swiss artists], kunsthaus zürich, october 18–november 23, 1947
designed by max bill
photomechanical print on paper
21 x 15 cm

73. poster for the exhibition allianz. vereinigung moderner schweizer künstler
[allianz. association of modern swiss artists], kunsthaus zürich, october 18–november 23, 1947
photomechanical print on paper
100 x 70 cm

140

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 141

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74. unbegrenzt und begrenzt [unlimited and limited], 1947
oil on canvas
110 x 103 cm

142

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 143

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76. brochure for the exhibition die gute form [good design], 1949
photomechanical print on paper
29.5 x 10.5 cm

77. robert maillart. erlenbach-zurich: verlag für architektur, 1949

book. photomechanical print on paper
22 x 22 cm

144

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78. moderne schweizer architektur 1925-1945 [modern swiss architecture 1925–1945]. basel: karl werner ag. verlag, 1949
designed by max bill
photomechanical print on paper
31 x 23 cm

79. catalog for the exhibition antoine pevsner, georges vantongerloo, max bill, kunsthaus zürich, october 15–november 13, 1949
designed by max bill
photomechanical print on paper
21 x 15 cm

80. poster for the exhibition pevsner, vantorgerloo bill, kunsthaus zürich, october 15–november 13, 1949
lithograph on paper
100 x 70 cm

146

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81–83. posters for the juni-festwochen zürich [june festival in zurich]:
schauspielhaus [theater], tonhalle [auditorium], stadttheater [municipal theater], 1949
lithographs on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

148

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 149

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85. catalog for the exhibition futurismo & pittura metafisica [futurism & metaphysical painting], kunsthaus zürich, november–december 1950
designed by max bill
photomechanical print on paper
21 x 15 cm

86. poster for the exhibition futurismo & pittura metafisica [futurism & metaphysical painting], kunsthaus zürich, november–december 1950
lithograph on paper
100 x 70 cm

150

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84. tripod chair with trumpet feet, t-frame, 1949
birch and laminated wood
74 x 45 x 53 cm

88. cross-frame chair, 1951

maple plywood, lacquered beech frame
78 x 48 x 52 cm

89. cross-frame chair, 1951

stamoid upholstery
78 x 48 x 52 cm

152

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 153

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 87. square-round table, 1950
wood and linoleum
73 x 90 x 90 cm; 78 cm (ø)

154

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91. novelectric sun lamp, 1951
enameled metal
57.2 x 14.6 cm

95. ulmer-hocker [ulm stool], 1954

solid beech and fir wood
45 x 40 x 30 cm

155

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156

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93. “22”, 1953
marble and granite
57 x 50 x 2.7 cm; 14 x 14 x 50 cm (base)

94. unendliche fläche in form einer säule [endless surface in the form of a column], 1953
gilt brass with wooden base
216 x 12 x 12 cm; 32 x 32 x 32 cm (base)

157

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90. simultankonstruktion zweier progressiver systeme [simultaneous construction of two progressive systems], 1945-51
oil on canvas
145 x 201 cm

158

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 159

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 96. transmutation [transmutation], 1955
oil on canvas
97 x 32.5 cm

97. 1 = weiss bis 8 = schwarz [1 = white to 8 = black], 1956

oil on canvas
100 x 100 cm

160

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99. junghans wall clock, 1956
aluminum
30 cm (ø); 4.5 cm (d.)

100. wall clock, 1957

bronze
24 cm (ø); 4,5 cm (d.)

162

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 163

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102a. diagram of a junghans kitchen clock, 1957
ink on paper
45 x 62 cm

101. junghans hand-wound kitchen clock, 1957

ceramic, glass, chrome-plated bezel and plastic
25.5 x 18.5 x 4 cm

164

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 165

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102b. sketch of a coat hanger, 1957
ink on paper
45 x 62 cm

109. coat hangers, 1959

plastic
23 x 43.5 x 1.5 cm

166

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 92. wassily kandinsky. paris: maeght, 1951
book. photomechanical print on paper
23 x 20 cm

103. bill salubra, 1957

designed by max bill
wallpaper sample
24 x 24 cm

168

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 98. catalog for the exhibition im kleinformat;
max bill, museum der stadt ulm
[in small format; max bill,
museum der stadt ulm], 1956
photomechanical print on paper
10.5 x 14.8 cm

111. catalog for the exhibition konkrete kunst

[concrete art], helmhaus zürich, 1960
photomechanical print on paper
30 x 10.7 cm

108. catalog for the exhibition

swiss design, london, 1959
photomechanical print on paper
10.5 x 7.5 cm

169

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170

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105. fläche im raum aus einer kreisscheibe [surface in space from a round disk], 1957
gilt brass
27 x 50 x 16 cm

110. sechseckfläche im raum im vollen kreisumfang [hexagonal surface in space in full circumference], 1953-60
gilt brass
30.5 x 39.5 x 27.5 cm

171

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104. poster for the exhibition max bill, zürcher kunstgesellschaft, helmhaus zürich, september 21–october 20, 1957
heliogravure on paper
128 x 91 cm

106. konstruktion [construction], 1937 (1958-59 version)

granite
120 x 120 cm; 91 x 60 cm (base)

173

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107. drei gleichgrosse sechzehnecke [three hexadecagons of equal size], 1959
oil on canvas
100 x 100 cm; 142 cm (diagonal)

174

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 175

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 112. poster for the exhibition bianco e nero
[black and white], vi exposition internationale
de dessin et gravure [vi international exhibition
of design and prints], lugano, april 14–june 16,
1960
linocut on paper
101.5 x 63.5 cm

115. poster for the exhibition max bill,

galerie du perron, geneva,
september 16–october 15, 1961
linocut on paper
100 x 70 cm

176

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 177

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 114. poster for the exhibition
konkrete kunst, 50 jahre entwicklung
[concrete art, 50 years of evolution],
helmhaus zürich, june 9–august 14, 1960
linocut on paper
128 x 90 cm

113. poster for the exhibition

dokumentation über marcel duchamp
[documentation on marcel duchamp],
kunstgewerbemuseum zürich,
june 30–august 28, 1960
linocut and photolithograph on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

178

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 116. kompression [compression], 1961
oil on canvas
180 x 60 cm

117. 1 - 8 in vier gruppen [1 – 8 in four groups], 1955-63

oil on canvas
80.3 x 80.3 cm

180

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 119. auswechlungen ii [replacements ii], 1965
oil on canvas
100 x 40 cm

120. zwei zonen [two zones], 1965-66

oil on canvas
62 x 62 cm; 88 cm (diagonal)

182

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121. strahlung aus grün [radiation from green], 1959-66
oil on canvas
47 x 47 cm; 66 cm (diagonal)

122. feld aus vier zonen [field of four zones], 1966

oil on canvas
120.2 x 60.6 cm

184

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 185

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124. feld aus sechs sich durchdringenden farben [field of six interpenetrating colors], 1966-67
oil on canvas
150 x 150 cm

186

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 187

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125. carré tenu par quatre couleurs [square from four colors], 1967-68
oil on canvas
100 x 100 cm

188

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 189

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123. strebende kräfte einer kugel [aspiring forces of a sphere], 1966-67
granite
80 x 120 x 80 cm

126. kern aus doppelungen [nucleus of doublings], 1968

gilt brass
50 x 60 x 50 cm

190

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 191

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127. catalog for the exhibition max bill, kestner–gesellschaft, hannover, june 14–july 14, 1968
photomechanical print on paper
21 x 16.6 cm

129. catalog for the exhibition max bill, kunsthaus zürich, november 24, 1968–january 5, 1969
photomechanical print on paper
21.5 x 19.5 cm

128. poster for the exhibition max bill, kunsthaus zürich, november 24, 1968–january 5, 1969
siebdruck in fünf farben [silkscreen in five colors]
silkscreen on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

192

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137. catalog of the exhibition max bill, galerie denise rené, paris, june 22–late july, 1971
photomechanical print on paper
26 x 21 cm

130. poster for the exhibition konkrete und phantastiche kunstrichtungen, zürcher künstlet im helmhaus [trends in concrete and fantastic
art: zurich artists at the helmhaus], november 29–december 31, 1969
linocut on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

194

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 195

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196

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131. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 in weiss [1 + 2 + 3 + 4 in white], 1969
oil on canvas
120 x 120 cm

134. kern und farbzonen [nucleus and color zones], 1970

oil on canvas
102 x 102 cm; 144 cm (diagonal)

197

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132. elementare farbdurchdringung [elementary color penetration], 1966-70
oil on canvas
40 x 80 cm

133. vierfarbige struktur [four-color structure], 1970

oil on canvas
60 x 150 cm

198

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 199

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135. acht liniengruppen um weiss [eight line groupings around white], 1969-70
oil on canvas
150 x 150 cm

136. zwei umschlossene quadrate [two enclosed squares], 1971

oil on canvas
200 x 100 cm

200

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 201

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138. poster for the exhibition dynamische schweiz mit landesring [dynamic switzerland with the circle of independents], 1971
offset on paper
127 x 90 cm

202

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 203

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139. feste hälfte einer kugel [stable half of a sphere], 1972
black granite
20.5 x 27 x 29.7 cm

140. begrenzung geht durch das zentrum [edge runs through the center], 1972
gilt brass
85 x 42 x 38 cm

204

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141. rot und blau quantengleich [red and blue in equal quantities], 1972
oil on canvas
100 x 100 cm

142. einheit aus flächengleichen farben [unity of colors with equal surface areas], 1972
oil on canvas
120 x 120 cm; 170 cm (diagonal)

206

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143. strahlung von rot in blau [radiation from red into blue], 1972
oil on canvas
33 x 33 cm; 46.6 cm (diagonal)

144. verdichtung zu caput mortuum [compaction to caput mortuum], 1972

oil on canvas
100 x 100 cm; 141 cm (diagonal)

208

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146. radiazione dall rosso [radiation from red], 1972-73
oil on canvas
62 x 62 cm; 88 cm (diagonal)

147. transcoloration aus dunkelgrün [transcoloration from dark green], 1972-74

oil on canvas
80 x 80 cm; 114 cm (diagonal)

210

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148. unendliche schleife für drei positionen [endless surface for three positions], 1974-75
gilt brass
12.5 x 35 x 14 cm

149. unendliche fläche für drei positionen [endless surface for three positions], 1974-75
gilt brass
15.5 x 24 x 13 cm

212

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214

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150. wegnehmen und zufügen [subtracting and adding], 1975
oil on canvas
100 x 100 cm; 142 cm (diagonal)

151. farben um schwarz und weiss [colors around black and white], 1977
oil on canvas
80 x 80 cm; 114 cm (diagonal)

215

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154. schleife durch bewegung verwandelt [loop transformed by movement], 1977
gilt brass with wooden base
62 x 28 x 32 cm

216

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 217

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155. halbkugel um zwei achsen [hemisphere around two axes], 1977
black granite
39.5 x 39.5 x 34 cm

218

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156. wladimir vogel
dai tempi più remoti. tre pezzi per pianoforte. eulenberg general music series; gm no. 803, adliswil, 1977
designed by max bill
musical score. photomechanical print on paper
30.3 x 23.2 cm

157. poster for the exhibition max bill: pittore, architetto, scultore [painter, architect, sculptor],
sala delle scudiere in pilotta, parma. organized by the università di parma, centro studi e archivio della comunicazione, may–june 1977
silkscreen on paper
87 x 61.5 cm

158. poster for the exhibition um 1930 in zürich, neues denken, neues wohnen, neues bauen
[circa 1930 in zurich, new thinking, new housing, new building], kunstgewerbemuseum zürich, september 3–november 6, 1977
offset on paper
128 x 90.5 cm

220

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161. konstruktion aus drei gleichen platten [construction from three identical slabs], 1979
stainless steel
17 x 20 x 19 cm

159. rotation um sich ausdehnendes weiss [rotation around expanding white], 1971-78 (1981 version)
oil on canvas
200 x 200 cm; 283 cm (diagonal)

222

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 223

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163. 12 vierergruppen in weissem feld [12 groups of four in a white field], 1982
oil on canvas
100 x 100 cm

224

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 225

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166. durch drei zonen [through three zones], 1985-86
oil on canvas
75 x 180 cm; 180 x 75 cm; 75 x 180 cm

226

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229

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 168. poster for the 25 jazz festival montreux
[25th montreux jazz festival], july 1991
silkscreen on paper
100 x 70 cm

169. poster for the exhibition die grosse generation der schweiz
[the great swiss generation]: max bill – fritz glarner – camille graeser –
162. poster for the exhibition dada in zürich hans hinterreiter – verena loewensberg – richard paul lohse,
[dada in zurich], kunsthaus zürich, april 25 – june 8, 1980 haus für konstruktive und konkrete kunst, zurich, march 15–april 24, 1992
offset on paper offset on paper
128 x 90 cm 130 x 90 cm

Fundación Juan March

 170. poster for the exhibition max bill: bilder, plastiken
[max bill: paintings, sculptures], fondation saner, studen,
october 17–december 31, 1993
silkscreen on paper
100 x 70 cm

231

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perspectives
on max bill’s
work in spanish
architecture
–
fernando marzá
architect and professor, escola tècnica superior d’arquitectura del vallès
[school of architecture of el vallès] (etsav), barcelona

Max Bill working on the model

for the Swiss Pavilion for the
1956 Venice Biennale. Photo:
Ernst Scheidegger

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This essay takes a look at Max Bill’s influence
on Spanish architecture from 1950 to the
1990s. Previous studies have shown how the
works of some Spanish architects relate to
specific aspects of Bill’s pictorial and sculptural
practice.1 Here, the aim is to contextualize the
influence of his theoretical and critical works –as
well as his paintings and sculpture– on Spanish
architects from two different periods.
Bill’s influence has been felt in Spain with the
publication of his theoretical works and the few
exhibitions of his art held within our borders.
So, while we cannot talk of a “Max Bill school”
in this country, since 1950 there has been, at
various moments of recent history, a particular
interpretation of his work. Finally, in this author’s
opinion, the presence in Spain of artists and
architects such as Lanfranco Bombelli in
Cadaqués and Hans Hinterreiter in Ibiza –both
of whom had direct contact with Bill and an
ongoing relationship with Concrete Art— had
little effect on Spanish architecture.
The reception of Bill’s work by Spanish
architects can be divided into two precise
periods. The first period spans from the 1940s
to 1973, with the publication of an issue of the
journal Nueva Forma devoted to Bill. This issue
marks the end of one period of his influence.2
The second period begins in 1980, with the Max
Bill exhibition at the Museo Español de Arte
Contemporáneo in Madrid and the Fundació
Joan Miró in Barcelona,3 and lasted into the
1990s.
236
First period
The first period started with the publication
of wiederaufbau, Bill’s theoretical work
on European reconstruction,4 and a 1955
monograph edited by Tomas Maldonado,5 which
included “la concepción matemática en el arte
de nuestro tiempo” [mathematical thinking in
our time] and “el barrio vivienda como elemento
urbano diferenciado” [the housing development
as a distinctive urban element] – Maldonado’s
translations into Spanish of two texts by Bill
originally published in German in 1949 – as well
as “un monument” [a monument] and “forma,
función, belleza” [form, function, beauty], which
appeared for the first time in that monograph.
The latter text, written by Maldonado himself,
explains Bill’s thinking as an artist, architect,
planner and designer. That same year, the
Revista Nacional de Arquitectura published two
articles that would become major references
for Spanish architecture: “base e finalidad de la
estética en la época del maquinismo” [the basis
and aim of aesthetics in the machine age] and
“el arquitecto, la arquitectura y la sociedad” [the
architect, architecture and society].
Francisco de Asís Cabrero
The first Spanish architect to openly
acknowledge his interest in Bill’s work in
lectures and interviews was Francisco de Asís
Cabrero (1912-2005). He was born into a family
with ties to the art world. His father, José
Cabrero, frequented the artistic circles of the
period, traveled to Brussels and lived in Paris
for ten years, where he met Pablo Picasso,
Ignacio Zuloaga and other Spanish artists
who were living in the French capital at the
beginning of the 20th century. Jose Gutierrez
Solana painted him next to Ramón Gómez de
la Serna in La tertulia del café de Pombo [The
Gathering at the Café de Pombo] (1920, Madrid,
Reina Sofía Museum). By accompanying his
father to these friendly artistic gatherings,
Francisco was introduced to art and became
interested in modernism and the avant-garde.
In 1941, a year before finishing his studies in
architecture, Cabrero started working for the
Obra Sindical del Hogar [Labor Union Housing
Authority]6 and in 1943, a year after completing
his degree, became the head of its technical
department. The role of the Obra Sindical del
Hogar was to complement private initiatives in
housing development and to develop housing
regulations in the face of the enormous task
of reconstructing the country after the Civil
War. Cabrero’s department received many
foreign publications, such as the Italian journals
Architettura, Lo Stile and Domus.7
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The industry’s lack of financial resources and
ability to deal with the reconstruction marked
the period up to 1954. That year a new housing
plan was approved –the Plan Sindical de la
Vivienda Francisco Franco– providing for the
annual construction of ten thousand homes.
At the end of the 1940s, the Spanish Housing
Department received a copy of Bill’s book
wiederaufbau.8 This compilation offered useful
information on prefabrication, essential to the
situation in Spain, where resources and means
were scarce. Around that same time, in 1950,
Cabrero decided to travel to Zurich and meet
with Bill in his studio in the Höngg district to
learn more about his work. In a lecture he gave
at a later date, Cabrero said:
The only example of lived-in architecture by
Max Bill that we saw was his house, built with
a consummate sense of formal integration. We
were also able to inspect other examples of
utilitarian creations, such as furniture, lamps,
industrial design […] Yet what we found most
convincing were his paintings and sculptures:
as a whole his work had a concrete idea and
intention, and by concrete we mean to establish
the difference that results from comparing
it with the transitory art of Cubism and its
most adamant succession, as reflected in so-
called Abstract Art […] In Max Bill’s paintings
and sculptures, there are clear signs of a
constitutional relationship, the configuration
of rhythms, proportions, movement, physical
behavior and, in general, the mystery of the
graphic problems of mathematics, so present in
the construction of forms.9
It was by studying and delving into Bill’s
painting and sculpture, rather than his
architecture, that Cabrera developed
certain geometric devices, and was able to
evolve from a classicism rooted in the EUR
(Esposizione Universale Roma),10 which he
had discovered on his trip to Italy in 1941 and
influenced his design for the Casa Sindical,
now the Spanish Ministry of Health building
(1950-51). His knowledge of Bill’s work opened
up a new repertoire of forms that allowed him
to design mainly monuments, such as Forma
conmemorativa [Commemorative Form] of 1950
[fig. 1], the same year he met with Bill. This
exercise informed his design for a competition
to build the bell tower of the Basilica of Madrid
(1952) and the Monument to Calvo Sotelo
(1955, Madrid) [figs. 2 and 3]. The outdoor
theater in Santander (1956) [fig. 4] echoes the
interlocking triangular forms in Bill’s work11
that Cabrero had begun to explore in Forma
Conmemorativa. In 1958, Cabrero designed
a mausoleum that was to be built in Karachi
(Pakistan) [fig. 5] which recalls Bill’s denkmal
 2. Francisco de Asís
Cabrero. Monument to
Calvo Sotelo on the Paseo
de la Castellana in Madrid,
1. Francisco de Asís
1955. Photomontage by
Cabrero. Commemorative
the artist. Cabrero Family
Form, 1950.
Collection, Madrid
Photomontage by the
artist. Cabrero Family
Collection, Madrid

3. Francisco de Asís
Cabrero. Proposal for
a Monument to Calvo
Sotelo, 1955. Oil on panel,
1991. Cabrero Family
Collection, Madrid

5. Francisco de Asís Cabrero.

Proposal for the mausoleum
of Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad
Ali Jinnah in Karachi, 1958.
Oil on panel, 1991. It was
never built. Cabrero Family
Collection, Madrid
4. Francisco de Asís
Cabrero. Proposal for
an open-air theater
in Santander, 1956
Ink drawing with
crosshatching on
vegetable paper. It was
never built. Cabrero Family
Collection, Madrid

237

Fundación Juan March

des unbekannten politischen gefangenen of
1952 [monument to the unknown political
prisoner] in its similar synthesis of meaning
and form.
In Cabrero’s design for his own home (1961),
we find that he included knot forms similar to
the ones Bill created for his pavilion structures,
like the one in Ulm (1954) and in his later
sculptures einheit aus drei gleichen volumen
[unit from three identical volumes] (1961,
Bottrop) and kern aus doppelungen [knot from
duplicates] (1968-69, private collection). Cabrero
borrowed this repertoire of forms from Bill and
added solutions taken from other architects,
such as Mies van der Rohe, the subject of a
monograph by Bill published in Italian in 1955.12
Rafael Leoz
The architect and artist Rafael Leoz (1921-1976)
received his doctorate in architecture in 1955,
and shortly thereafter, together with Joaquin
Ruiz Hervas, tackled a project commissioned by
the Instituto Nacional de la Vivienda [National
Housing Institute] for the construction of seven
thousand dwellings for the Orcasitas and Caño
Roto housing projects.
Seeing the slow pace of construction when
housing needs were so great, Leoz took a
more serious look at prefabrication, convinced
that the solution to the housing problem had
to involve industry. In his book Redes y ritmos
espaciales [Spatial Rhythms and Networks]
(1969) he summarized the issue as follows:
238
6-9. Rafael Leoz. HELE
module and examples of
possible combinations.
Illustrations for the
article by Joaquín Ruíz
Hervás and Rafael Leox,
“Un nuevo modulo
volumétrico”, in: Revista
Arquitectura, nº 15 (March
1960), pp. 20, 24, 28
and 36
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Seriality and standardization are already
inevitable […] There is therefore the danger
that architecture as Fine Art will disappear if
we solve our utilitarian problems, chiefly those
related to housing, without taking into account
those factors which are neither technical nor
economic. Doing so would not fail to lead us
into an awful, overwhelming, dehumanized
monotony. One way around this obstacle can
be found in pure geometry, and to that end we
will present, in this book, some studies on the
harmonious systematization of architectonic
space, a systematization that works towards
industrialization; they appear here under the
much broader and generic heading “spatial
networks and rhythms.” 13
The solution is not functionality alone. The
pursuit of harmony is essential to the making of
a product that is beneficial to society. Harmony
and the social integration of the architect’s
work are concepts that Bill had expressed
in two texts available in Spanish thanks to
Maldonado’s monograph on Bill: “la concepción
matemática en el arte de nuestro tiempo”,14 and
the lecture “el arquitecto, la arquitectura y la
sociedad” published in the Revista Nacional de
Arquitectura [National Review of Architecture].15
In terms of the mathematical and geometric
aspects of architecture, Leoz understood
mathematical logic and combinatory topology
as formal tools.16 His thoughts on mathematics
were close to Bill’s, which drew from Euclidian

geometry to recognize that contemporary art
required contemporary mathematics.17
Leoz invented a system of prefabrication
based on the “HELE module” [figs. 6-9]. The
process that led Leoz to this module is similar
to Bill’s process of studying the division of a
square into parts, themselves made up of parts,
and the consequent analysis of all combination
variables. From all of these variables, Leoz
chose three, of which only one offered
the maximum aesthetic and combinatory
possibilities: the “HELE” module, with four
squares arranged in the progression of the
Fibonacci sequence, reproducing the movement
of the horse in chess. The resulting piece
not only offers a number of formal options in
construction, it also facilitates prefabrication.18
In 1973, the journal Nueva Forma put out
an issue devoted to Bill, the last in a series
on Neoplasticism.19 After that, Juan Daniel
Fullaondo rarely published any works about art,
and Bill fell into the background of the world
of architecture, until the 1980 monographic
exhibition at the Museo Español de Arte
Contemporáneo in Madrid and the Fundació
Miró in Barcelona.20 The exhibition catalog
included some of Bill’s texts, in addition to
his definition of “concrete art”21: “quince
variaciones sobre un mismo tema” [fifteen
variations on the same theme] (1938), the
aforementioned “concepción matemática en el
arte de nuestro tiempo” [mathematical thinking
in our time] (1949), “las determinaciones”
[statements] (1978), “el lazo infinito” [infinite
knot] (1935-53) “el arte como hecho inalterable”
[art as unalterable fact] (1968) and “el
ordenamiento de nueve grupos de cuatro”
[arrangement of nine groups of four] (1980).
Most of these translated texts talk about Bill’s
artistic methodology, infinite sequences and
his discovery of Mobius strips, the evolution of
formal issues by testing and confirming their
possibilities and the “rules of play”. It seems
that Bill was more interested in the process than
in the final result.
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Second period
In the late 1980s and 1990s, the “Bill model”
resurfaced thanks to Francisco Alonso de
Santos and Enric Miralles, both important
figures in Spanish architecture. Bill’s influence
was no longer what it had been in the first
period described above: now it was less about
the morality of the architect’s work in society
and the sobriety of mathematics applied to the
analysis and construction of form and more
about the design process.
Francisco Alonso de Santos
Francisco Alonso de Santos (b. 1943) is the
closest figure to Bill [fig. 9]. His interest in the
bridges of Robert Maillart and the Lavina Tobel
bridge in Tamins, Switzerland designed by Bill
himself in 1966-67 with the engineering studio
of Ros, Aschwanden and Speck, brought him
into contact with Bill, whom he regards as
one of his masters. In 1989 Alonso designed a
tower for a competition to build the Museum
of San Isidro in Madrid, based on the column
of three flutes and eight angles Bill created in
1966. In his detailed comparison of Bill’s column
and Alonso’s tower, published in the journal
Circo,22 Emilio Tuñón showed that while the
two works resemble each other, and artistic
purpose prevails in both of them, their method
of construction is different: Bill’s column, as a
pure object for spiritual use, is not indebted to
function and calculation like Alonso’s tower,
which was conceived to be occupied.
Enric Miralles and Benedetta Tagliabue
In 2001, the magazine DPA. Documents de
Projectes d’Arquitectura published an issue on
Bill with texts by Bill himself and articles by,
among others, Ton Salvadó and Josep María
Guix, who had collaborated with Enric Miralles
(1955-2000).23 In the prologue it explains that
they had been chosen “to talk about the feeling
Miralles shared with Max Bill”. Ton Salvadó
wrote the article “Hasta el infinito con Max Bill”
[To infinity with Max Bill] and Josep María Guíx
wrote “Temas con variaciones. Una reflexión
musical a partir de la obra de Max Bill” [Themes
with variations. A musical reflection based
on Max Bill’s work]. Both focused on their
memories of Miralles’s teaching at the Escola
Tècnica Superior d’Arquitectura de Barcelona
[Barcelona School of Architecture] (ETSAB)
through the development of a theme and its
infinite variations, an approach that clearly refers
back to Bill’s mathematical-artistic process.
Miralles’ intellectual relationship to Bill is
strongest in his plan for the expansion of the San
Michele cemetery (San Michele in Isola, Venice,
239

1998) which won Miralles-Tagliabue second prize
[figs. 10 and 11]. The design, which appeared in
the issue of El Croquis devoted to the architecture
studio of Enric Miralles and Benedetta Tagliabue
(b. 1963) 24, starts with the initial “theme” of
Bill’s quinze variations sur un même thème [15
variations on a single theme, cat. 38-39] of 1935-
193825 but goes on to deconstruct the constructed
figure. Miralles took the “theme” –the precise
geometric spiral that he considered a classical
figure– and placed it symmetrically to the church
of San Michele and the Emiliani chapel, as a
reflection of both. The connection between arrival
and the path to the sea envelops the central
triangle, the space for “rest”. This is reminiscent
of Bill’s monument to the unknown political
prisoner, published in Spanish in the same issue
of DPA, in that ideas and spiritual relationships are
necessarily and harmoniously given form, and find
the proper architectural solution within themselves
and in relation to the surroundings. Once again,
the path to the final result that Miralles poetically
traced in the cemetery expansion project is what
matters most.
240
All of these architects found, in Bill’s works
and writings, a tool to give final shape to their
projects. Since the 1990s, Bill’s work has
continued to be the subject of a few pages in
journals of architecture. The first historiographic
monograph on his architecture was published
in 2004, but it did not inspire any new insights
among Spanish architects.26 To design the
present and the future, the three points that Bill
made back in 1954 against architecture as style
should be kept in mind:
1. architecture must, above all,
be modest and clear.
2. architecture is an art, as long as all of its
elements (function, construction, form) are in
perfect harmony.
3. architecture is a social art, and as such must
be at the service of man.27
1 Cf. Tuñón 1995, monographic issue of the journal
dedicated to the tower for the Museo de San Isidro
in Madrid by Francisco Alonso de Santos (1989). See
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10-11. Enric Miralles
and Benedetta Tagliabue
Proposal and model for
the San Michele in Isola
cemetery extension in
Venice, 1998. Fundació
Enric Miralles/Enric
Miralles, Barcelona
also Bigas, Bravo and Contepomi 2009, pp. 146-57;
Grijalba Bengoetxea 2000; Otxotorena and Pozo 2001,
pp. 6-25.
2 In the Spanish historiography of art, “art without
object” or Concrete Art is known by several
names. Aguilera Cerni has proposed the term “arte
normativo”, but other equivalent terms include the
Spanish words for constructivist, analytic, rational,
formal and geometric. Bill’s concept of the architect’s
social responsibility is also found in Concrete Art.
Some groups turned to design, such as Equipo 57.
Cf. Barreiro 2009; and the exhibition catalogs Madrid
1989a and Madrid 1989b.
3 Exh. cat. Madrid-Barcelona 1980.
4 Bill 1945.
5 Maldonado 1955.
6 Ruiz Cabrero 2007.
7 Rovira 2000, p. 31.
8 Climent Ortiz 1978, pp. 10-11. Transcript of the
lectures given by Francisco de Asís Cabrero at the
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Sevilla
[Seville School of Architecture] in 1975.
9 Ibid., p. 18.
10 The EUR, initially known as E42, was a large classical-
style architectural complex to the south-west of Rome.
Construction began in 1935, under Benito Mussolini,
for the purpose of opening the city to the sea. Its
 most emblematic building, the Palazzo della Civiltà
del Lavoro or “Colosseo” [Colosseum], seems to have
been the direct inspiration for the building designed
by Cabrero that now houses the Spanish Ministry of
Health. Ed.
11 Max Bill, schwarz-weisse konstruktion [black-white
construction], ink and gouache on paperboard, 1938;
konstruktion aus 30 gleichen elementen [construction
based on 30 equal elements], stainless steel, 1938-39
and horizontal-vertikal-diagonal-rhytmus [horizontal-
vertical-diagonal-rhythm], oil on canvas, 1942.
Reproduced in: Hüttinger 1977, pp. 65, 67 and 83.
12 Bill 1955a.
13 Leoz 1969, p. 43.
14 Maldonado 1955b, pp. 33-35.
15 Bill 1955b, pp. 1-2.
16 Ibid., p. 30.
17 Along the same lines, Roberto Puig participated in
the competition for the Kursaal in Donostia (San
Sebastían), and designed with Jorge Oteiza the
monument to Luis Batlle Berres in Montevideo
between 1958 and 1960. Cf. Puig 1965, pp. 32-40.
18 The structure and pavement of the pavilion at Ulm
(1954) has a square plan subdivided into four parts
with the same geometry as the “HELE” module, a
coincidence that can only be the result of working
from the same laws.
19 In 1967 the architect Juan Daniel Fullaondo Errazu
(1936-1994) founded the journal Nueva Forma (1967-
1975), which he edited until 1972 in collaboration
with the poet, writer and art critic Santiago Amón
(1927-1988). The journal showed a strong interest
in Neoplasticism and its later evolutions, with issues
devoted to Theo van Doesburg and Cornelis van
Eesteren (nº 52), De Stijl and the concept of “modern”
(nº 52), Piet Mondrian (nº 62), Gerrit Rietveld (nº 58)
Georges Vantongerloo (nº 75) and lastly Max Bill (nº
92). This last issue gave special attention to the works
submitted to the competition for the monument
to the unknown political prisoner, specifically Bill’s
design. This may have been the major reference for
the Monumento a la Constitución [Monument to the
Constitution] of 1978 (1979), by the architect Miguel
Ángel Ruiz-Larrea, who won a bid to design the
monument for the City of Madrid. Most of the jury
members had ties to Nueva Forma.
20 Exh. cat. Madrid-Barcelona 1980.
21 Cf. text nº 1 in the anthology of this catalog.
22 Tuñón 1995.
23 DPA. Documents de Projectes d’Arquitectura, nº 17
(2001), with translations of Bill’s texts “mathematical
thinking in art of our time” (1949), “swiss section of
the 1936 ‘triennale di milano’”, and “monument to the
unknown political prisoner” (1952).
24 El Croquis, nos. 100-101, pp. 132-41.
25 Portfolio of sixteen lithographs (theme and fifteen
variations) published in Paris.
26 Gimmi 2004a.
27 Bill 1955b, p. 2

241

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Fundación Juan March
max bill
in argentina
and brasil
south american episodes
in concrete art
–
maría amalia garcía
professor of art history, faculty of philosophy and literature,
uba-conicet, buenos aires

Max Bill, dreiteilige einheit

[tripartite unity], 1947-48.
Steel, chrome and nickel,
100 x 90 x 117 cm.
MAC-USP collection,
São Paulo

243

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“i speak mainly to the students, to the
future architects of brazil, a country
where the volume of construction is
beyond imagination, where the need
to build is still and will always be of
utmost importance. so it is you who will
shape the character of Brazilian cities of
tomorrow.”1

244

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So said the Swiss artist Max Bill in a lecture
he gave at the University of São Paulo School
of Architecture. He had been invited there
by the Brazilian government in June of 1953
to debate and exchange ideas on modern art
and architecture. In his lecture, Bill exhorted
the students to commit to “true art and true
architecture”. Yet a major clash had occurred
during his trip to Brazil when some of his
statements on Brazilian architecture ran counter
to the excessive expectations his hosts had
placed on his opinions.
These frictions put a bit of a damper on the
admiration, interest and understanding that
had always existed between Bill and artists,
architects, critics and cultural organizers in
Brazil and Argentina. Two years earlier, in 1951,
Bill’s work had become known in São Paulo,
causing a stir throughout Brazil and Latin
America. While his name had appeared as early
as 1946 in invencionista journals published in
Buenos Aires,2 in 1951 he won the award for
sculpture at the 1st Bienal de São Paulo, and in
March of that year had his first retrospective at
the Museu de Arte de São Paulo (MASP). With
a different intensity and scope, Concretism was
being embraced in both São Paulo and Buenos
Aires. In the Argentinean city, various journals
were publishing Concretist texts and images
and placed them in relation to the international that Concrete art received in Latin America,
constructive avant-garde. The first issue of the these other European art circuits take on
journal Nueva Visión. Revista de cultura visual, importance. One could say that seen from South
edited by Tomas Maldonado, also appeared in America, the tradition of Abstract Art can be
1951, with a tribute to Max Bill. reshaped and redrawn along other lines.
Bill’s contact with Brazilian and Argentine
artists, critics and organizers produced
moments of dialogue and spaces for action.
In South America, Bill found opportunities for
both that did not exist back in post-war Europe,
where Swiss Concretism (chiefly through the
Allianz group) had a limited reception. On
the other side of the Atlantic, however, the
movement was embraced by artists, critics and
institutions, as we shall see in the following
pages.
To fully understand Bill’s role on the Concrete
art scene in Argentina and Brazil, it is necessary
to revise the international context and adopt a
critical approach to the historiography of art.
General histories of modern art tend to reduce
geometric abstraction almost exclusively to
the first decades of the 20th century, and as
a result, the constructive trends of the 1940s
and 50s are largely left out. These omissions
can also be attributed to shifts and tensions 1-3. Views of the Max Bill
exhibition at the Museu de
on the international post-war art scene, where Arte de São Paulo (MASP),
Swiss Concretism had scarcely made a ripple. 1951. MASP Collection,
However, if we take into account the support São Paulo
245
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4. Cover of the journal
Habitat, nº 2 (January –
March 1951)
5. Pietro Maria Bardi, Binia
Bill, Max Bill and Lina Bo,
São Paulo, 1953. Image
published in: Francesco
Tentori, Pietro Maria
Bardi. Primo attore del
razionalismo. Rome, Testo
& Immagine, 2002, p. 186
246
Episode 1: moments of dialogue and action
between Buenos Aires and São Paulo
In Buenos Aires, early invencionista efforts
linked to the journal Arturo had evolved a great
deal during the 1940s. Experiments that had
followed the heterogeneous paths of modern art
became homogenous as Concretism became
the main focus. In 1948, Tomas Maldonado
travelled to Europe, where direct contact
with avant-garde works and artists made
him confront preconceived notions about the
movement that he had acquired back in Buenos
Aires from the journals and manifestos that
exiled intellectuals had put into circulation there.
In Zurich, Maldonado visited Bill, who would
become the point of reference for experiments
in Concrete Art carried out in Buenos Aires.
Maldonado had already mentioned the Swiss
artist in his article Lo abstracto y lo concreto
en el arte moderno [“The Abstract and the
Concrete in Modern Art”], which appeared in
the first issue of the journal put out by the group
Arte Concreto-Invención.3 But it was only after
meeting in person that the two men developed
a deep understanding, based on a shared
interest in the abstract-constructive tradition,
their similar approach to tackling the problems
of Concrete Art, their belief in the need to think
about the human environment as a whole, their
interest in science… in short, a whole slew of
aesthetic and intellectual affinities bound them
together ideologically.4
A look at the profuse and almost daily
correspondence Bill and Maldonado maintained
as of 1949 (strictly typed in lowercase letters)
reveals the many projects and accomplishments
they shared: they exchanged texts and
photographs, published articles and planned
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visits and exhibitions. Maldonado became the
main link to Bill in Buenos Aires and spread
his ideas in the various modern journals that
circulated there. Maldonado expressed his wish
for Bill to visit Argentina and for him to do an
exhibition in Buenos Aires, though neither of
these things ever took place. In the end there
was an exhibition, but not in Argentina.
Max Bill and the art dealer Pietro Maria
Bardi5 had met in Milan at the first national
congress for reconstruction in 1945,6 shortly
before Bardi became involved in the project
for the MASP –promoted by the entrepreneur
Assis Chateaubriand– and settled in São
Paulo7. In 1949, as the Director of the MASP,
Bardi invited Bill to do an exhibition. While
efforts to organize the show began in mid-
1949, the correspondence reflects difficulties
with insurance and transportation and in
the negotiations with other South American
institutions that were to co-organize the show.
As a result, the exhibition was pushed back
several times and it finally opened on March 1,
1951, coinciding with the inauguration of the
Instituto de Arte Contemporanea.8 [figs. 1-3]
The exhibition provided a broad overview of
Bill’s career and presented him as an all-round
artist with a constructive spirit. It covered every
facet of his work: paintings, sculpture, prints
and drawings, posters, models and photographs
of his architecture and industrial designs
reflected the full range of his interests. More
than sixty works and thirty photographs plus
architectural plans and design models were
exhibited. Though there were a few of his works
from the 1930’s, such as quinze variations sur un
même thème [15 variations on a single theme,
cat. 38-39], produced between 1935 and 19389,
most of the paintings and sculptures were from
the late 1840s. It also featured photographs of
his home in Zurich-Höngg, of the award-winning
Swiss pavilion at the Milan Triennale and of the
die gute form exhibition10, as well as Bill’s plans
for the Hochschule für Gestaltung (HfG) Ulm.11
It was not just the visual impact of the works on
display that made the exhibition so important;
it was also the very design of the show. Though
Bill was not there when it was mounted, we do
have a record of the instructions he gave, and
he had already proven himself to be a great
designer of exhibition spaces.12
Whereas the exhibition made a powerful
impact on groups of artists and critics in the
region, the local media barely picked up the
event. A few brief mentions appeared in the 6. Alfredo Hlito, Líneas
Tangentes [Tangent
Diário de São Paulo and the Folha da Manhã, Lines], 1955-56. Oil on
and in Rio de Janeiro, Geraldo Ferraz was the canvas, 139 x 119 cm.
only critic to provide a detailed analysis of the Museo Nacional de
works and note the lack of media attention.13 In Bellas Artes, Buenos
Aires
any event, it was Habitat, the magazine used to
promote MASP projects, that the Bardis used
to defend the exhibition [fig. 5]. In the absence
of an exhibition catalogue, the second issue
of Habitat, which came out at the same time
as the exhibition, featured photographs of the
works and the text “beleza provinda de função e
7. Tomas Maldonado,
beleza como função”, in which Bill explained his Cicloide ortogonal
main ideas [fig. 4].14 [Orthogonal cycloid]
From the beginning, one option was for the n.d., Oil on canvas,
exhibition to travel to other South American 48 x 48 cm, private
collection
cities such as Buenos Aires, Montevideo and
Santiago de Chile.15 This would not only give
greater visibility to Bill’s ideas, but also reduce
exhibition costs. In addition to museums, the
initial idea was for the Universidad de Tucumán
(where Ernesto Rogers had taught classes in
1948) and the newly-created Universidad de
Los Andes in Bogota to take part and invite Bill
to give a series of lectures.16 The exhibition was
almost held at the Instituto de Arte Moderno in
Buenos Aires, where Marcello de Ridder was
director: even though negotiations were proving
to be difficult and the date had been changed
several times, up until March of 1952 it still
seemed likely that Bill’s show would take place
in Buenos Aires.17

8. Geraldo de Barros,
Vermelho e verde em
formas contrárias
[Red and Green in
Opposite Forms] 1952.
Enamel on kelmite, 40
x 56 cm. MAC-USP
Collection, São Paulo

9. Waldemar Cordeiro,
Idéia visível [Visible Idea],
1956. Industrial latex
paint on plywood laminate
panel, 100 x 100 cm. The
Adolpho Leirner Collection
of Brazilian Constructive
Art, Museum of Fine Art,
Houston

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Episode 2: the regional impact
of Concrete Art
Cast in bronze and made up of two Mobius strips
joined by a simple band, the sculpture dreiteilige
einheit [tripartite unity] synthesizes Bill’s theory
of the simultaneous relationship between the
variables of form, function and beauty, which
appears in this sculpture as a visual/artistic
meta-language [fig. p. 240]. It won first prize for
sculpture at the 1st São Paulo Biennale, and one
of the members of the jury, the Argentine critic
Jorge Romero Brest, said that
the soul of the spectator then feels that, with
the plenitude of the form, it is not the small
cosmos of the man of flesh and bone that is
created, the small cosmos of a country or a
race, but the great cosmos of the Universe.18
Clearly, Romero Brest embraced the cause of
abstraction, finding the arguments to award
the top sculpture prize to Max Bill’s tripartite
unity. It is interesting to note that this piece
did not represent Switzerland at the Biennale.
10. Cover of the journal Bill’s work was not shown in the Swiss pavilion;
Nueva Visión. Revista rather, he participated in the Biennale as an
de cultura visual, nº 1,
independent artist, at the invitation of the
(December 1951)
fair’s organizers.19 The international group of
award winners shows a clear wish to highlight
the diversity of abstract trends. The two top
prizes for sculpture and painting that went,
respectively, to tripartite unity and Amoureux
au café [Lovers at the Café] by Roger Chastel
show just how far Abstract Art had come by
the early 1950s.20 These awards also revealed
differences among the members of the jury, and
Bill detected the hostility of the French critics.
Referring to the prize he had won in a letter, Bill
expressed how much that Romero Brest had
done to defend him on the jury.21 During the
1950s, Brest actively promoted Bill’s work and
the development of Concrete Art in Argentina.
The difficulties this movement was facing in
post-war Europe stand in sharp contrast to its
widespread success in South America.
Bill’s explorations were along the same lines
as those of various Brazilian and Argentinian
artists. Waldemar Cordeiro, Geraldo de Barros,
Luiz Sacilotto, Alfredo Hlito, Lidy Prati, Enio
Iommi and Tomás Maldonado were already
working towards defining and anchoring their
own experiments within the broad spectrum of
abstraction. Whereas these explorations were
initially based on diverse branches of modern
art, in the 1950s they adhered to the guidelines
of Concrete Art [figs. 6-9].
Shared interests –such as the universality and
objectivity of artistic discourse and an interest
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Fundación Juan March
in changing the cities, objects and architecture
around them– defined the issues. In this regard,
the use of relatively stable principles derived
from scientific reasoning may be what helped
avoid major discrepancies. A common horizon
of images, texts and expectations also helped
forge the model of Concretism.
To the modern avant-garde of Buenos Aires,
what was happening in Brazil was astounding
and very different from the institutional scene
in Argentina, which did not exactly embrace
innovation. The possibility of exchanges with
Brazil therefore held great appeal, and like Bill,
Argentineans also saw Brazil as the place to
develop a modern program in Latin America.
The situation of Concrete Art was clearly very
different in these two countries. Whereas in
Brazil, Concretist projects were becoming more
and more viable and widespread, in Argentina
the movement was being defended and
disseminated through journals.
This is precisely what led to the publication,
in December 1951, of the journal Nueva
Visión. Revista de cultura visual [New Vision,
Magazine of Visual Culture], founded by Tomas
Maldonado [fig. 10]. The first issue took stock
of the problems and possibilities of Concrete
Art. The publication defined its mission in
terms of “visual culture” and published modern
art, architecture, design and urban planning
projects. Its aim was the “synthesis of the visual
arts towards objectivity and functionality”.22
Nueva Visión presented itself as a tribute to Bill’s
ideas and connections, and Concrete Art and
good design were its two guiding principles.
The cover presented Bill, together with Henry
van de Velde and Alvar Aalto, as the pioneer
of this synthesis of the visual arts. The issue
also included an article on Bill by Ernesto
Rogers which stressed the “unitary method [as
a means] to address the problems of art”. For
Rogers, “Max Bill is an architect when he does
architecture or makes an object of everyday use;
he is a typographer when he composes a book;
thus, […] in each case it is what the objectivity
of his explorations makes him be.”23
Bill’s activities on the Brazilian art scene
were given special coverage in that first issue
of Nueva Visión. The journal reported on his
exhibition at the MASP and his award at the
Bienal. There was also an article by Bardi on
the industrial design courses at the MASP, and
the “vitrina de las formas” [showcase of forms]
essay in which Bardi situated industrial design
within a historical tradition of cultural artefacts.
The back cover noted the groups of young
Concretist artists that were forming in São
Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, while the front cover
featured a small photoform24 by Geraldo de
Barros.25 The journal also mentioned the courses
on modern art organized by Hans Koellreuter
in Teresópolis (Rio de Janeiro). Maldonado
had gone to Brazil in early 1951 in order to
participate in these gatherings, and –together
with his wife at the time, Lidy Prati– associated
with the key figures in Brazilian Concretism. So
it follows that the first issue of Nueva Visión
would capture the region’s alignment with
Concrete Art.
Episode 3: Debating the canon of modern
art and architecture
Max Bill’s trip to Brazil in May 1953, as a guest
of the Brazilian Ministry of External Relations,
brought him into direct contact with a milieu
that had been very promising for his ideas up
until that point. It was also an opportunity for
him to see some Brazilian architecture, which
had been carving out a solid international
reputation for itself since the 1940s. The time
had come to turn the dreams formed based on
conversations, letters, catalogs, magazines and
photographs into three dimensions; to confront
the model and experience the reality of the
tropics.
Bill visited Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo,
where he saw construction projects, met artists
and architects and gave a number of lectures.
From the outset, his negative opinions of
Brazil’s new buildings, reported on in the press,
tainted his visit [fig. 1]. Such criticism from
their guest came as an unpleasant surprise to
a milieu that had become used to garnering
praise for this manifestation of Brazil’s modern
international identity.26 It caused a big media
stir, and every day the newspapers of Rio and
São Paulo ran pieces on Bill’s opinions and
responded with indignation when he called
Brazil’s most successful cultural products into
question.
Bill’s statements were eloquent, clear and
reiterated: “Modern Brazilian architecture
suffers somewhat from a love of the useless,
of the merely decorative”.27 He remarked that
the proportions of the Ministry of Education
and Health building in Rio de Janeiro, built
from 1936 to 1945 by young modern architects
with guidance from Le Corbusier,28 were not
on a human scale. He said of the Pampulha
architectural complex in Belo Horizonte, built
from 1942 to 1944, that
11. Flavio Aquino, “Max
Bill critica a nossa
moderna arquitetura,”
in: Manchete, nº 60
(June 13, 1953), pp. 38-39
Some of his criticisms were aimed at social
issues in Brazil. How could one even think
about modern architecture when the problem
of housing for large parts of the population had
not yet been resolved? What’s more, precarious
technical conditions in a system of production
characterized by fledgling industrialization and
the continued existence of a basic agricultural-
export model made any attempt at standardized
construction impossible.30 Bill rejected the use
of modern vocabulary to serve the whims of
the bourgeoisie, as in the case of Pampulha,
or the needs of an authoritarian state, as in the
case of the Ministry of Education and Health
building, erected during the Getúlio Vargas
administration. The complex negotiations and
tensions between the State, the bourgeoisie and
the avant-garde were incomprehensible to Bill.
Beyond these social considerations, Bill’s
critique of Brazilian architecture had to do with
how the Le Corbusier model had been digested
and adapted in Brazil. Bill disagreed with how
Brazilian architects used the key elements of Le
Corbusier’s architecture, such as pilotis [pillars],
glass panels and brise-soleil [sunshades].
By criticizing Brazilian architecture, Bill was
attacking Corbusier’s ideas on South American
soil. In fact, the press at the time noted that his
objections to certain buildings in Brazil were
colored by his prejudice against the chosen
model.
In this struggle between tradition and
innovation, modern Brazilian architects would

Oscar Niemeyer designed it instinctively, out

of a mere love of form for form’s sake, based
on gratuitous, fanciful curves. The result is an
excessive baroqueness that does not belong to
either architecture or sculpture. I maintain, once
again, that in architecture everything must have
its own logic and an immediate function. 29

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express their disappointment at what they saw
as a lack of comprehension and the inability to
recognize how modern culture was developing
outside of Europe. Lucio Costa responded to
Bill with an article in the journal Manchete.
The ironic tone of its title instantly reflects how
Bill’s criticism had been received: “A nossa
arquitetura moderna: oportunidade perdida”.31
Costa did not subscribe to Bill’s arguments in
favour of functionality, advocating the artistic
value of architecture. He defended the design of
the Ministry of Education and Health building by
refuting Bill’s criticism of the use of pilotis and
relating the use of tile to the recovery of Brazil’s
Portuguese heritage. He also defended the
Pampuhla architectural complex as a pioneering
example of the direction that modern Brazilian
architecture was taking.
In the space of two years, Bill had gone from
being a practically unknown artist to the winner
of the prize for sculpture at the 1st São Paulo
Biennale and a key figure in contemporary art,
and finally the target of attacks and hostility.
Bill’s relationship with Brazil had produced a
roller coaster of reactions that went from love
to hate, and from relevant objections to his
ideas to good-humored, offhand and ultimately
aggressive remarks.
In short, Bill’s interactions with Argentinean
and Brazilian art circles allow us to reconstruct
key episodes in the history of South American
and European art of the period based on the
connections between the scenes on either side
of the Atlantic. Very different scenarios became
enmeshed in the Concretist ideology: in Brazil
and Argentina, Concretism stood as a banner
for the modernization and progress being
sought in the region. For Bill, this interaction
opened up spaces for active involvement.
Bill’s story, and the history of post-war Swiss
German Concrete art, must be told by weaving
together a narrative about the evolution of art
and design in Argentina and Brazil. Clearly, then,
the developments in South America stand as
essential episodes to reflect on the constructive
tradition in a global history of Concretism.
1 Bill 1954, n.p.
2 In 1946, the Argentinian artist Tomas Maldonado
founded the journal Arte Concreto-Invención, where
he published his “Manifesto Invencionista”, which
asserted the purpose of art as representation
and illusion. The manifesto ends with the cry – in
uppercase letters – “NI BUSCAR NI ENCONTRAR:
INVENTAR” [NEITHER SEARCH NOR FIND: INVENT].
Two years earlier, in 1944, Maldonado had already
founded – also in Buenos Aires – another journal
devoted to Concrete Art called Arturo. Ed.
3 Cf. note 2.
4 García 2011.
5 Pietro Maria Bardi (1900-1999). In addition to being an
art dealer he was also a writer, journalist, curator, art
critic and collector. But he is best known for having
250
co-founded the Museu de Arte São Paulo (MASP) with 29 Aquino 1953, pp. 38-39.
Assis Chateaubriand (1892-1968) and for serving as its 30 Ferreira Martins 1999, pp. 8-22.
director for the next forty-five years. Ed. 31 Costa 1953, p. 49.
6 Convegno nazionale per la ricostruzione edilizia, Milan,
December 14 – 16, 1945. Ed.
7 Pietro Maria Bardi, letter to Max Bill, São Paulo, June
30, 1949 (Archiv Max Bill). Pietro Maria Bardi, História
do MASP. São Paulo: Quadrante, 1982.
8 Cf. Diário de São Paulo 1951b, p. 7; Folha da Manhã
1951, p. 8. See also: “Constatations concernant la
participation de Max Bill à la I Bienal de São Paulo”,
Max Bill file (Biblioteca e Centro de Documentação do
MASP, São Paulo).
9 Portfolio of 16 lithographs (theme and quinze
variations) published in Paris. Ed.
10 die gute form, literally “the good form” or “the right
form”, as a synonym of “good design”. Exhibition held
at the Museum für Gestaltung, Basel from June 15 to
October 15, 1949. It included eighty panels designed
by Max Bill containing a selection of consumer goods
he had chosen as examples of good design. Ed.
11 Max Bill, “liste der gemälde und plastiken von
max bill”, Max Bill file (Biblioteca e Centro de
Documentação del MASP, São Paulo).
12 Cf. Correspondence between Max Bill and the MASP
(Archiv Max Bill). Gimmi 2004b), pp. 30-43.
13 Diário de São Paulo 1951a, p. 8; Folha da Manhã 1951,
p. 8 and Ferraz 1951.
14 Bill 1951a, pp. 61-65. Cf. text nº 4 of this anthology.
15 Tomás Maldonado, letter to Max Bill, Buenos Aires,
January 4, 1950 (Archiv Max Bill). Szabolcs de Vajay,
letter to Max Bill, Buenos Aires, June 7, 1950 (Archiv
Max Bill) and Max Bill file, (Biblioteca e Centro de
Documentação del MASP, São Paulo).
16 Szabolcs de Vajay, letter to Max Bill, Buenos Aires,
June 7, 1950 (Archiv Max Bill); Tomás Maldonado,
letter to Max Bill, December 13, 1949 (Archiv Max
Bill).
17 Cf. Max Bill file, Biblioteca e Centro de Documentação
do MASP, São Paulo, and correspondence with the
Instituto de Arte Moderno (Archiv Max Bill).
18 Romero Brest 1951, pp. 1-40.
19 Max Bill, “constatations concernant la participation
de max bill à la I bienal de são paulo,” Max Bill file
(Biblioteca e Centro de Documentação do MASP, São
Paulo), and “Regulamentos”, in: I Bienal do Museu de
Arte Moderna de São Paulo (1951), p. 24.
20 Ceysson 1986, pp. 9-62.
21 Max Bill, letter to Jorge Romero Brest, Zurich, January
31, 1952 (Archivo Jorge Romero Brest, Buenos Aires,
box 22, envelope 2, document 346).
22 Maldonado 1951, p. 2.
23 Rogers 1951, p. 11-12.
24 In the history of Brazilian photography, Geraldo de
Barros’s photoforms mark a new period, which
moves away from mere representation and views
photography as a new form of artistic expression.
25 Bardi 1951a, pp. 9 and 11; and Bardi 1951b, back
cover.
26 Liernur 1999, pp. 23-41; Gorelik 1994, pp. 656-70.
27 Aquino 1953, pp. 38-39.
28 Popularly known as the Edificio Gustavo Capanema –or
by one of its former names: Ministerio de Educación
y Salud (MES) or Ministerio de Educación y Cultura
(MEC)–, this building is regarded as one of the most
important examples of modernist architecture in South
America. It was designed by the architects Lúcio
Costa, Oscar Niemeyer, Alfonso Reidy, Carlos Leão,
Ernâni Vasconcellos and Jorge Machado Moreira with
the help of Le Corbusier. Ed.
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max bill:
biography

Binia and Max Bill.

Photo: Binia Bill.

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 -

Fundación Juan March

 Max Bill at his home and
studio in Zurich-Höngg,
ca. 1933-34.
Photo: Binia Bill

Max Bill at Brühlbergstrasse

8, Winterthur. archiv max
bill c/o max, binia + jakob bill
sitftung

256

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1908 Max Bill is born on December 22 in
Winterthur as the first son of Erwin Bill and
Marie Bill-Geiger. Citizen of Moosseedorf
(Canton of Bern).
1924 Starts training as a silversmith at the
Kunstgewerbeschule der Stadt Zürich [School
of Arts and Crafts os the City of Zurich].
1925 Study trip to Paris, to the Exposition
internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels
modernes, where a selection of his student
work is on show. Bill is deeply impressed by Le
Corbusier’s L’esprit nouveau pavilion, Friedrich
Kiesler’s Raumstadt [City and Space]and
Konstantin Melnikov’s Russian pavilion. First
prize in the poster competition celebrating the
centenary of the Suchard chocolate factory.
1926 In summer Bill travels to Italy; while
there, he produces a series of watercolors. In
November he attends a lecture by Le Corbusier
in Zurich and decides he wants to study
architecture.
1927-28 Bill is expelled from the
Kunstgewerbeschule for disciplinary reasons
following the Fasnacht carnival. On April 20,
1927 he enrolls at the Dessau Bauhaus, headed
by Walter Gropius. Hannes Meyer sets up
a Bauhaus architecture department, which
students can join only after taking a basic
course. Bill completes this preliminary course
under Josef Albers and László Moholy-Nagy.
Even before he had started to study architecture,
Bill submits his first designs for competitions:
for the Bern State Library and a residential and
office building in Osaka (in which, as the only
European participant, he wins 3rd place). In the
winter semester of 1927-28 he attends Moholy-
Nagy’s metal workshop and takes part in Oskar
Schlemmer’s stage and theater experiments.
He attends the free painting classes taught by
Wassily Kandinsky and Paul Klee. That summer
he takes another study trip to Italy; stays in
Positano. On October 30, 1928 Bill leaves
Dessau and returns to Switzerland.
1929 Max Bill endeavors to establish himself
in Zurich in the fields of applied graphics, art
and architecture. He writes his vorschlag eines
vorkurses an der kunstgewerbeschule der stadt
Zürich (“proposal for a preliminary course at the
city of zurich school of applied arts”), designs
a “uniform und nonstop garage system bill” (a
multi-story car park in today’s terms, but at that
time still a utopian concept) and organizes an
exhibition of his own works at his apartment-
cum-studio.
1930 He adopts the professional name bill-
zürich. Works as a graphic artist, exhibition
designer, painter, sculptor and publicist in the
avant-garde circle around Sigfried Giedion.
As a designer of posters, adverts and façade
inscriptions, Bill is involved in major Neues
Bauen projects in Zurich (Werkbund “Neubühl”
housing estate, wohnbedarf furniture store,
Zett-Haus building, Corso theater). He becomes
a member of the Swiss Werkbund (SWB).
1931 Marries the cellist and photographer
Binia Spoerri. Designs the poster for the
negerkunst [negro art] exhibition held at the
Kunstgewerbemuseum in Zurich and the
wohnbedarf company logo; out of this he
develops his first three-dimensional work, well-
relief (1931-32).
1932-33 Designs and builds his own home
and studio in Zurich’s Hongg district (in
collaboration with Robert Winkler). Designs the
journal Information, a left-wing intellectual organ
of the resistance against fascism run by Ignazio
Silone.
1932-36 Member of the avant-garde
Abstraction-Création group of artists in Paris;
takes part in their actions. Exhibits his first
pictures. Contact with Piet Mondrian, Hans Arp,
Georges Vantongerloo and other artists working
in a non-figurative abstract vein. Exhibits his first
sculptures in Paris.
1934 Designs and builds the Hodel gardener’s
house in Riehen, just outside Basel.
Fundación Juan March
1935 Contact with Max Ernst and Alberto
Giacometti.
1935-38 Produces his quinze variations sur
un meme théme [fifteen variations on a single
theme], published as a portfolio of lithographs in
1938 by Mourlot in Paris.
1936 Designs the Swiss section of the 6th Milan
Triennale (awarded the Grand Prix). First plaster
version of the sculpture unendliche schleife
[endless ribbon]. Collaborates on the epoch-
making exhibition Zeitprobleme in der Schweizer
Malerei und Plastik [the problem of time in swiss
painting and sculpture] at Kunsthaus Zürich and
designs the poster and catalog, which includes
his manifesto on konkrete gestaltung [concrete
design].
1937 Joins the allianz association of modern
Swiss artists. Enters a “Competition for ideas for
the design of the shore of Lake Zurich between
the concert hall and theater”, submitting
a concept for a garden city. Project for an
architectural tender for a restaurant on Zurich’s
panoramic Waid Hill. Project sketches for the
Swiss Pavilion at the 1937 Paris World’s Fair.
1938 Joins the Congrés Internationaux
d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM). Editor of Le
Corbusier & Pierre Jeanneret: Oeuvre complete
1934-38, vol. 3, Zurich, 1939.
1939 Project sketches for the Swiss Pavilion at
the 1939 New York World’s Fair. Graphic design
of the “Bauen und Planen” section at the Swiss
State Exhibition in Zurich.
1939-45 Bill is repeatedly called up for military
service.
1940-41 Project for a competition to design a
“Monument to Work” for Zurich’s Helvetiaplatz.
1940 Founds the Allianz-Verlag publishing
house.
1942 Birth of son Johann Jakob.
1942-43 Designs and builds the Villiger House,
a single-family home in Bremgarten. First use of
prefabricated elements made by Durisol.
1944 Designs the publication Sozialer
Wohnungs-und Siedlungsbau, published by the
Department of Employment, Zurich. Organizes
the first international konkrete kunst [concrete
art] exhibition at Kunsthalle Basel. Founds the
journal abstrakt/konkret. Starts working in the
field of product design.
257
1944-45 Teaches theory of form at the Zurich
Kunstgewerbeschule.
1945 Lectures on the subjects of
reconstruction, product design and art in
Germany, Italy (where he takes part in the 1st
congress on post-war reconstruction in Milan)
and Paris. Publishes the book wiederaufbau.
dokumente über zerstörungen, planungen,
konstruktionen [reconstruction. documents
on destruction, planning, construction].
Designs the catalog and poster for the
exhibition USA baut [USA Builds] at the Zurich
Kunstgewerbemuseum.
1946-47 Executes a large-scale version
of his sculpture kontinuitet [continuity]
for the Kantonale Gewerbe- und
Landwirtschaftsausstellung, Züka [Zurich
cantonal exhibition of trade and agriculture]
(destroyed in 1948 in an act of vandalism).
Friendship with Henry van de Velde, who settles
in Switzerland. Concept for the Swiss pavilion at
the 8th Milan Triennale (never executed).
1948 At the SWB conference in Basel, Bill
delivers his lecture on schonheit aus funktion
und als funktion [beauty from function and as
function], which leads to the project for the
exhibition die gute form [the good form].
1949 The exhibition die gute form is shown
at the Mustermesse trade fair in Basel
and subsequently travels to other cities in
Switzerland, Austria, and the Netherlands. A
second version of the same exhibition tours
Germany. In the catalog for the Kunsthaus
Zürich exhibition Pevsner, Vantongerloo, Bill,
likewise curated by Bill, he publishes the text
die mathematische denkweise in der kunst
unserer zeit [mathematical thinking in the art
of our time]. Publishes the portfolio Moderne
Schweizer Architektur, Teil II. 1942-47 Bill
becomes a member of the Union des artistes
modernes (UAM) in Paris. Publishes the
monograph Robert Maillart. Project for a house
for an artist couple in Ascona “Tesino”.
1949-50 Project for a housing estate in Israel
using Durisol prefabricated elements. Project
for a pavilion school and multi-story apartment
buildings in Zurich’s Seebach district.
258
1950-55 Develops the curriculum for, plans
and builds the Hochschule für Gestaltung (HfG)
[School of Design] in Ulm. From 1951 to 1956
Bill is also the Institute’s first rector and head
of the departments of architecture and product
design.
1950 First major retrospective of his artistic
oeuvre at the Museu de Arte Moderna in
São Paolo; goes on to win the Grand Prix for
sculpture at the São Paulo Bienal de Arte (1951).
1951 Designs the Swiss Pavilion at the 9th Milan
Triennale (awarded the Grand Prix). Project for
the competition for the Swiss Pavilion at the
Venice Biennale.
1951-52 Edits the monograph Wassily
Kandinsky (Paris: Maeght 1951) and the 4th
edition of Kandinsky’s book Über das Geistige in
der Kunst [On the Spiritual in Art] (Bern: Benteli-
Verlag, 1952). Publishes the book form: eine
bilanz über die formentwicklung um die mitte des
xx. jahrhunderts [form: a balance sheet of mid-
twentieth-century trends in design].
1953 Travels to Brazil as a member of the jury
for the São Paolo architecture prize; continues
on to Peru and then the U.S. Lectures at
the Design Conference at Aspen, Colorado.
Takes third place in the international sculpture
competition for a “Monument to an Unknown
Political Prisoner”.
1953-54 Project for an architectural tender for
the Freudenberg cantonal school in Zurich.
1955 Edits the 4th edition of Wassily
Kandinsky’s book Punkt und Linie zur Fleche
[Point and Line on the Surface] (with an
introduction by himself) and Ludwig Mies
van der Rohe, published in Milan. Project for
a monument to Georg Büchner in Darmstadt
(Germany).
Fundación Juan March
1956 Plans and builds the City of Ulm pavilion
at the Baden-Württemberg state exhibition
of trade and industry in Stuttgart (together
with HfG teachers and students). Becomes a
member of the German Werkbund. Designs the
first watch models for Junghans in Schramberg
(Germany).
1956-57 The Ulm Museum shows a large Max
Bill retrospective that travels on to Munich,
Duisburg, Hagen, and Zurich.
1957 Resigns from the governing board of the
Ulm HfG following differences of opinion with
the Geschwister‑Scholl‑Stiftung [Scholl Siblings
Foundation] and the governing board. Plans
and builds the Cinévox cinema complex with
a multi-story apartment building in Neuhausen
(Germany).
1958 A Festschrift (volume of essays) to mark
Max Bill’s 50th birthday is published by Eugen
Gomringer. Retrospective at museums in
Leverkusen, Stuttgart and Winterthur.
1959 Bill becomes a member of the Bund
Schweizer Architekten (BSA) [Federation of
Swiss Architects].
1960 Organizes the exhibition konkrete kunst.
50 jahre entwicklung [concrete art: 50 years
of development] at the Helmhaus in Zurich.
Organizes the exhibition dokumentation über
marcel duchamp [documentation on marcel
duchamp] at the Zurich Kunstgewerbemuseum
and is editor of the catalog. Becomes a member
of the Swiss Art Commission.
1960-61 Plans and builds the Fleckhaus and
Bold houses in Odenthal Erberich, just outside
Cologne. Plans and builds the administrative
offices of Imbau-Spannbeton AG in Leverkusen.
Plans and builds the workshop building for
Lichtdruck AG in Dielsdorf (Switzerland).
1961-64 Design and construction of the “bilden
und gestalten” [educate and design] section at
Expo 64 in Lausanne (Swiss National Exhibition).
1961-68 Member of the City of Zurich
Parliament.
1964 Bill is made an honorary member of the
American Institute of Architects (AIA).
 Max Bill installing his
sculpture kontinuität
[continuity] at the Zurich
Cantonal Trade and
Agriculture Exhibition
(ZÜKA), 1947. Photo:
Ernst Scheidegger

Binia and Max Bill.

Photo: Binia Bill

Max Bill teaching at the

School of Arts and Crafts
in Zurich, 1945. Photo:
Ernst Scheidegger

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 Max Bill in 1976.
Photo: Thomas Kaiser

Max Bill in the late 1940s.

Photo: archiv max bill, c/o
max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung

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1964-74 Expansion and remodeling of the
Radio Zurich studios, together with Willy Roost.
1965 Construction and interior design of
the theater tent on Zurich’s Lindenhof for a
production of Ubu Ro [King Ubu] by Alfred Jarry.
1966-67 Plans and builds the Lavoitobel bridge
in Tamins, in collaboration with the engineering
studio Ros, Aschwanden & Speck.
of the Académie d’Architecture in Paris.
Commissioned by Deutsche Bank to produce a
new version of his sculpture kontinuität.
1983 Designs the play Beruf: Arlecchino
for the Zurich Opera Factory. The City of
Zurich organizes the exhibition max bill at the
Helmhaus to mark the artist’s 75th birthday.
Made a Commandeur des Arts et Lettres in
France.

1966-68 Designs and builds his own house and 1985-94 Chairman of the Bauhaus-Archiv in
studio in Zumikon. Berlin.

1967 His sculpture windseute [wind column]
is presented in front of the Swiss Pavilion at
the International and Universal Exposition in
Montreal.
1967-71 Bill becomes a member of the
Swiss Federal Parliament. He is given a chair
in Environmental Design at the Hochschule
für bildende Künste [University of Fine Arts],
Hamburg.
1986 Elected vice president of the Berlin
Akademie der Künste. Completes the new
version of kontinuität in Frankfurt am Main.
1987 Retrospectives in Weimar, Prague and
Frankfurt.
1988 Death of Binia Bill.
1991 Marries the art historian Angela Thomas.

1968 City of Zurich Art Prize. Talk on das
behagen im kleinstaat [well-being in a small
state). Builds the first pavillonskulptur [pavilion-
sculpture] at the Hakone Open-Air Museum in
Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan.
1971-75 Bill makes several trips to the US.
Prepares a major retrospective for the Albright-
Knox Art Gallery in Buffalo, the Los Angeles
County Museum of Art and the San Francisco
Museum of Art (LACMA).
1972 Becomes a member of the Akademie der
Künste [Academy of Arts], Berlin.
1993 Awarded the Imperial Price in Japan
and made a Chevalier de la Légion d’honneur,
France.
1994 Max Bill receives an honorary doctorate
from the Eidgenossische Technische
Hochschule Zürich [Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology]. He dies on December 9 during a
trip to Berlin.
(Timeline originally published in: Max Bill’s View
of Things. Die gute Form: An exhibition, 1949)

1976 Special “Max Bill” issue of the magazine

Du.

1979-80 Prepares the travelling retrospective

Georges Vantongerloo with stops in Washington
D.C., Dallas, and Los Angeles.

1979-83 Builds his pavilion-sculpture on

Zurich’s Bahnhofstrasse. Albert Einstein
monument in Ulm.

1980 Bill is awarded the Grand Cross of Merit

by the Federal Republic of Germany and an
honorary doctorate from the City of Stuttgart.

1982 Receives the Kaiserring from the City of

Goslar (Germany) and the Belgian Order of the
Crown and is a made a corresponding member

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262

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max bill:
an anthology
1936-68
–
selection of texts, preface and notes:
neus moyano, gillermo zuaznabar, manuel fontán del junco,
maría toledo and mariola gómez laínez

translation, editing and proofreading

texts nos. 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 12 of this anthology have been translated
from german into english by russell stockman.
all texts in this section with the exception of nº 10 have been edited by
amanda nolen.

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 contents
265  preface
266  editorial note
268 texts by max bill
269 1. concrete art (1936–49)     
270 2. [le corbusier] (1938)
272 3. a few words on painting and sculpture (1947)
274 4. beauty from function and as function (1949)
278 5. artistic expression in construction [robert maillart] (1949)
280 6. kandinsky, pedagogue and educator (1951)
282 7. from surface to space (1951)
285 8. at our school you can’t become a painter (1951)
286 9. the bauhaus idea from weimar to ulm (1952)
288 10. a, b, c, d... (1953)
293 11. mondrian (1955)
295 12. the designed environment of the future (1964)
298 13. well-being in a small state (1968)

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preface
Anthologies resemble exhibitions in that, in
a sense, they are characterized by what they
exclude more than by what they include. Once
it was decided that the initial criteria was –as its
name indicates– anthological, the first thing that
is left out (as in any anthology or retrospective)
is the very notion of exhaustiveness, of opera
omnia, of “complete” works. Yet one thing all
ambitious exhibitions and good anthologies also
have in common is the fact that, before arriving
at their final result (necessarily limited by the
constraints of space and time), the people in
charge of them have considered –at least as
a regulatory idea– the possibility of including
each and every one of an artist’s works or, as
in this case, writings. That is the only way to
avoid leaving out something very important for
no apparent reason; an exclusion that equals,
in the world of exhibitions, ignoratio elenchi;
that is, ignoring the sources of a study –and
both exhibitions and anthologies are just that,
studies. And only based on an ambitious
regulatory idea like this can conscientiously-
designed anthologies account for what they
include—and exclude.
As noted on the first pages of this catalog,
Max Bill was a multi-talented man who not only
made art, but also thought and wrote about
a few, albeit great, ideas: his prose is filled
with concepts such as “form”, “concrete”,
“function”, “figure”, “beauty” and “design”,
which he used clearly and rigorously in the
pieces he wrote about the many different
fields of creation he participated in (as well
as the ones in which he left clear evidence
of his dedication, with a true sense of civic
responsibility, to educational, social and political
matters).
The thirteen essays in this catalog have
been selected according to the well-founded
decisions made during the process of carefully
reading more than one hundred pieces written
by Max Bill –some already published, others
not– which we decided to group together into
five thematic sections, defined at the beginning
of the analysis and reading process. The goal of
this was to make sure to cover Bill’s wide range
of interests, which is to say: a) art: function,
form and structure; b) architecture, politics
and public awareness; c) design and industry;
d) education and design and e) artists and
architects.
Following this initial reading, we made a
preliminary selection of 50 pieces, which were
read and studied in their original language and
in the translations published in other languages
(English, French, Italian and Spanish, sometimes
with major differences from the original
version). Then they were subjected to what we
might call a “comparative” analysis in order to
reduce the final anthology to thirteen texts.
The texts were selected according to various
criteria: the brief, yet accurate and relevant
nature of some of them (such as the first and
the last); the fact that they had never been
published before (wherever possible, in neither
of the languages of this catalog, Spanish and
English); their representativeness vis-à-vis Bill’s
varied interests; or the fact that the subject
of the piece had not been explicitly covered
by other contributions to this catalog (as is
the case of numbers 4 and 11). These criteria
indicate a desire to offer an overall image of
all the notable facets of Max Bill the writer
and his influences, an image that would be at
once scientifically rigorous (for experts) yet
also accessible (to the ordinary reader). In the
end, the texts we have chosen convey to the
reader the unity in the variety of Max Bill’s
thinking, his intellectual curiosity and the wide
range of interests he cultivated throughout his
lifetime. That’s why the selection lends itself
to the following narrative structure: Max Bill,
the artist and architect (5) theorized from very
early on about the concept of “concrete art”
introduced by Theo van Doesburg (1), which
his painting (3) and sculpture (3 and 7) would
eventually embrace. He was influenced by the
teachings of Le Corbusier, Maillart, Kandinsky
and Mondrian (2, 5, 6 and 11) and his life
can be understood as the Bildungsroman of a
Bauhaus student who implemented pedagogical
initiatives similar to that school (8) in the 1950s
(9). Deeply concerned with political/social
(13) and even environmental (12) issues, Bill
managed to reconcile material benefit, culture
and design (10) in his work based on a series of
fundamental convictions regarding the balance
between beauty and function (4).
Attention to some of Bill’s more particular
interests –which led him to write, for example,
about important yet little-known figures such as
the Italian artist Enzo Mari– has been sacrificed
here in order to focus on the representative
nature of Bill’s world, essential to a catalog for
a retrospective exhibition. The exception to the
priority given to general topics are the pieces
Bill wrote about the four figures –an architect,
an engineer and two painters– who were truly
decisive in shaping his worldview: Le Corbusier,
Maillart, Kandinsky and Mondrian.
Each text includes (in addition to its
translation) extensive commentary by Neus
Moyano about its contents, subject and how
Fundación Juan March
it is related to other areas of Bill’s intellectual
constellation. In addition, information about
the original publications of each text and its
bibliographical history –both in its original
language and in its different translations and
editions– has been indicated with the greatest
possible precision.
The glossary in this section, written by
Mariola Gómez Laínez, contains a list of typical
words in Max Bill’s vocabulary (a vocabulary
common to the Bauhaus and, in general, the
teaching of art in the German-speaking world).
Due to their importance and how often they are
used, we thought it a good idea to clarify them.
And finally, the works cited in this section is
followed by another special section containing
all of Bill’s writings, arranged in chronological
order. It is the result of a strict process of
scrutiny intended to sort out the dating and
identification of the original sources –in both
their original language and in translation– of
Bill’s writings from 1936 to 1994, so as to
clear this up once and for all for scholars. As
a result of all the work done to arrive at the
final selection of thirteen texts by Max Bill that
appear here, fifty of the references for written
sources include their complete, updated
bibliographic history.
The help of the max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung has been essential throughout this
entire process, especially when it came to
identifying and locating the original typed
versions of certain very rare, hitherto-
unpublished documents. The digital archives
of the TH (Zurich) and the Hochschule für
Gestaltung (Ulm) and the libraries of the
Col·legi d’Arquitectes de Catalunya [Architects
Association of Catalonia] and the Fundación
Juan March have also been invaluable allies in
this project.
265
editorial note
The unity of ideas and interests in Max Bill’s
writings is reflected in the constant, specific use
of a series of key concepts. Some of them do
not have an exact translation, so we have put
together a list of the most important terms to
guide and help the reader understand the texts
by Bill included in this catalog. The entries for
some of these terms, which can be translated
in various ways, indicate how they have been
translated here and the reason behind this
decision, as well as noting in which texts they
appear. In each entry, the terms found in this
glossary appear in bold.
266
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Abstrakte Kunst [Ungegenständliche
Kunst]: Abstract Art. Cf. also Gegenstandlose
Kunst.
Bauhaus: School founded by Walter Gropius
in Weimar and inaugurated on April 12,
1919. It is the product of the fusion between
two schools in Weimar: the Großherzoglich-
Sächsischen Hochschule für Bildende Kunst
[Grand Ducal Saxonian School of Fine Arts]
and the Grossherzogliche-Sächsischen
Kunstgewerbeschule [Grand Ducal Saxonion
School of Arts and Crafts], which had closed
in 1915. The name given to the school reflects
its ideology: “Bauhaus” (literally “house of
construction” or “building house”) refers to
the medieval term Bauhütte [builders’ guild],
so choosing it stressed the training of a social
and spiritual community of creators over the
products that had to be created. The objective,
in accordance with Gropius’ Socialist ideas,
was to reform the methodology of the different
artistic disciplines (from crafts and design to art
and architecture) as a way of influencing, and
therefore transforming society. The Bauhaus
teachings included a mandatory Vorkurs
(preliminary course), a semester-long test
that had to be passed in order to be officially
admitted into the Bauhaus and a prerequisite to
the Grundlehre (basic course). This course also
lasted one semester and its goal was to give
students a solid foundation before they moved
on to the different workshops (Werkstätten):
metal, stone, ceramic, color, glass and fabric.
The Bauhaus teachers were called Formmeister
[masters of form or design] and Werkmeister
[workshop masters], respectively. In 1925
the Bauhaus moved to Dessau and, due to
the obstacles the school started to face after
the Nazis rose to power in 1931, the school
relocated in 1932 to Berlin, where the Nazis
closed it down for good the following year.
[cf. anthology: text 9]
Bauhütte: a guild of builders and masons. Cf.
Bauhaus.
Deutscher Werkbund (DWB): association of
German artists, craftsmen and industrialists,
founded in 1907 with the goal of ennobling
industrial work through art. It emerged at a
time when Germany was struggling to carve
out a place for itself on the international market
of mass-produced goods. Thus, the goals of
the DWB were more economic than cultural:
by focusing on the industrial production of
objects, it abandoned the ideal spread by
the Arts & Crafts movement (founded by the
British designer and entrepreneur William
Morris around 1880) of connecting “art and
life” by reasserting the value of manual work
in the industrial age, for the ideal of “art and
economy” (Fiedler and Feirerabend 1999). Its
slogan was “the good form”, which brought
together the quality of the product and its
practical utility. This slogan was adopted by
the Bauhaus and also Max Bill, who reworked
to adapt to his way of art and design [cf.
anthology: texts nos. 4, 9 and 12]
Entwerfer: designer. Term derived from
Entwurf [cf. anthology: text 4]. Cf. Industrie-
Entwerfer.
Entwurf sketch, design, outline [cf. anthology:
text 4].
Form: form, but sometimes also design. Cf.
Gestalt.
Formen / Formgebung / Formung: to give
form, to shape [cf. anthology: texts 1 and 4]. Cf.
Form and Formen.
Formgebung: shaping, designing. Cf. Form
and Formen.
Formgeberei “pseudo-design” The ending
“rei” has a negative connotation in German [cf.
anthology: text 12]. Cf. Form and Formen.
Formmeister master of form. Cf. Bauhaus,
Gestalterei.
Formung to shape or design. Cf. Form and
Formen.
Gebrauchsgeräte: tools or utensils, devices for
domestic use [cf. anthology: text 9].
Gegenstandlose Kunst: non-objective art.
It refers to the essence of “concrete art” (Cf.
konkrete kunst), in which the work of art
is the result of giving concrete form to an
abstract idea, not of “abstracting” an object
from natural reality. Cf. Abstrakte Kunst or
Ungegenständliche Kunst [cf. anthology: texts
1 and 3].
Gegenstandwelt: the world of objects [cf.
anthology: text 12].
Geist: spirit. It has been translated as “spirit”
rather than “intellect” (also common in English)
because the term Geist is much broader:
the German word encompasses not only
the intellectual, but also the idea of “wit” en
English or esprit in French. Max Bill drew a
clear distinction between what he regarded
as “utilitarian art” (Kunst für den nützlichen
Gebrauch) and “art for spiritual use” (Kunst für
den geistigen Gebrauch). He thought that the
“practical” value of art resided in its “spiritual
use” (Ihre Gebrauchsfähigkeit beruht auf ihrer
geistigen Benutzbarkeit).
Gestalt: The harmonious, unified whole of an
object, including its form, function and beauty
(as in “form, function, beauty = gestalt). It is
usually left in the original German. (Cf. also
Form): cf. Gestalterei, Gestalter, Gestaltung,
Gestaltunglehre.
Gestalterei: “Pseudo-design”. The ending “rei”
has a negative connotation in German, as we’ve
noted. [cf. anthology: text 12]. Cf. Formgeberei.
Gestalter: Designer [cf. anthology: text 4] Bill
also used the term Entwerfer as a synonym
for designer: cf. Entwerfer and Industrie-
Entwerfer.
Gestaltung: In the case of Max Bill’s writings,
it can be interpreted as a synonym for the
usual English use of “design”: cf. Gestalt and
Gestalter.
Gestaltungslehre: theory of form or design [cf.
anthology: text 9]. Cf. Gestalt.
Grundkurs or Grundlehre: basic course or
basic teaching: cf. Bauhaus.
Grundlehre or Grundkurs: basic teaching or
basic course: cf. Bauhaus.
Hochschule für Gestaltung Ulm (HfG)
Ulm School of Design. Founded in 1953 by
Inge Aicher-Scholl, Otl Aicher and Max Bill,
among others, it was a private and politically
independent school based on the Bauhaus
model. Its building, designed by Bill himself
–he was also the school’s first rector—was
inaugurated in 1955. After 15 years of operation,
it closed in 1968.
Industrie-Entwerfer: industrial designer. Cf.
Entwerfer and Entwurf. [cf. anthology: text 4]
Konkrete Kunst: concrete art. The expression
was coined by Theo van Doesburg in 1930 [cf.
anthology: text 1], but it was Bill who gave
it intellectual muscle: cf. Gegenstandlose
Kunst].
Materialgerecht: “true or suited to the
material” For bill, an object’s design is good
when its function is suited to the characteristics
of the material used to make it [cf. anthology:
texts 4 and 5].
Materialgerechtigkeit: often translated as
“truth to material”, it refers to the suitability of
the materials to an object’s characteristics and
function. (cf. Materialgerecht).
Fundación Juan March
Plastik: sculpture (not “plastic”). This is the
usual translation when it means the same as
Bildhauerei (sculpture) [cf. anthology: text 4].
Produktdesign or Produktform: product
design [cf. On Bill, pp. 11-15 of this catalog].
Produktform: product design: cf.
Produktdesign.
Schweizerische Werkbund (SWB):
association of Swiss artists, craftsmen and
industrialists. It was founded in 1913 with the
goal of uniting art and industry and influencing
the design of mass-produced goods. From
the start, it worked closely with the German
Werkbund (cf. Deutscher Werkbund) and
a group of artisans and industrialists from
the eastern part of the Switzerland known as
L’Oeuvre, also founded in 1913. The Swiss
Werkbund and L’Oeuvre participated in
organizing the Swiss sections of the Triennale
de Milan (1936).
Ungegenständliche Kunst: non-
representational or abstract art: cf. also
Gegenstandlose Kunst.
Umwelteinrichtung: organization or
arrangement of the environment [cf. anthology:
text 4].
Umweltgestaltung: design of the environment
[cf. anthology: text 4].
Unwesentlich: non-essential or accidental, as
opposed to essential (wesentlich) [cf. anthology:
text 12]
Vergegenständlichung: concretion or
objectification. [cf. anthology: text 4]
Vorkurs: preliminary course. Cf. Bauhaus.
Werkmeister: workshop masters. Cf.
Bauhaus.
Werkstatt, Wekstätten: workshops. Cf.
Bauhaus.
Zweckmäßig: functional. Literally “suited to
its purpose”, in keeping with its objective and
function [cf: anthology: text 4].
267
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max bill

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 our time], he applies the basic elements of mathematics to the methodology

1. concrete art
(1936-49)
we call “concrete art” works of art created according to their own tech-
niques and laws, without borrowing from external natural phenomena or
transforming them; that is, works that are not the result of a process of
abstraction.
concrete art is autonomous in its specificity. it is the expression of the hu-
man spirit, destined for the human spirit, and possesses the acuity, clarity
and perfection which one expects from works of the human spirit.
concrete painting and sculpture are the result of giving form to the visually
perceptible. their creative tools are color, space, light and movement. by
giving form to these elements, one creates new realities. abstract ideas
which previously existed only in the mind are made visible in a concrete
form.
in short, concrete art is the pure expression of harmonious measure and
law. it organizes systems and gives life to these arrangements by means of
art. it is real and spiritual; non-naturalistic while close to nature. it aspires
to the universal yet cultivates the unique; it suppresses individuality in favor
of the individual.
of “concrete” artistic creation, which he later extends to any logical procedure
(cf. “feststellungen” [statement], an article published in Spanish as “constata-
ciones”, in: Gimmi 2004a, p. 264). In 1960 he took part in his last international
collective show: Konkrete Kunst: 50 Jahre Entwicklung [Concrete Art: 50 years
of Development] at the Helmhaus in Zurich (Zurich 1960a), organized and cu-
rated by Bill. In the catalog, as a kind of introductory manifesto, he describes
“structure” as the defining characteristic of concrete art. The version translated
here, from 1949, is the last elaboration of the concept of concrete art and was
printed, as a manifesto, on the first page of the abovementioned catalog. Bill
bases his arguments on the Theo van Doesburg article that appeared in the only
issue of the journal Art concret (Van Doesburg 1930) under the title “Commen-
taires sur la base de la peinture concrète” [Comments on the Basis of Concrete
Painting]. In 1938 Kandinsky also embraces the definition of this concept, and
his article “Art concret” is published in the first issue of the journal XXème
Siècle (Kandinsky 1938, pp. 369-73), in which, for the first time, he refers to
his own art as “concrete”. Unlike Van Doesburg –who only alludes to line and
color in his article– Bill mentions color, space, light and movement as elements
of concrete art.
The show Zürcher Konkrete Kunst, in whose catalog this text was published,
was put together by i.p.c. [institut für progresive kultur], created by Bill himself
and included –in addition to works of his own— pieces by Lanfranco Bombelli,
Heinrich Eichman, Hans Fischli, Calimma Graeser, Vreni Loewensberg and Rich-
ard Paul Lohse. It was presented as a response to the official exhibition of Swiss
artists that was taking place at the same time in Germany, which did not feature
any works by concrete artists.

Originally published in German as an untitled introduction to the catalog Zürch-

er Konkrete Kunst [Swiss Concrete Art] (Stuttgart-Munich 1949). It begins with
the words: “konkrete kunst nennen wir…” [we call “concrete art”…]. Cata-
log design by Max Bill. Reprinted in German in: Konkrete Kunst [concrete art]
(Staber 1966, p. 7), and in: Max Bill (Hüttinger 1977, p. 73). Published in Italian
as “concrete art”, in: Max Bill (Quintavalle 1977b). Published in English as “con-
crete art”, in: Max Bill (Hüttinger 1978, p. 61). Published in Spanish as “arte
concreto”, in: Max Bill: pinturas, esculturas, gráfica (Caracas 1979); in: Max Bill
(Madrid-Barcelona 1980, p. 15); and in: Suiza Constructiva (Madrid 2003, p. 34).
Published in Catalan as “art concret”, in: Max Bill (Madrid-Barcelona 1980, p.
14).
In 1936 Max Bill defines the concept of concrete art for the first time in his
article “konkrete gestaltung” [concrete design], which appeared in the catalog
Zeitprobleme in der schweizer Malerei und Plastik [Contemporary Problems in
Swiss Painting and Sculpture] (Zurich 1936). It was later published in Spanish
and English as “concrete design” in the journal 2G (Gimmi 2004a, p. 255). Bill
returns to this subject –substituting the concept of design for that of art– in:
“über konkrete kunst” [on concrete art], an article published in the journal Werk
(Bill 1938, pp. 250-54). In it he makes contributions to the definition of concrete
art formulated by Piet Mondrian, Georges Vantongerloo, Antoine Pevsner and
Wassily Kandinsky. In 1942 Bill revists the subject once again in the preface
to the catalog for the exhibition Moderne Malerei (Gstaad 1943, s/p.), which
begins with the words: “konkrete kunst nennen wir…”. Bill also curated and de-
signed collective shows devoted to “concrete art” such as its first international
exhibition, Konkrete Kunst (Basel 1944). Hans (Jean) Arp wrote the introduc-
tion to this catalog. That same year, Bill’s article “ein standpunkt” [a position],
in which he reworked the concept of “concrete art”, appeared in the journal
Abstrakt-Konkret (Bill 1944, n.p.). In 1949, in his famous article “die mathe-
matische denkweise in der kunst unserer zeit” [mathematical thinking in art of

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2. le corbusier
(1938)
introduction
this book is the third volume in the series le corbusier und p. jeanneret, ges-
amtwerk1 [le corbusier and p. jeanneret, complete works], published shortly
after le corbusier’s 51st birthday.
if we consider the scope and influence of his activity, it is astounding that
he was able to do such extensive, inspiring work in a period of just twenty
years. thanks to this, le corbusier is currently the most familiar name in the
world of fine arts. and surely we are not wrong in assuming that virtually
no other artist of his time has been as well-known and controversial as the
architect le corbusier is today, so much that his name is commonly used
to refer to an entire architectural movement, one that is known (even in its
most misconstrued and ridiculous excesses) as the “le corbusier style.”
why is this? why is le corbusier such a huge phenomenon?
to answer these questions, we must point out the strengths and also the
weaknesses of his architecture.
first of all, le corbusier is fundamentally different from the kind of archi-
tect who designs conventional houses: respectable, proper and structurally
unobjectionable. his interests are much broader, and much more compre-
hensive. he sparks controversy, he promotes his own ideas, in the heat of
argument he coins basic catchwords that later, distorted in many ways,
turn up again everywhere and –to his own discredit and that of all of mod-
ern architecture– do a great deal of damage and lead to dire misunder-
standings. he philosophizes about the fundamentals of architecture, about
space, about every area of human life, and he incorporates this philosophy
into his architectural thinking. this makes his work a philosophy of archi-
tecture, his writings pamphlets against an obstinate building as usual, and
his reflections the foundations of a new way of looking at architecture that
goes beyond the personal.
it is no wonder, then, that this activity creates a thought-provoking atmo-
sphere that forces one to reflect. yet the man behind it receives the sharp-
est criticism; no slur is too extreme for those wishing to disparage him, no
praise too great for those wishing to elevate him above all critique. hence
his popularity. but this has little to do with his actual work. tirelessly, le
corbusier continues to work, making new demands and tackling new prob-
lems that lead to unexpected, inspiring new solutions.
but in the last few years not only has he won over the general public, he
has also earned a considerable amount of recognition and respect for his
achievements. on the centenary of the university of zurich, its faculty of
philosophy awarded him an honorary doctorate for his work as a “brilliant
designer of space.” that honor compensated for the note of discord created
during the swiss national exhibition2 –inaugurated in 1939 in zurich– when,
1 Jean Badovici, Le Corbusier et P. Jeanneret. Paris, Éditions Albert Morancé, 1937. Ed.
2 Schweizerische Landesausstellung.
270
Fundación Juan March
owing to a petty clash of personalities, he did not receive a single commis-
sion.
his natural mistrust of public displays of honor explains why for many years
le corbusier has resisted being inducted into the legion of honor. he feels
that such displays are merely superficial and decorative, and entail the risk
of distracting us from the true needs of architecture.
instead, he has devoted himself all the more to fundamental issues.
LC & PJ3 have spent a good part of the last few years studying projects
meant to improve the current precarious state of affairs. these urban plan-
ning projects represent a clear development of the meander-like city known
as the ville radieuse, which has often been described as monumental. this
form is wholly abandoned in the plan de nemours, where the housing
blocks are detached and an effect of greater spatial freedom is achieved.
this type of residential units reappear later on in part of the plan de paris 37
and in the urban development project for zlin4.
LC & PJ proposed the form of urban development known as the ville
radieuse for the ilot insalubre no. 6 as part of a plan to rehabilitate slum
areas. ilot insalubre no. 6 is the first stage of the plan de paris 37, and a
direct practical development of the plan voisin. if, according to the thinking
of the time, the plan voisin5 was le corbusier’s concept of the ideal city, the
plan de paris 37 is the feasible version –with the necessary correction of
intolerable conditions– of the regeneration of a city, without the need to
reduce it to rubble. faced with the problem of replacing old quarters with
new ones, of laying new roads, of creating areas with groves of trees that
serve as green lungs, one has virtually no other options besides the solu-
tions proposed by LC & PJ in the plan de paris 37. it serves as the practical
complement to le corbusier’s essays about the rebuilding of manhattan, in
which his architectural philosophy is fully expressed.
some of these urban planning problems are closely tied to the 1937 inter-
national exhibition in paris, for which LC & PJ proposed, one after another,
three very comprehensive projects which were all rejected.
project “a” proposed building a residential quarter as the headquarters of a
exposition international d’habitation [international housing exhibition], a the-
matic exhibition organized by the CIAM (congrès internationale de l’archi-
tecture moderne) which was to replace the great world’s fair. the proposals
that were later developed in the plan de paris 37 are already incorporated
here. yet since the project was rejected, that unique opportunity for experi-
ment was wasted; in the end an exhibition was mounted with no notewor-
thy features or lasting repercussion.
project “b” was guided by the same idea, though on a smaller scale and
without an eye to an urban planning solution for all of paris. this oppor-
tunity to construct an enormous residential unit for exhibition purposes,
to demonstrate the technology of housing construction while creating
long-lasting values, was also wasted.
3 Le Corbusier and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret formed a partnership and worked
together at the former’s architecture studio on rue de Sèvres (Paris) from 1924 to
1940. Ed.
4 In the current Czech Republic. Ed.
5 A utopian project for the center of Paris –financed by the airplane and automobile
manufacturer Gabriel Voisin (1880-73)–, which Le Corbusier presented in his “L’Esprit
nouveau” pavilion at the 1925 International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and
Industrial Arts in Paris. Ed.
project “c” was not just another proposal to create something long-lasting.
in this case, the idea of the museum would have taken a new form (LC &
PJ, gesamtwerk, 1910–29).
all these proposals differ from the standard construction of exhibition build-
ings in essential ways. whereas such buildings are generally torn down
once the exhibition gates are closed, le corbusier’s residential blocks would
have been occupied later; so they would not have been money wasted.
they also represent an attempt to create and propagate a new way of living
that seems worth striving for as a model for the future, one that might have
had ramifications beyond the duration of the event itself.
it is truly depressing to see how all the important exhibitions —paris 1937,
new york 1939, the swiss national exhibition of 1939 in zurich— generally
contained a large number of attractive solutions that were inspiring in de-
tail, but completely lacking the power of a sweeping concept that could be
further developed in the future. astonishing as these achievements may
be, and as sophisticated as their presentations have been, there is no uni-
fying idea, not to mention lasting values. fortunately, this expensive type of
exhibition cannot be replicated forever. the time will come when ideas tri-
umph over supposed representation. constructive ideas will be given their
proper due, and maximum efficiency will take the place of refinement. the
contributions of LC & PJ are fundamental to this future development, and
one hopes that once that evil spell in pseudo-modern dress has worn off,
LC & PJ will be able to keep on contributing new projects. it won’t be long,
for constructive ideas are already beginning to prevail for rome 1942, and
there every effort will also be made to create something long-lasting. we
shall see…
LC & PJ did manage, however, to make one contribution to the world of
exhibitions at the 1937 international exhibition in paris: the “pavillon des
temps nouveaux” [new times pavilion]. unlike the abovementioned exhi-
bition buildings, it was a typical provisional structure. it also fulfilled one
of the objectives of the show: to spread culture and spark controversy. the
pavilion was temporary; it was not intended to be anything but a shelter
from the rain and sun. its exterior made no claim to monumentality, but
inside it was all business. there, all the proposals LC & PJ and their young
colleagues from all over the world had studied and worked on endlessly,
awaiting their realization, were shown directly to the people. studies by the
various branches of the ciam on the rehabilitation of big cities were shown.
the plan de paris 37 and the plan for the ilot insalubre no. 6 were also pre-
sented in detail. there you could see the various types of city of the fu-
ture, the gratteciel cartésien [cartesian skyscrapers], the unités d’habitation
[residential units], the stadium… as well as ideas for réorganisation agraire
[agrarian reorganization] –the village coopératif [cooperative village]– where
agrarian production issues were tackled and worked out by LC & PJ through
typical solutions that followed a logical structure, but also with a cheerful
appearance that interpreted the building concept in three dimensions.
in this forward it is impossible to analyze all the projects of the last few
years in detail, or even touch upon them. many have been only ideas, skel-
etons, systems that can still be further developed. LC & PJ are often re-
proached for this, but it must be expressly stated that though the realization
of these ideas is of course extremely important, the time has not yet come.
but even the most consummate realization cannot mask the pervading ab-
sence of ideas. other projects, for example the musée de la ville et de l’êtat
[city and state museum], are studies and solutions of a more fundamental
nature. they are fully worked out and will stand as testimony against those
buildings erected on the sites for which LC & JP’s projects were planned.
Fundación Juan March
the large number of ideal projects that LC & PJ have created, improved
upon and developed over and over provide us with an image of a future
with garden cities of enormous proportions, of absolute beauty and clarity:
the cities of tomorrow. this ideal is what LC & PJ have given us. moreover,
they have made real suggestions as to how to put this ideal into practice, if
only neighborhood by neighborhood for now. it is undeniable to everyone
who has carefully studied them that these proposals are better than what
we have today, like those neighborhoods in need of rehabilitation, and bet-
ter than most of what is currently built upon preexisting foundations.
but why aren’t these projects realized? the answer does not lie with the
individual. one has to recognize that the necessary conditions, the basic
laws regarding land use that would permit projects requiring large-scale
solutions, do not exist. first these laws must be changed, for without lasting
land use legislation the ideal city will continue to be castles in the air, just as
every other urban planning solution, however modest, will remain illusory.
the notion that such legislation should not be modified using dictatorial
measures or some form of expropriation, but rather by returning property
to the public, with private building and use rights limited in time, is increas-
ingly popular, as evidenced by the historical evolution of the medieval city
and english garden cities. since the necessary legal foundations for this
have not yet been established, planning ideal cities remains, for now, ideal
work that does not allow one to make a living. it is done for the public, not
for private speculators interested in building. however, since the private
speculator is rich and the public debt is currently high, times are lean for LC
& PJ, and ideal cities will have to wait.
yet some progress has been made in the most modest private sphere: the
private home.
le corbusier has always been a master of designing private houses. this
development –already apparent in the villa for mme. de mandrot (LC & PJ,
gesamtwerk, 1929–34)– acquires new forms in two small houses built in
the last few years. the maison de week-end [weekend home] is embedded
in the landscape as if it were a mountain or a cave, with grass all around
and grass on top, built with quarrystone walls and glass in a glorious variety
of solutions. the maison aux mathes [the les mathes home], in quarrystone
and wood, combines the simplicity of the farmhouse with our current ap-
proaches, achieving the greatest naturalness without succumbing to ro-
manticism. the humanity that speaks through these small projects proves
that the grand designs so often derided as inhuman and overly large were
produced precisely in the spirit that is expressed here on a small scale, try-
ing to make use of every available resource to create places where people
of all kinds can live and work, relax, study and enjoy themselves under the
best possible external conditions.
Text published for the first time in French and German as an introduction to the
catalog Le Corbusier & P. Jeanneret (Bill 1938, pp. 7-10). Max Bill edited the
book and was also responsible for its jacket design and graphic design. Reprint-
ed by Zurich: Verlag für Architektur as of the fifth edition in 1965 [9th ed. Zurich:
Les Éditions d’Architecture (Artemis), 1975].
This introduction was published in volume 3 of the abovementioned catalog,
the only one totally edited and designed by Max Bill. For the rest of the books
his participation involved the design of the jackets for volumes 1 (reprinted in
1937) and 2 (published in 1936), and a four-page pamphlet for volumes 2 and 3
(the latter, published in 1939) (cf. Marzá and Quetglas 2005, pp. 82-161).
Bill first became interested in architecture at the age of sixteen, when he
took a study trip to Paris to see the Exposición Internacional de Artes Decorati-
vas (1925), where he was impressed by the architecture of the pavillions there,
especially Le Corbusier’s “l’Esprit nouveau” and Konstatín Mélnikov’s Russian
271
pavillion. In November of 1926, Le Corbusier visited Zurich, where he gave two
lectures that Bill attended, making up the latter’s mind that he wanted to study
architecture (cf. Bill 2008, pp. 7-8). In 1937, having returned to Zurich after his 3. a few words on painting
and sculpture
time at the Bauhaus in Dessau (from 1927 to 1929), the publishing house Girs-
berger hired him to design the jacket for volume 1 of the complete works of Le
Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. In 1938 Bill went to Paris to work on volume 3
of his compatriot’s complete works. on the sense of theoretical articles,
work titles and concepts
(1947)

it may have occurred to many a connoisseur of modern art that we our-

selves reach for our pens time and time again; for one often hears that
painters should stick to painting, sculptors to sculpture and shoemakers to
making shoes; in other words, each to his own: they do not need to write,
much less think.

though widespread, this view is false. today a great deal is written about all
sorts of subjects. very little of what is written about art is authentic, which
is why it rarely does justice to art. this is especially true of the most recent
art, about which judgments are generally issued with no regard for respon-
sibility to possible progress, without the necessary knowledge and insight,
and almost always in the light of the critic’s own personal impressions. but
these opinions are unimportant when it comes to judging artistic phenom-
ena; that is solely the artists’ responsibility, for it is they who know the con-
texts in which their work is to be viewed; it is they who mediate between
the purely innovative, the strictly sentimental and the purely aesthetic re-
quirements of their epoch. thus, artists’ own comments are the only true
expression of their intentions. the accuracy and direction of this thinking
are decisive when it comes to the appearance and content of works of art.
for ultimately every genuine work of art does not merely play with a series
of given possibilities; rather, it is the expression of a specific mentality and
worldview. at the end of the day, visual art is, then, visually represented phi-
losophy; morality in the form of design. that is why it matters what moral
stance a work of art is based upon, and to what extent its creation has been
motivated by personal responsibility or chance.

from this alone, it is easy to see why artists must think, and why they
are obligated to formulate their thoughts in ways other than in their art-
work. but despite the truth of these statements –born, more than anything,
out of external necessity– there is often a difference between theoretical
statements and the actual result; which is why connoisseurs of modern art
would do better to rely on their own impression so long as they contem-
plate works of art with an open mind.

work titles
almost all works of art have titles. these titles fulfill various functions. some-
times they are motivated by purely practical reasons, for works need to be
distinguished from one another; in this case they reflect a clearly recogniz-
able element of the picture, for example zürich lake landscape at evening
or still life with red apples. or it might be something like six lines of equal
length, which describes something not readily apparent in the picture, di-
recting the viewer’s gaze to a significant aspect of the work. another type of
title evokes a specific mood or becomes a poetic invention that accompa-
nies the work: these are the ones usually found in modern art. finally, there

272

Fundación Juan March

are works whose title reflects the method with which they were created,
such as construction, composition, concretization and so forth.
but beyond all these questions, when it comes to the actual effect of the
work of art the title plays no role –or a very subsidiary one at most– for the
work must speak for itself.
terms
in order to discuss anything we must speak the same language. distortions
and misunderstandings even arise when people speaking the same lan-
guage have a different understanding of certain words and terms, or when
the word and the thing it is supposed to signify do not match. it is particu-
larly dangerous to discuss issues relating to philosophy, art, or worldviews
if people start out with different definitions of the concepts. just think of
the various interpretations of the terms “freedom,” “democracy” or “spirit.”
so it is no surprise that the concepts employed in art –which would seem
far less vital to the survival of a civilized society– are also less familiar in
their precise definitions, and that confusions can hardly be avoided when
people who are unprepared to deal with questions that require intellectual
sharpness, or those who speak a “different” language get involved. so in
this case, we must also apply the concepts as they have evolved over the
centuries up to the present day.
a few years ago there was a big stir when we insisted once again that there
is a fundamental difference between what is known as abstract art and
what we call concrete art. we questioned and rejected the term “abstract
art”, which has been used for more than thirty years by those outside the
art world –primarily by those who write about it– to refer to modern art. for
this most recent art form has increasingly diverged from what is referred
to as “abstract,” in that it is no longer about expressing the artist’s creative
responses to natural phenomena.
objections to our attempt at clarification continue to this day, and again and
again we have been forced to explain why one artistic trend is abstract and
the other, concrete.
non-objective
recently a third term has been introduced into the debate: “non-objective
painting”1 as it is known in the united states. we can imagine no greater
contradiction than the one that exists between the concepts “non-objec-
tive” and “concrete.” the terms can’t be right, for either a work has no ob-
ject or it is non-objective due to a lack of quality, moral fiber or substance,
in which case this term would be correct. the fact that no “objects” appear
in these works of art can hardly be the meaning behind this formulation.
all true art has an object of representation; that is, a fundamental idea;
this idea is the content, whether it be naturalistic, abstract or concrete.
so there is no such thing as non-objective art; because that would mean
it has no content, and accordingly it would not be art at all, just superficial
decoration. yet one cannot deny the fact that there are many such mistaken
examples in painting and sculpture.
i would also like to take this opportunity to clear up another misunderstand-
ing. some people argue that concrete art is the same as constructivism.
this is not true; constructivism, or any other constructive or mathemati-
cally-oriented form of artistic expression, is but one of the many expres-
sive possibilities of concrete art, which is also expresed through wholly
non-geometric, amorphic forms.
1 Gegenstandlose Kunst.
Fundación Juan March
to explain the foregoing, once again i would like to define the concepts
“abstract” and “concrete” (without going into the nonsensical term “ab-
stract-concrete” that has cropped up recently, a real conceptual monstros-
ity).
abstract
“abstract” is: non-illustrative, conceptual, purely intellectual. “abstract”, in
the strictest sense of the term, applies to concepts like “humanity” and
“wisdom” as opposed to real “concrete” objects. aristotle understood “ab-
stract” as something that has been set apart, removed from its context.
abstraction
abstraction is a thought process whereby a specific idea is taken out of its
context –as a separate concept– so as to contemplate it and represent it on
its own. abstraction is a necessary intellectual tool. when one ignores all
the distracting juxtapositions of things –all that is inessential and therefore
confusing–, the essential relationships become more readily apparent. by
isolating, by abstracting, one is able to identify individual phenomena with-
in complex processes. “to abstract” means: to dispense with the particular
and the coincidental in favor of the general and the essential, through an-
alytical reasoning.
abstract art
abstract art2 can be explained using the abovementioned concepts. every
work of art is fundamentally the result of a process that aims to separate
the essential from the inessential, and in this sense it is an abstraction.
for every work of art also attempts to remove the individual, the typical,
from its context and depict it by itself. thus, from landscape painting, which
reproduces a chosen aspect of the landscape, to the reduction of scenes
from nature in actual abstract painting, the process of abstraction is more
or less active in the relationship with the natural image. we call “abstract
art” the art that is a product of abstraction, where natural objects are still
present in one form or other. they can be so abstract that the boundary
between abstract art and concrete art nearly disappears and the concepts
begin to overlap.
concrete
“concrete” refers to the real, visible and palpable object. any object that is
verifiable is “concrete”. every object that exists in reality, that is not merely
imagined, that is not only a concept, is concrete. “concrete” is the opposite
of “abstract”.
concretization
to concretize means “to transform into an object” something that was not
previously visible or palpable. to make abstract ideas, relationships and
thoughts visible: that is concretization, objectification. the goal of concret-
ization is to present abstract thoughts in reality in a way that is perceptible
to the senses.
concrete art
concrete art makes abstract ideas visible through purely artistic means,
and to that end creates new objects. the aim of concrete art is to develop
objects for intellectual and spiritual use, much as human beings create ob-
jects for material use. the difference between abstract art and concrete art
lies in the fact that in abstract art, the contents of the painting are derived
from natural images, whereas in concrete art they are not. (for example,
2 Abstrakte Kunst.
273
one might think of a borderline case in painting: on a white canvas there
is a red dot. it could be one of two things: it might be a sun rising in the
mist, and should thus be seen as abstraction; or it might be a red dot that
expresses an artistic reality solely through its relation to the surface of the
painting; in this second case, it is the concretization of an abstract idea; that
is, concrete art.)
finally, i would like to add —so as to avoid misunderstandings— that works
of art cannot be a product of mental effort, no matter now exact, or through
the most precise definition of terms. both of these things are not unim-
portant when it comes to creating works of art; they are just as crucial as
any other available material. yet only creative imagination, responsible work
and disciplined talent can give rise to art in the various schools of painting
and sculpture.
First published in German as “worte rund um malerei und plastik”, in: Allianz…
(Zurich 1947), this catalog includes texts by Leo Leuppi, Hans (Jean) Arp, Le
Corbusier, Richard Paul Lohse and Walter J. Moeschlin. A modified version was
reprinted in German in Konkrete Kunst: 50 Jahre Entwicklung [Concrete Art:
50 Years of Development] (Zurich 1960a), and reproduced in: Konkrete Kunst
[concrete art] (Staber 1966, pp. 13-15).
From 1944 to 1945 the twelve issues of the journal Abstrakt-Konkret came
out in Zurich, published by the Galerie des Eaux Vives. Max Bill collaborated
by writing a number of articles on art and artists. Of particular interest are the
ones that appear in issues 2, 3 and 4 (1944) under the same title: “vom sinn der
begriffe in der neuen kunst” [on the meaning of concepts in new art]. In them,
Bill analyzes the meaning of the concepts of abstract art and concrete art, the
different trends in both of them, and –for the first time— defines works of art as
“objects for spiritual use”. In this article, he returns to these same concepts and
updates them, incorporating his opinions about the latest trends in American
abstraction. Finally the piece reappeared, with some modifications, in 1960, in
the abovementioned catalog Konkrete Kunst: 50 Jahre Entwicklung, in which he
expands the list of artists and trends in concrete art, a movement contrary to the
individualism evident in new abstract trends such as Informalism.
274
Fundación Juan March
4. beauty from function
and as function
(1949)
for around a hundred years now the call to action has sounded in succes-
sive waves throughout the world: we have a duty to make useful products
with adequate, ethical materials under socially responsible conditions, us-
ing the best means available to us. this call to action entails a sense of
moral responsibility; a social sensitivity. yet in almost every case this is not
so much the starting point as the subsequent justification of clearly artistic
strategies. a closer look reveals that the initial impulse arises not so much
from a conscious feeling of responsibility towards the user as from a sense
of responsibility to form, from the will to define a new formal expression.
thus, the notion of social responsibility is something that artists and cham-
pions of fresh ideas often employ after the fact, as a way of justifying their
search for new forms in keeping with new or changing conditions.
and that’s how it has remained up to the present, to some extent in technol-
ogy as well. new forms that are regarded as artistic arise not out of a pure
sense of responsibility towards the end user, but out of a more universal
need to give things form. this does not mean, of course, that social factors
are not taken into account when it comes to designing; it’s just that such
considerations have not yet been the basis for creating anything.
and so we’ve reached the point where every change in form –and not just
those which appear from season to season and also influence objects of ev-
eryday use– can be described as a change in social practices and therefore,
in a broad sense, as “fashion”.
now the werkbund has always been associated with the idea of ‘truth to
materials’. but but if we ask ourselves what this really means, it’s difficult
to come up with a clear answer. we find that truth to materials depends
to a large extent on the fulfillment of function. on the other hand, it is a
well-known fact that almost any form can be produced from any number of
materials without being able to say that one is “true” and the other is not.
for example: is it being true to materials to insist upon removing a pattern of
impeccable quality from ceramic dishware, because we know it is hard to
make and certainly much more expensive than plain crockery with its minor
yet inconspicuous technical flaws?
this makes us realize that what we’re actually striving for is something quite
different: namely, an extreme exploitation of materials; that is, to achieve
the maximum effect with the minimum amount of material. for example,
we can construct a tower 300 meters high (the eiffel tower) and make it so
light (as eiffel did)1 that if we were to reduce its height by one thousand
times —that is, to 30 centimeters— it would weigh just seven grams –the
weight of a pencil. this is a brilliant example of the extreme exploitation of
materials, a real symbol for the technological age and the rational use of
materials, as well as the germ of a new ideal of beauty. this coupling of an
1 Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (1832-23).
engineer’s rationality with beauty in construction –or “rational beauty”2 as
henry van de velde put it in his day– is the banner under which we must re-
group when considering how to tackle production of today and tomorrow.
beauty from function –which we still consider, in essence, to be a decisive
factor of beauty as function– is most readily observed when functions ap-
pear in their purest form, without any sentimental frippery: that is, in the
construction of machines and tools; in the work of the engineer. yet even
here we often see that although the functions remain the same, the forms
often change to adapt to contemporary tastes.
it is worth noting that engineered forms change too, not only in response
to changes in function but also for aesthetic reasons, and that is precisely
why testaments to beauty from function are also testaments to beauty as
function. regrettably, however, these aesthetic insights rarely appear in the
parallel field of consumer goods made to meet everyday needs.
for years we’ve been asking ourselves why this is so. for years, for gener-
ations even, the werkbund has been making its demands clear, with less
than satisfactory results. you have to search long and hard to find a sim-
ple, functional, beautiful chair; beautiful dishware, a functional, all-purpose
door handle, a functional and beautiful lamp. it has become clear to us that
it is not a question of developing beauty based on function alone; instead,
we must demand a beauty of equal status to function; a beauty which is
also a function.
if we attach particular importance to something being beautiful, it is be-
cause pure functionality, in the more narrow sense of the term, is not
enough in the long run. we should no longer have to demand function-
ality – it ought to be included in design as a matter of course. but beauty
is less self-evident, and opinions about what is beautiful and what is not
often differ. that’s why it’s easier just to keep on calling for functionality.
the pursuit of beauty is much more difficult; it requires a greater effort,
and succeeds only under certain conditions: namely, when creative forces
manage to harmoniously adapt the aesthetic concept to the job at hand.
but two prerequisites must be met: first, there must be a job, and second,
the ability to design.
before we tackle the question of the ability to design, let us consider the job.
we all know that jobs can be overwhelming. when we’re given a brief to
design something “classic” –for example, the never-changing tea cup, the
one true chair, the definitive coffee pot, the step that can be used in any
given situation– we’re fully aware of the relative nature of our products’
claims to having “eternal” value. but it would be remiss of us to lessen our
efforts to achieve the definitive result –or what is definitive at that moment,
under those particular conditions, according to our ideal of beauty— just
because this ideal is bound to change. when it comes to producing objects
of everyday use we know there an infinite amount of work for us to do in
every area –from cars, trains and ships to the home itself– with the goal of
designing something better and more beautiful than what we have now.
a great deal of effort has already been made to explain to manufacturers
the need for beautifully designed products. we make no distinction here
between handcrafted and industrially-manufactured goods, since both re-
quire our input. if we nonetheless place an emphasis on industrial goods, it
is because they are produced in larger quantities and so have a much great-
er cultural impact than one-off pieces. however, when we take stock of
what our efforts have achieved so far, it seems we’ve made little progress.
2 Vernunftgemässe Schönheit.
Fundación Juan March
this owes partly to the structure of the swiss economy. in making his de-
cisions, the swiss manufacturer tends to have one eye on fashion trends
abroad and the other on his immediate economic situation. during busy
periods he is reluctant to introduce new models, since this would disrupt
the manufacturing process – even though this is precisely when he could
afford to do so. when business is slow, on the other hand, he feels less
committed to maintaining the technical quality of his products. today the
reasonable, culturally responsible manufacturer has the possibility –the
duty, even– to make products that are exemplary not only from a technical
standpoint, but also from the standpoint of design. but it has to be said that
very few of them have given any thought to this, and despite our efforts
many wouldn’t even know where to begin to tackle this problem.
i believe that the path the werkbund has followed up to now may not be
the right one, since we’ve failed to reach the people who call the shots in
switzerland. i believe that the idea, proposed long ago, of showcasing the
cultural aspects of production in temporary exhibitions of exemplary prod-
ucts at trade fairs could be more successful. this would raise awareness in
influential circles. as you know, the leipzig fair put on exhibitions of this kind
for many years, and they worked well because manufacturers saw it as an
honor to have their products selected for these shows, run by people who
knew what they were doing.
finally, i would like to touch upon the question of who is qualified to cre-
ate industrial products. the past few years have seen the emergence of a
new profession, the “industrial designer”, as it is called in english-speaking
countries (where it is more widespread than it is here, in some cases taking
on corporate dimensions). much of what these designers create looks very
attractive and modern in a superficial sort of way, but the design is often
sub-standard, unforgivably frivolous, with a fine façade covering up tech-
nical problems. a new style is being propagated and mass-produced: it is
being “streamlined”3.
thus, today’s streamlined auto bodies are in many cases the product of
pure formalism, while the knowledge they are based upon, ignored for
many years (while paul jaray4 still had a patent on their pure form) is now
being embraced as something fashionable. the result: the production of
giant tin cans –with no significant improvement in comfort– that are already
cluttering our streets and filling up our parking places in a most unpleasant
way. from cars it’s only a short step to “streamlining” household appli-
ances, prams and radios. but thankfully, swiss industry has barely been
touched by this epidemic.
here in switzerland everything proceeds at a slightly more leisurely pace.
for a start, things of beauty tend to be looked upon with suspicion in our
puritanical and censorious land. but we can hardly expect it will always be
so. sooner or later fashions that start abroad will find their way into switzer-
land. the “industrial designer” will arrive here too: just like the commercial
graphic designer evolved from the painter dedicated to graphic art and is
now a profession of its own, the “industrial designer” will emerge out of
sheer necessity. but judging from the dispiriting examples we’ve seen from
abroad, these designers pose a major threat if we wish to avoid moving to-
3 Bill is referring to Streamline Moderne, a late branch of the Art Deco style that
emerged in the United States, where it became so popular that it has come to be a
byword for American industrial design from 1930 to 1940. It is characterized, among
other things, by the use of curved lines (aerodynamic, in keeping with the times) and
an emphasis on horizontality. Ed.
4 Paul Jaray (1889-74), a Hungarian-born engineer and designer, was a pioneer of
automotive streamlining. Ed.
275
wards superficiality. that is why we must also ask ourselves: how do these
designers emerge, and what should the werkbund demand of them?
let’s consider why industrial designers might be a good thing: mass pro-
duction of consumer goods has to ensure not only that a certain beauty de-
rives from their function , but that this beauty in itself becomes a function.
in the future, mass consumer goods will be the yardstick of a country’s cul-
ture. the designers of these goods will ultimately be responsible for a great
deal of our visual culture, just as architects are responsible for the healthy
development of our cities and homes. the kind of practice we envisage,
with its vast range of tasks, requires us to make quite different demands of
the industrial designer than were made, for example, of the draughtsman
in the early days of industrialization. we are dealing with an educational
problem which is perhaps not very significant on an individual level, but is
extremely important in terms of its cultural impact –an educational problem
that we had barely begun to address at the bauhaus and has yet to be com-
pletely resolved: there are no schools that give people the kind of training
we require today, no teachers that we could hire without reservation to do
this important work.
in switzerland, it is worth noting that there not a single step has been taken
in this direction so far. even if you are of the opinion that our technical col-
leges and schools of applied arts are potentiality the right kind of institution,
it must be said that in their current form they are quite unsuited to this role.
since the education provided by these schools generally has to comply
with swiss law on the training of apprentices, it is essentially the same as a
practical apprenticeship, and there are plenty of people who maintain that
the education they offer is wanting.
but if on-the-job training is, in many cases, more or less comparable to
completing a degree at school, then what’s the point of school? what does
it offer that is special, as opposed to widely available? the crafts taught
at these schools today appear somewhat contrived, and only specialized
subjects for those pursuing vocational training seem to be authorized. but
schools of industrial arts that work with a curriculum that is not substan-
tially different from vocational training have lost their primary function, the
purpose they were set up for, which is to point the way forward for pro-
gressive industry.
i’ve already remarked that there’s essentially no difference between indus-
try and handcraft, that the machine is a tool in the same way that a hammer
is, for example – these are simply the prostheses we create to carry out
our work. nonetheless, there is still a large manual component to what
we call industrial production. ostensibly technical objects continue to be
made largely based on handcrafted methods. so if i reproach the schools
of industrial arts for still being rooted in the crafts, i’m not saying that they
should ignore these techniques, but rather that they’re not thinking enough
about industry.
i believe there’s no need to reiterate why industry is so important today.
unless you’re cut off from reality, you can’t fail to see that in the long term
industrial development offers not only a means of freeing people from the
burden of heavy labor but also a huge opportunity for cultural progress.
clearly, both of these things have yet to come about, but if we want to
develop our cultural potential we need to have competent people making
these industrial products –hence the necessity to educate this kind of de-
signer. this represents a major challenge for our schools of industrial arts,
not in their current form and with their current curriculum, but more as the
foundation for something new.
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Fundación Juan March
based on my experience, i will briefly sketch out what such an education
ought to look like.
the number of students must always be kept low. the prerequisite for ad-
mission should be the completion of a technical apprenticeship, or possi-
bly an equivalent course at school of industrial arts, with a final technical
examination. students would not only get a comprehensive training that
would give them an idea about all the other professions and a feel for new
materials, but also a general education encompassing theory and practice
in all fields of design as well as the basic concepts of statics, mechanics
and physics. they would have to work with all kind of material, not only
theoretically but also in practical exercises carried out in workshops under
appropriate supervision; in short, on top of their basic craft-based train-
ing they would receive a very complete artistic, technical and intellectual
education. it is clear that such an institution cannot be structured along
the same lines as existing schools of industrial arts. it would be more of
a cross between an academy and a polytechnical school, as the bauhaus
aspired to be. a much greater emphasis, however, must be placed on the
development of personality: what we need are designers who are not just
technically knowledgeable but also true artists, uninfected by the idea that
painting or making sculptures is somehow more important or valuable than
making good industrial products of perfect beauty.
only when the production of mass consumer goods is in the hands of peo-
ple like this will be able to say that the cultural epoch of the machine age
has truly begun. but until then, we will have nothing but imperfect cre-
ations, at the mercy of chance.
so while we must acknowledge, with regret, that our efforts have not yet
yielded substantial results and large-scale production has not yet reached
the standard we’d hoped for, we must also admit that it will not be easy to
attain this standard any time soon, given the lack of a suitable workforce .
as i noted before, the production of paintings and sculptures by industrial
designers of the future should not be seen as more valuable than other ac-
tivities. this does not constitute a declaration of war on the fine arts, for just
as the latest discoveries in theoretical physics are ultimately indispensable
to the production of simpler, more practical appliances useful to everyone,
so the fine arts are indispensable to the development of all sorts of objects,
and it is absolutely essential to grapple not only with the art of the past but
also with the most recent art. doing so will give a certain stylistic cohesion
to all our diverse efforts, a unity between the latent formal tendencies and
the unequivocal function of the fine arts, which is to bring forth perfect
beauty, unimpaired by external constraints or restrictions. in this context,
art also gives us a glimpse of the possibilities and questions, both positive
and negative, that are in the air at any given time. confronting these prob-
lems of design, which are now presenting themselves in an acute form, is
not only essential in the production of objects of everyday use; it’s also an
existential question of the first order for the subsequent development of
architecture. unless it engages positively with these questions –and goes
beyond treating mural painting and sculpture as decorative accessories–
architecture, just like industrial design, will never get past a primitive stage
of satisfying needs and will lose its way in historicist and artistic diversions.
in all kind of things –appliances, shoes, technical or contemporary art-
works– we can see a certain stylistic unity begin to emerge. this does not
depend on the addition of external elements, in contrast to the “style” en-
visaged by one particularly efficient housewife when she lectured adolf
loos on the subject:
if a bedside table has a lion’s head on it and this lion’s head also decorates The speech was published in Portuguese in the journal Habitat, coinciding
the sofa, the wardrobe, the beds, the armchairs, the washstand –in short, with a Max Bill exhibition dedicated to Bill’s work at the Museu de Arte de São
all the objects in the room— now that’s what you call style. Paulo, inaugurated on March 1, 1951. Some photographs of his work also ap-
peared in the journal (cf. García 2011, p. 135).
but that’s not the kind of style i’m talking about, but rather something that
arises out of a disciplined, purposeful approach to design. we can draw a
certain satisfaction from much of what we’re doing today, and while con-
crete results may still be thin on the ground, there are enough of them to
give us hope that the path we’ve taken is not so wrong, and that this de-
velopment will ultimately lead somewhere. these results also show that our
thesis, which is now being taken up again with renewed vigor, might serve
as the foundation for building a new culture befitting of our potential and
our aesthetic ideas. that this will take time to come about is something that
has become clear to us over the years.

but today our efforts today must be aimed in two directions: first, at making
manufacturers aware of the issues and increasing their sense of cultural
responsibility, and second, at giving able individuals an education that will
allow them, as industrial designers, to draw on their own experience, their
own ideas and their own sense of responsibility to create things that we
will be happy to use all the time, everyday –all kind of objects, from a pin to
home furnishings, all of them designed in a spirit of beauty which is devel-
oped from function and whose beauty fulfills a function of its own.

First published in German as “schönheit aus funktion und als function” in the
journal Werk (Bill 1949b, pp. 272-82).
Reprinted in 1952 in English, German and French as “beauty from function
and as function” / “schönheit aus funktion und als function” / “beauté issue de
la function, beauté en tant que fonction”, in: Idea 53: International Design An-
nual… (Hatje 1952, pp. 16-18, 10-12 and 23-25). Reprinted in: max bill. funktion
und funktionalismus… (Bill 2008, pp. 15-24). Published in Italian as “bellezza
proveniente dalla funzione e bellezza come funzione” (Domus 1950, pp. 1-3).
Published in Portuguese as “beleza provinda da funçao e beleza como funçao”
(Habitat 1951, pp. 61-64). Reprinted in French in: Faces (Bill 1990, pp. 24-27.
Reprinted in English in: form, function, beauty = gestalt (Bill 2010, pp. 32-41);
and in: max bill’s view of things… (Müller 2015, pp. 146-47).
This is a speech given by Bill at the congress of the Swiss Werkbund [As-
sociation of Swiss Artists, Craftsmen and Industrialists] in Basel on October
23 and 24, 1948. Later he mentions –in his article “vom Bauhaus bis ulm” [the
bauhaus idea from weimar to ulm] (1976) –the impact that his talk had on the
members of the Werkbund, for whom functionality was essential to their philos-
ophy. They were surprised by the idea that beauty can be seen as just another
function of everyday objects and architecture, which Bill expresses with the
formula: form, function, beauty = Gestalt (design). Henry van de Velde comes
out in Bill’s defense, and from that moment on the two were close friends. After
listening to his speech the Swiss Werkbund, which was thinking about doing
an educational exhibition on good design, enlisted Bill with the project. The
show was inaugurated in Basel that same year under the title “die gute form”
[the good form]. Two versions of that same exhibition traveled around Switzer-
land, Austria and Germany and inspired the “die gute form” award, given out
annually by the Swiss Werkbund from 1951 to 1968, though bill was not involve
in these awards. The show also inspired design prizes in Italy –the Compasso
d’Oro, starting in 1954 –and Germany– Die gute Industrieform [Good Industrial
Design], first given out 1954, subsequently the Bundespreis gute Form [Federal
Award for Good Design]– (cf. max bill’s view of things…, in: Müller 2015, p. 19).
The Swiss Werkbund was founded in 1913 with the goal of bringing together art
and industry and influencing the design of mass-produced consumer products.
In this text, Bill raises, for the first time, the need for proper training for indus-
trial designers and what that training should entail.

277

Fundación Juan March


5. artistic expression
in construction
[robert maillart]
(1949)
the work of robert maillart1 might be understood and explained in purely
technological terms. surely this would bring to light a great number of in-
teresting structural details, capable of inspiring the engineer, which illus-
trate the mathematical and structural foundation of the art of maillart the
researcher and inventor.
if i do not do so here, it is not because i undervalue this important facet of
his work or do not rate it as highly as the other aspect i have chosen to deal
with here. it is true that maillart was a great inventor and engineer, but there
is something about his bridge constructions in particular that raises them
above the purely technological, precisely because of their technological
perfection. they are designed with a kind of daring, borne of an absolute
freedom of the imagination, that lifts them out of the material and into the
spiritual realm, out of the technological into the sphere of the artistic and
visionary. his creative power is that of an artist who, making use of all avail-
able materials and possibilities of his time, always manages to create some-
thing new; and again and again this something new is seen as the perfect
response to the assignment, to the vision. and again and again it delights
because it had never been done before. to be sure, his bridges employ the
same elementary structural principles; to be sure, there are recurring for-
mal elements. but these formal elements are a part of his personality that
is expressed within the limitations of the material; of matter. matter has its
own laws, it is true; but within these laws it leaves various possibilites open
to the creative imagination, out of which different forms are produced. and
precisely because this material is governed by strict rules and in essence
does not lend itself to the decorative but rather to the structural—for pre-
cisely that reason it is especially important to shape and master it by wres-
tling with its intrinsic possibilities, just as maillart did.
one might object that the possible expressions of a concrete structure are
few, and that whether such a structure takes on one form or another is a
question of subsequent inventions or the new systems used. the formal
options are indeed limited, but nevertheless numerous paths to creative
invention are opened up . otherwise, how can we explain why, when we
see one of maillart’s bridge, without knowing it to be his, its quality seems
unusually good to us and we recognize it as his work? how is it that see-
ing one of his bridges is an experience similar to encountering a work of
art? and precisely for that reason generates objections in some circles and
acceptance in others? this cannot be explained by technology alone; it is
1 The Swiss engineer Robert Maillart (1872-40), known above all for his work as a
builder of bridges (he built over forty of them), is one of the most influential engineers
of the last century. Thanks to the construction system that he devised, based on the
use of reinforced concrete –which made it possible to create much lighter structures–,
he managed to erect, with a great economy of means, flexible, solid structures that
were also lightweight and slender, giving his bridges an elegance thanks to which
they are often regarded as works of art. Ed.
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Fundación Juan March
the choice, the artistic form that arises from technology, that is expressed
in maillart’s works.
when i was preparing this book, i visited schwarzenburg. it was during the
war; there were no cars available, and i hiked eastward out of schwarzen-
burg into the region where the rossgraben and schwandbach bridges had
to be2. it was oppressively hot. i finally found myself on a narrow trail that
went through a forest. suddenly i could see a structure glistening among
the trees, slender and taut like a huge greyhound: the rossgraben bridge—
an astonishing structure of immense resilience. and a few hundred meters
farther on, floating in the middle of a forested valley, the schwandbach
bridge. yes, it was floating! as light as if it were made of paper, it seemed
to effortlessly connect the two sides of the valley. two unforgettable expe-
riences.
i returned to bern, and the next day i rode my bicycle across a bridge that
i had noticed before i had begun working on this book. but now i looked
at it more closely and realized that i really admired it; indeed, that it was
an extraordinary structure. critically, i said to myself: “it is unfair to always
praise maillart as the best bridge builder, and consider his bridges alone
works of modern art as we tend to do; for this bridge is also a masterpiece
of harmonious beauty and simplicity, one for which i would almost trade for
any of maillart’s bridges.” surprised by this idea, i thought that people are
ungrateful. but this thought continued to haunt me during the many years
i devoted to maillart.
two years later i read that maillart was supposed to have built an “overpass”
over a railway line somewhere in bern. i didn’t know of any photographs
of one, or anything about it; i had stumbled upon it on a list of his works
and hadn’t given it a second thought before. so you can imagine my sur-
prise when i realized that this “weissensteinstrasse overpass” 3 was the
very bridge that i had mentally compared to others i knew by maillart and
had almost found superior to them.
is it not strange that this sense of quality does not let go of you, that it
forces you to acknowledge it, even when we find ourselves before a new,
unknown solution? at the same time, it is also interesting to note that a
good work does not depend on its surroundings alone. despite the un-
pleasant setting of the weissenstein overpass, its effect is undiminished.
this has brought me to the conviction that one of maillart’s bridge projects
—which i had hardly noticed before— his design for the rhône bridge in
aire-la-ville–peney (geneva), is perhaps his greatest, most complete and
mature solution, structurally and artistically. the fact that this bridge —i
then recreated an overall view of it based on his plans— was never built, is
surely an incalculable loss, even greater than the destruction, also painful,
of the tavanasa bridge by an avalanche4.
2 The bridges known as Rossgrabenbrücke and Schwandbachbrücke, both erected
between 1932 and 1934 in what is now Gantrisch Regional Nature Park (Switzerland).
On p. 26 of the original German text (Max Bill, robert maillart. Erlenbach-Zurich:
Verlag für architecktur AG, 1949), there is a picture of the Schwandbachbrücke with
the following note: “Example of the perfect union between economy of material,
constructive forces and aesthetic rhythm”. The same page includes a 1938 drawing
by Georges Vantergloo –similar to Curvas (1939). Fundación Juan March, Madrid—to
illustrate how this economy of expressive means is also expressed in painting of the
period. Ed.
3 The overpass constructed in 1938 over a railroad line that crosses the
Weissensteinstrasse in Bern. Ed.
4 Maillart’s Tavanasa bridge (in the Swiss Canton of Graubünden), over the Rhine, was
built in 1905.
i have already shown that maillart’s works have the same effect on us as
works of art: we stand in front of them and are struck by them in spite
of ourselves. we can also see that they are met with rejection in conser-
vative-minded circles and approval in progressive ones. the same occurs
with modern art: as long as it is the most forward-looking art of its day, its
supporters and detractors are irreconcilably opposed, but as soon as an
even more progressive form takes its place, these differences are dimin-
ished. ultimately, the former are considered classics, they are placed in
museums or otherwise protected. we can expect that maillart’s bridges will
be protected also; that on his hundredth birthday they will all be cleaned
and painted a beautiful mineral shade of white or light gray; that engineers
and friends of art in the old and new worlds will visit them on their trips
to switzerland and art historians will include them in their books. the most
modern expressions of today’s art will have also attained a certain classic
status, where piet mondrian (only a month younger than maillart), will be
recognized as the paradigm of new painting and other works of concrete
art will also be appreciated. maillart will then be celebrated not only as a
great engineer, but as one of these new artists who are among the “greats”
of their time. and if we have compared the stylistic features of this new art
with those of maillart’s structures, it is to show that there are correlations
between those who turn material into spiritual form and those who make
rational constructions into works of art.
this even applies to inner structures, to the reinforced steel system of mail-
lart’s mushroom slabs5. is it not odd that these two pioneers of the same
generation –the engineer robert maillart and the painter piet mondrian6–
have created, in the same year, a new structural system and a new rela-
tional kind of painting? the former, the crosswise reinforcement of a single
concrete slab –the two-way system7– treated as a single surface, organi-
cally fused to the column via mushroom-shaped capitals; and the latter, a
surface constructed based on horizontal and vertical rhythms accented by
just a few sparing colors? in both cases economy of means and concept
come together in an extremely valuable aesthetic formula.8 and is it not
also strange that similar formal elements are found both in the rhythms of
a georges vantongerloo painting and in the schwandbach bridge? is there
not a connection between the curved bridge that spans from one slope
to another like the artificially-created manifestation of some unknown law
and a sculpture inserted in the middle of nature, made according to laws
of mathematics? is there not a relationship between another sculpture that
rests on just a few points, which heeds the weight of the material only
out of obligation, and a bridge supported at just a few spots that scarcely
touches the ground?
5 The Pilzdecke or mushroom-slab ceiling is a system designed by Maillart to achieve
maximum stability with minimal resources. It consists of two elements “fused”
together: a “mushroom column” (that is, crowned with a kind of mushroom-shaped
capital) that “merges” with a continuous slab, the so-called “mushroom slab”
(comprised of a metal grid structure) –a two-way system or Zweibahnensystem–
covered with reinforced concrete. Ed.
6 In the original German version of this text, this comment is accompanied by two
images: a work by Piet Mondrian (Composition nº 12 with blue, 1936-42. Oil on
canvas. Canada, National Gallery of Canada) and an image of the metal grid structure
of one of Robert Maillart’s mushroom ceilings.
7 Zweibahnensystem.
8 As an example of a construction system with a mushroom ceiling and columns, Bill
reproduces in his book on Robert Maillart (op. cit, note 2, p. 154) an image from the
Van Nelle factory in Rotterdam (dedicated to refining and packaging coffee, tea and
tobacco, it was designed by the architects Johannes Brinkman and Leendert van der
Blug with help from Mart Stam and erected from 1926 to 1931), and an image of the
bridge over the Laxbraben on the Furka Pass in Lausanne, designed by Alexandre
Serrasin and built between 1940 and 1942. Ed.
Fundación Juan March
with these few examples i hope to have shown that there is some con-
nection between reinforced concrete, sparingly designed with an eye to
utility, and that other material of apparent uselessness9 but designed with
the rational utility of the spirit in mind. and if we call this art “concrete,”
because it is real; the materialized expression of the spirit —as the philo-
sophical term suggests— i would also like to point out here that in english,
the word “concrete” refers not only to the concept we use in art, but also
“concrete” as in the artificially-obtained malleable stone, a manmade ma-
terial produced by technical means, which is not only similar to natural
stone but superior. once again we come full circle: the two meanings of
the word “concrete” are not so far removed from each other as one might
initially think.
if we have considered maillart’s bridges, above all, as works of art of a spe-
cial kind, they are still products of technology designed to serve a specific
practical purpose. in their harmonious symmetry they are both functional
and beautiful; functional in every respect, they truly fulfill their function.
the tests that have been done on them and the fact that they have not de-
teriorated over the years are enough to convince us that his technological
solutions are valid, yet at the same time very economical and practical. for
they fulfill their functions not only as bridges, but as bridges they are so
perfectly incorporated into roadway that the regular flow of traffic is never
interrupted nor abruply diverted. wherever we find maillart’s bridges, traffic
problems have been solved in an exemplary fashion; they generally cross
the obstacle at an angle. for these angled overpasses, maillart has devised
various systems that combine economy and function.
since we are primarily talking about their artistic/aesthetic expression, we
would have wished, no doubt, to see whether this is true of all his work.
sadly, our theory does not always coincide with reality. but if we look more
closely, we can see that this is not maillart’s fault, for he always sought
beauty in his structures and called for it in his writings. his unrealized proj-
ects exhibit an astonishing purity, yet very few of the ones that were actual-
ly built share this same quality. one has to assume that in his dealings with
clients maillart’s designs were seldom accepted as is, and that only rarely
was he able to build bridges of absolute purity.
if i have referred to these influences and aesthetic decisions in each case, it
is because these were the material conditions the engineer had to work un-
der and, drawing lessons from them, apply in the future. it would be absurd
to point out all the bureaucratic interferences that altered maillart’s designs.
especially garish instances like the thur bridge near felsegg10, where the
original light railing ended up being replaced by a concrete parapet, or the
bridge over the twannbach river11, which was first conceived as a light arch
and ended up a full-blown coffered arch, are nevertheless relatively rare. far
more often his bridges were never even built, as they were rejected by the
responsible jury. that is why most of maillart’s bridges are located in hard-
to-reach spots, in isolated mountain valleys where there was little money
available and aesthetics do not seem to have played a role. here we see
9 Here Max Bill is comparing the terms Nützlichkeit-Unüntzlichkeit (in quotation marks
in this edition), expressing a central idea to his thinking: the contrast between “utility”
and “spiritual use”. Ed.
10 Thurbrücke, Felsegg (St. Gallen, Switzerland), 1932. The original German text (op.
cit. note 2, p. 28) includes an image of this structure with the following comment:
“The bridge barely rises up from the ground, a characteristic of engineering and
the modern sculpture of construction.” To illustrate this comment, on the same
page there is also a picture of a sculpture by Antoine Pevsner, Construction pour un
aéroport [Construction for an Airport], 1937. Patinadated bronze. Stedelijk Museum,
Amsterdam) about which he says: “This modern sculpture of construction hardly rests
on any points.”
11 Twannbach Brücke (Twan-Ligerz, Bern), 1936.
279
that economy worked in favor of aesthetics, that it was precisely extreme
austerity that led to the most valuable artistic solutions.
6. kandinsky, pedagogue
First published in German as “der künstlerische ausdruck der konstruktion”
with French and English translations, in: robert maillart… (Bill 1949a). Graphic
and educator
design of the book and its jacket are by Max Bill. It includes eight illustrations (1951)
of various structures by Robert Maillart which Bill compares with works by
Piet Mondrian, Georges Vantongerloo, Antoine Pevsner and others of his own.
Published in Spanish as “la expresión artística de la construcción”, in: Ciclo
(March-April 1949), pp. 29-34. Reprinted in English as robert maillart: bridges
and construction. London: Pall Mall, 1969.
The main contribution of the Swiss engineer Robert Maillart (Bern 1872-Ge-
kandinsky’s work as a teacher began in 1912 when he established a private
neva 1940) was the invention of a construction system based on flared “mush-
school of painting in munich. but it was in moscow, from 1918 to 1921, that
room” slabs and columns of steel-reinforced concrete, which he first used in his
he became engaged in educational activities on a large scale. as member
design for a warehouse in Zurich, in 1910. Maillart also applied this system to
of the fine arts section of the people’s commissary for public instruction,
building curved bridges.
a professor at the academy of fine arts and director of the museum of
In this article, Bill compares the metal framework of these slabs to the geo-
pictorial culture, kandinsky –who also founded the russian academy of aes-
metric structures that can be seen in the paintings of Piet Mondrian. The first to
thetic sciences– demonstrated his awareness of the social responsibilities
notice the connection between Maillart and contemporary artists’ explorations
incumbent upon a pioneer in intellectual research who was also an artist.
of the relationship between elements of a painting on the picture plane was
however, his real pedagogical work was not to begin until 1922 when he
Siegfried Giedión, another Swiss visionary, who compiled them in: Space, Time
was appointed professor at the “bauhaus” in weimar, founded by walter
and Architecture… (Giedion 1941) (cf. the chapter “Construction and Aesthet-
gropius in 1919. from that date until the closing of this famous institution
ics: Slab and Plane. The Bridges of Robert Maillart”).
in 1933, kandinsky remained faithful to the bauhaus. he followed it when it
relocated from weimar to dessau and then from dessau to berlin, and con-
tinued to teach there until the nazis closed the school. soon after, he went
to live in paris. thus, for almost eleven years kandinsky participated in the
work of the bauhaus, not only as teacher but also as assistant director; and
not by the example of his own work alone, but also by knowing how to be
a friend and advisor to all.

kandinsky was aware of the deep impression he made upon young stu-
dents by introducing them, during the first semester of his preliminary
course [vorkurs], to the study of the problems inherent in the art of our
time. he was equally aware of how invaluable it was, to his teaching and
therefore his pupils, that he could show them the evolution of painting as a
discipline of design in an unconventional, anti-dogmatic way, the result of
his own point of view and experience as an artist.

when i myself entered the bauhaus, kandinsky has just turned sixty. i had
previously wondered why there were so many painters at the bauhaus.
in addition to kandinsky, klee, feininger, schlemmer, moholu, muche and
albers were also there. officially the teaching of these distinguished artists
had only a very casual relationship with their art. thus, kandinsky began by
teaching a kind of “history of modern art” and, in connection with this –as
a sequel, so to speak– a theory of composition based on the data furnished
by the historical evolution of art. a course in drawing directed by him con-
sisted of arranging the most varied objects into a kind of “still life” which
the students then had to draw. yet it was not a matter of lifelike, para-pho-
tographic drawing, in the usual sense of the term, but rather of a search
for the structure of the phenomenon, the “still life” captured in its totality.
this resulted in studies that represented only the horizontal elements, or
only the vertical or diagonal ones, stressed according to their importance.
or else round and angular forms were confronted and contrasted with each
other. in short, there was no “composition” but rather an “analysis” of the
data; it was not an art class but a class designed to make students focus
their minds on elementary observation.

a little later i noticed that, in spite of “official condemnation”, people were

still painting at the bauhaus. some students were doing nothing else –

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which we regarded askance, for what we wanted were practical results, dinsky’s teachings in the evolution of concrete art is evidenced by the effort he
social products. but below the surface a “painting sickness” was develop- made to reprint the latter’s theoretical writings (cf. Wick 1986).
ing, a kind of sly nostalgia for the forbidden fruit. Bill wrote a number of articles about Kandinsky, including “zur zeichung nr.
21/1932 von wassily kandinsky”, published in: Abstrakt-Konkret (Bill 1945) and
and one day i too began to wonder just what the masters’ “free paint- “wassily kandinsky”, in: Werk (Bill 1946c). In 1949 he published the portfolio
ing classes” actually were and whether i could get into them. and that’s wassily kandinsky. 10 farbige reproduktionen (Bill 1949b), for which he wrote
how i ended up taking kandinsky’s (and klee’s) class in free painting. this a preface. A few years later he published three of his former teacher’s most
amounted to bringing your latest “inventions” in to kandinsky or klee every famous theoretical works: Über das Geistige in der Kunst (Bern: Benteli, 1952),
week. klee had lots of pupils; kandinsky had very few. his art seemed more Punkt und Linie zur Fläche (Bern: Benteli, 1955) and Essais über Kunst und
inaccessible than klee’s, which seemed to compensate for the rationalistic Künstler (Stuttgart: Hatje, 1956 and Bern: Benteli, 1957), all accompanied by
introductory texts. All three books have been translated into Spanish as Sobre lo
attitude of the bauhaus students.
espiritual en el arte (Barcelona: Paidós, 1996), Punto y línea sobre el plano (Bar-
celona: Paidós, 2000) and Ensayos sobre arte y artistas (Madrid: Síntesis, 2002).
it was only then that i really got to know kandinsky; how, in his ever-scru-
pulous way, he strove to put you on the right track or to convince you that
evolution cannot be stopped; that it must go on. and even more impor-
tantly: the fact that very often you talked not about painting but of other
equally essential things, including your own spiritual problems. and that
was precisely what gave such weight to everything kandinsky had to say as
painter. for kandinsky’s great pedagogical gift lay in his being a man who
knew how to guide young people in a beneficial way, not by ridding them
of their doubts but rather making them more sure of judgment, stimulat-
ing a constant exercise of critical thinking and self-criticism. his boundless
humanity, together with a keen insight and ability to understand situations
and his rather paternal kindness, were the secret of his success and his
effectiveness as an educator – an effectiveness and success which, in turn,
would not have been possible without his vast knowledge and constant
search for new truths.

Originally published in German as an introduction written by Max Bill in: Es-

says über Kunst und Künstler by Wassily Kandinsky (Bill and Kandinsky 1955)
and as “kandinsky als pädagoge und erzieher”, in: Max Bill: Maler, Bildhauer,
Architekt, Designer (Stuttgart 2005, pp. 18-21). First published in French as
“Kandinsky, l’éducateur”, in: Kandinsky (Bill 1951, pp. 95-98) with English and
Spanish translations (p. 172). Edited and designed by Max Bill, it contains texts
by Jean Arp, Max Bill, Charles Etienne, Carola Giedion-Welker, Will Grohmann,
Ludiwig Grote, Nina Kandinsky and Alberto Magnelli. Reprinted in Spanish and
English in: Kandinsky (Bill and Giedion-Welcker 2009, pp. 7-13). Published in
Italian in: Max Bill: pittore, scultore, architetto, designer (Milan 2006, pp. 18-21).
Wassily Kandinsky (Moscow, 1866-Neuilly sur Seine, 1944) was, together
with Paul Klee, one of Bill’s regular professors during his time at the Bauhaus
from 1927 to 1929. During the summer semester 1927 he attended the first
mandatory course on form taught by Kandinsky, as well as the basic courses
of Josef Albers and László Moholy-Nagy. In the following semesters, Bill also
took Kandinsky and Klee’s free painting classes, which were not part of the core
curriculum at the Bauhaus (cf. Bill 2008). Kandinsky’s teachings at the Bauhaus,
both in the mandatory courses on form and color as well as the free painting
classes, are contained in his book Punkt und Linie zu Fläche [Point and Line on
the Surface], published in 1926 in Munich as volume 9 of a series of books on
the Bauhaus, as Bill states in his own introduction to the book, reprinted by him
in 1955, in which he writes: “Point and line on the surface came about, then,
as a compilation of many of the theories Kandinsky taught at the Bauhaus.
The book has the subheading Contribution to the analysis of pictorial elements.
This subheading could be broader, because it goes beyond painting to explore
general matters of design, just as Kandinsky explained them in his classes on
the basic elements of form […]. During these ten years, the ideas presented in
Point and Line on the Surface were more or less the foundation of his classes,
both in the basic Bauhaus doctrine as well as in any of his free painting classes”
(cf. Kandinsky [1926] 1996, pp. 9-11). The importance that Bill attached to Kan-

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7. from surface to space
(1951)
man’s relationship to his environment, and thus to space, has undergone a
profound transformation in our century. this is most evident in art. indeed,
this new change in art may be what has revealed man’s new relationship
to space.
at the beginning of the 20th century, structuring a picture was still a matter
of organizing the surface —the surface alone— and this is precisely where
that change came about. the surface was deliberately placed in relation
to space; it became just another element of a process in space where the
viewer was incorporated as a new variable dimension. what had previously
occurred only in exceptional cases —and above all with special intentions;
that is, considering the viewer as a dynamic factor— now appeared as a
new additional feature.
yet while this development was taking place (we shall get to this later),
another possibility of transcending the euclidean picture appeared. in a
series of pictures, paul klee created a space on a flat surface that cannot
be explained either as a “two-dimensionally-created space” or as simu-
lated through perspective.1 klee thus introduced an unreal dimension to
the space of the picture: the indissolubility of an aperspective space. it is
impossible to describe what is going on in these compositions using tra-
ditional concepts. these pictures of klee’s are vaguely reminiscent of the
drawings mathematicians do to represent the fourth dimension. in recent
years, josef albers has also produced multiple variations of paintings with
similar themes and unreal spatial projections. thus, both artists have used
the plane to create unreal spaces as opposed to the spaces that have been
simulated on the surface of the canvas since the renaissance.
parallel phenomena can be found in the paintings of kasimir malevich
and wassily kandinsky, who created immeasurable spaces on the surface
through the relationships between elements of various sizes which often
overlap.
but here i would like to focus on another kind of relationship between the
picture plane and space. it is the relationship i mentioned at the beginning,
between a flat image and its context, and above all between this image and
the viewer. until now, paintings have always been thought of as a pictorial
organization; a composition in itself. they were considered from the per-
spective of the viewer stationed directly in front of them. this is because un-
til only recently, pictures were always seen as a reproduction; a depiction of
something else; never a mere composition. that’s why at first, we still tend
to contemplate them as objects parallel to our eyes: we stand right in front
of them. the tradition of “reproducing” suppressed the function of “produc-
ing” –and with it the direct effect on space. only now is it possible to create
autonomous pictures and judge them by their spatial effect as well.
1 Max Bill cites as an example a work by Paul Klee called Verspannte Flächen [Tensed
Surfaces], 1930. Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein, reproduced on p. 59 of the French
version of this text, “De la surface à l’espace”, in XXé siècle, 2 (1951), under the title
Surfaces entre-tendus. Ed.
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Fundación Juan March
pictures thus acquire a new function: they influence the space where they
hang in a new and different way. their spatial effect does not depend on
whether they are viewed from the front or from the side. it doesn’t even
seem to matter if one contemplates them actively and consciously, or if, as
elements of space, they exert their influence on passive individuals: that is,
they have the same effect when contemplated unconsciously. this means
that human beings –as moving, dynamic elements whose spatial relation-
ship to the picture is constantly changing – must be regarded as a much
more important factor than before. they are the variable quantity in the spa-
tial relationship. the picture, formerly seen as a two-dimensional plane, thus
becomes a part of a multidimensional process where the actual space –
constantly changing due to the person’s movement– and the mental space
–the state in which this individual finds him or herself– overlap. in short,
a picture ceases to be a two-dimensional creation the moment that it is
interpreted according to its effect —its meaning— and not merely as a dis-
crete “object”. (without doubt, this also applies more or less to any object
of everyday use, yet it is significant that today works of art can be created
that meet this requirement; that is, that also include the dynamic function.)
these observations are important in that they explain why pictures are now
being created on the surface that are meant to be pure rhythms, whose
effect is not based on the representation of “recollected images,” but rather
on the new considerations i have already mentioned. these automatically
preclude the old methods and lead to new ones, also in in terms of pictorial
organization, the use of color, etc. color is no longer used exclusively for
representational purposes; rather, it has its own effect. these new possibil-
ities include using color to create energy fields by means of color, or gen-
erating rhythms that could not be produced by any other means. whereas
most of what is now called “abstract” painting and sculpture possesses
these qualities in only a limited way, they are the decisive feature of “con-
crete art”, as we can see in the two examples reproduced here2. that is, if in
these works the traditional spatial effect has been diluted, there is another
one that has nothing to do with the spatial illusions of the renaissance or
four-dimensional projective geometry. here the spatial effect is merely a
product of the tensions resulting from the psychological and physiological
effects of the colors, from the contrast between light and dark, blue and
orange, etc.
demonstrating all the abovementioned phenomena would take me too far
off topic. i have merely wished to point out that now more than ever, paint-
ing also has a clear spatial function; that a picture —much like a source of
light or heat— is a source of emanations, with the difference being that
these emanations derive from the way the picture itself is organized rather
than some energy source external to the painting.
other examples of a real interaction with space are works of art with the
quality of a relief, such as the ones by hans arp, kurt schwitters, moho-
ly-nagy, sophie taeuber and georges vantongerloo. a series of pictures by
vordemberg-gildewart can be seen as another step in this direction; in them
the picture plane is broken up, letting real space in through the cracks be-
tween the different planes.3
2 Bill is referring to the following works: Piet Mondrian, Composition, 1930. Peggy
Guggenheim Collection, Venice; and Max Bill, unbegrenzt und begrenz [unlimited and
limited], 1947, both reproduced in: Max Bill, “De la surface…” [op. cit. note 1], p. 60.
Ed.
3 Bill accompanies this comment with a work by Friedrich Vordemberge-Gildewart,
Komposition nr. 179 [Composition nº 179], 1950, reproduced in: Max Bill, “De la
surface…” [op. cit. note 1], p. 64. Ed.
our current sense of space began to be expressed most clearly in sculpture.
space is not considered as something outside of the artistic relationship,
but as a basic component of artistic expression.
at the dawn of this development —like the one that took place with the
discovery of african sculpture in the early days of cubism— we find math-
ematical models of spatial functions. these models may have somehow
indicated the path that sculpture might take. it would be wrong to assume,
however, that all the works reproduced here4 were created based on this,
even though mathematical considerations often play a decisive role in the
design of new spatial structures, as they have done for example in music,
from baroque music to the twelve-tone compositions of our own century.5
today it is possible to distinguish various trends in sculpture that have to do
mainly with the configuration of spaces. (i exclude from this analysis other
present-day sculptural expressions that are more archaic and block-like and
as such, subject to different laws.)
as essential formal trends in modern-day sculpture we might mention: the
grid, the line in space, the surface of the transparent volume, the plane in
space and the creation of space through light or moving volumes.
this last option —solid volumes in motion— is the one employed by alex-
ander calder. today we know of few forms of design with light other than
fireworks, just as the only form of design with water we are familiar with is
the fountain.
at first, reducing a sculpture to a plane or a line appears to be a contra-
diction in itself. both point to a dematerialization, a turning away from the
archaic and block-like and toward the unlimited and energetic.
through the topology of the plane, the “surface développable”6 became
known. this method, applied above all in the sculptures of naum gabo and
anton pevsner, results in constructions that consist of interpenetrating
planes, whose material substance does not stem from a need for volume,
but from the need to give the necessary stability to a construction in space.
ever since moebius7 the mathematician described the “endless ribbon”8 we
have known of these structures composed of a single surface, which can
be considered in ideal terms as having no volume.
one such construction is sechseckfläche im raum [hexagonal surface in
space]9. it is really a single surface with a hexagonal outline comprised of
six lines, but executed in such a way that the resulting figure cannot be
regarded as a self-enclosed space. we’re talking about a space that can
only be understood in movement, according to its effect on its surround-
4 In addition to the already-cited work by Vordemberge-Gildewart [cf. note 2], Bill is
referring to the work by Hans (Jean) Arp, Symétrique-végétal [Symmetrical-vegetable],
1947. Trix Dürst-Haass Collection, Basil, reproduced in: Max Bill, “De la surface…”
[op. cit. note 1], p. 64. Ed.
5 The twelve-tone technique or dodecaphony was devised in the early 20th century by
the Austrian composer Arnold Schönberg (1874-51). Ed.
6 Surface développable [developable surface]: a curved surface that may be flattened
out on a plane without altering its area; that is, without it breaking, stretching or
getting wrinkled. Thus, cones and cylinders are “developable” surfaces, but a sphere
is not (for instance, you can’t wrap a tennis ball in tinfoil without the paper getting
wrinkled). Ed.
7 August Ferdinand Moebius or Möbius (1790-1868).
8 Also known as the Moebius strip. It is a surface with just one side and one edge,
obtained by twisting one end of the ribbon and connecting the two ends. Ed.
9 Max Bill, sechseckfläche im raum, 1951, work reproduced in: Max Bill, “De la
surface…” [op. cit. note 1], p. 65. Ed.
Fundación Juan March
ings. a similar phenomenon occurs with the sechseck im raum mit gleichen
seitenlängen [hexagon in space with sides of equal length]10 (whose mate-
rial substance depends on the construction’s need for stability). this linear
sculpture describes an unlocatable space that represents neither an interior
nor an exterior space, just as the “hexagon” itself does not belong to the
euclidean concept of space. one might also think of this sculpture as a
drawing in space.
the construction by mary vieira [maría helena vieria da silva] is made up of
planes that spread out in space as horizontals and verticals, while forming
a solid core in the center.
in contrast, ibram lassaw’s sculpture breaks up a volume into a grid struc-
ture, where concentrations of material stand in contrast to the open spaces
among them. finally, the sculpture by georges vantongerloo11 is a construc-
tion based on a transparent volume that has a length, a surface and a visible
interior. this transparency and its boundaries produce a novel spatial effect
in which the volume’s interior intersects with the exterior space.
the opposite of this is bildsäule i [picture-column i]12, a painting in the
form of a column which represents a closed volume imbued with rhythm
through painting.
from the foregoing we can detect a trend whereby painting and sculpture
have a wholly new relationship with space. material means are employed in
innovative ways and combinations. it is not so much material as substance
that matters, but rather material as the transmitter of energies. in fact, we
are no longer even talking about “material”, but the energies it transmits:
spatial and chromatic energies.
something similar is occurring with architecture. if we have already estab-
lished that a picture exerts an influence on the space around it, and that
in this space the viewer plays an important role as a variable dimension, it
is self-evident that space itself is also of decisive importance. the nature
of this space has also undergone an essential transformation in our time.
today architects have different resources available to them. our structures
offer new possibilities for creating spaces which would have been ruled
out from the start in the past. cantilevered concrete roofs hanging over
walls of glass have become a characteristic feature of new architecture.
the distinction between exterior and interior space is blurred. after theo van
doesburg and frederick kiesler had tested out this type of interpenetrating
space in isolated experiments, mies van der rohe put it into practice in its
absolute purity.
the interplay of planes, load-bearing elements and the elements they sup-
port is especially clear in structures that have been built thanks to favorable
economic conditions in which ideas could be freely expressed, as in certain
works by frank lloyd wright and richart j. neutra.13
10 Max Bill, sechseck im raum mit gleichen seitenlängen, 1947, work reproduced in: Max
Bill, “De la surface…” [op. cit. note 1], p. 65. Ed.
11 Georges Vantongerloo, Cocon, chrysalide, embryonnaire (Cocoon, Chrysalis,
Embryonic), 1950, Plexiglas. Chantal and Jakob Bill Collection, Switzerland,
reproduced in: Max Bill, “De la surface…” [op. cit. note 1], p. 63, with the title Noyaux.
Ed.
12 Max Bill, bildsäule I, 1946-47. The first column in a series that he would work on for
many years. This first example has not survived, but it must have been similar to the
one he did, for instance, in 1985, which can now be seen next to the Bauhaus-Archiv
in Berlin. Ed.
13 Bill is referring to the Tremain House in Santa Barbara (California), a 1947 work
by Richard Neutra, and Fallingwater, the Kaufmann family residence in Mill Run
(Pennsylvania) by Frank Lloyd Wright, built from 1936 to 1939 (both reproduced in:
283
but an economy of means can also lead to convincing results if the project
has been designed properly, as we know from certain technical structures
like the particularly audacious ones by robert maillart.14 his constructions
were the product of the most extreme economy: a minimum amount of
material was combined with maximum ingenuity to produce works of
consummate beauty,15 characterized by a series of thin slabs that perfect-
ly complement each other in the necessary spatial directions, giving the
whole structure an unusual transparency which is also sought in mod-
ern-day sculpture.
Bill illustrates his ideas by mentioning a project he was working on at the
time, a pavilion at the Venice Bienale. Based on the relationship between open
and closed, full and empty spaces, it was never built because the architect
Bruno Giacometti won the competition. Bill had already tackled the subject of
space in relation to architecture and engineering in his article “die beherrschung
des raumes” [the domination of space], published in French as “la maitrise de
l’espace”, in: XXème Siècle (Bill 1939, pp. 51-53), and in German in: Almanach
neuer Kunst in der Schweiz (Bill 1940, pp. 13-14).

the project for an exhibition pavilion you can see here16 was also made
up of slabs. here too, he opted for a very economic use of material and a
concept of space that clearly adapts to the needs of the structure. it also
reflects an attempt to connect interior and exterior space in such a way that
a third space is created, closed and open at the same time.

we are seeing a growing a demand for painting and sculpture to be tied to

architecture once again. but that renaissance ideal, as it is generally under-
stood, is no longer appropriate. the day of the wall fresco has passed. only
a unified concept of space that incorporates all the possibilities of design
is suited to the modern era. our current concept of space is fundamentally
different than that of the past. now that the technological means available
to engineers are being increasingly perfected, once again there is a need
for artists who can bring together painting, sculpture and architecture, who
see space as a whole and how it relates to people. in such a space, sculp-
tural, color, and spatial design form a unity, and this is what we strive for.

yet this striving for unity does not detract from individual works of painting,
sculpture, or architecture, each of which has its own function to fulfill. how-
ever, i am convinced that only if what we currently understand as art —as
a spiritual factor, as the foundation of all human activity— fills every area
of life will it manage to offset the present chaos borne of indecision, irre-
sponsibility, atrophy, insecurity, anxiety and panic, and produce the desired
harmony. the prerequisite for this is a higher standard of living, made pos-
sible by the vast quantities of energy that might soon be available thanks
to nuclear physics. the dawning nuclear age will liberate mankind. it will
bring the possibility of a spiritual development, the first signs of which are
already finding expression in the new ways of looking at space that are
appearing in art.

German translation of the text “vom flächigen zum räumlichen”, undated and
kept at the max, binia + jakob bill stiftung.
First published in French as “de la surface a l´espace” in the journal XXe Siè-
cle (Bill 1951b, pp. 59-65), and published in German, with slight modifications,
in: Architecture (Bill 1953a), and in: Spirale (Bill 1954a, p. 6-11). The text repro-
duced in this anthology contains two additional paragraphs not included in the
French publication, about the illustrations that appear in the French version. The
information about those illustrations is reflected in the footnotes.
Max Bill offers a historical overview of what he sees as his predecessors
in concrete painting, stressing the spatial value of this movement. In concrete
painting, the interrelationship between interior and exterior space –which tran-
scends the idea of Renaissance perspective–, also applies to contemporary
sculpture and architecture.

Max Bill, “De la surface…” [op. cit. note 1], pp. 61 and 62. Ed.
14 See the text that Bill dedicated to Robert Maillart that appears in text nº5 of this
anthology. Ed.
15 Bill is referring to the bridge of Schwandbach or Schwanbachbrücke, built in 1933 in the
Swiss canton of Berne, reproduced in: Max Bill, “De la surface…” [op. cit. note 1], p. 62. Ed.
16 Here Bill is referring to the model for the pavilion for the 1951 Venice Biennale. Ed.

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 tivity, one learns a lot on the job, and the contact with this type of work will

8. at our school you can’t surely be positive. but building can hardly begin before spring.

become a painter
now you must think about what it is you would like to do. if in the mean-
time you can learn any sort of practical work or have the chance to acquire
technical experience in any field, this would be good preparation for your
thoughts on a school of design subsequent activities in ulm.
(1951) best regards,

max bill

Letter originally published in German as “bei uns kann man nicht maler werden
the director of the future ulm school of design, the architect max bill (ulm– […] gedanken zu einer hochschule für gestaltung”, in: Die neue Zeitung (Bill
zurich), formulated some ideas in a reply to a potential student that are of 1951c).
This letter is Bill’s reply to an application from a young man aspiring to study
general interest as a contribution to the debate about the role of the artist
at the future Hochschule für Gestaltung Ulm (HfG) [Ulm School of Design]. Its
in today’s society.
contents sparked a heated debate about the role of the artist in modern indus-
trial society, especially among the professors of fine arts and decorative arts.
dear sir…,
The HfG-Archiv Ulm houses his correspondence with the dean of the Akademie
please, if you should write me again, omit the complicated, impersonal der Bildende Künste [Fine Arts Academy] in Stuttgart, expressing the German
artistic community’s doubts and opposition to the new project for the school of
greeting — i am not fond of titles. there are none at the ulm school1 and
design. It has the virtue of showing Bill’s position on the teaching of the visual
none will be awarded.
arts and their relationship to the design of everyday objects.
i see that you are leaning toward art, toward painting or sculpture, or am i
mistaken? these will not be offered in ulm. there we will attempt to make
quite practical things that everyone can use; not because we have no re-
gard for art, but because we are of the opinion that art is something that
“attacks” you, that you cannot escape once you have the bacillus inside
you — that is, it’s something that cannot be either taught or learned. how-
ever one cannot making a living from from this art, and it is of little use to
society— at least society acts as if that were the case.

we feel, however, that culture is not only embodied in “high” art, but that
it has to be present in life, in everything that has form, for every form is the
expression of a purpose; it has a meaning. but we do not want to make the
usual arts and crafts—applied art, as it is so nicely called—, but rather au-
thentic objects that one can use. cities that function; houses that are beau-
tiful and practical; kitchens the housewife enjoys spending time in; utensils
you like to hold in your hand; posters and books that are nice to look at; in
short, practical things that alter one’s life and make it more pleasant. what
is called culture, everyday culture, not “extra” culture.

it is our opinion that art is something beautiful, but that one cannot produce
better works of art by ignoring life’s necessities. indeed, we feel that those
who are truly artists are most likely interested in these things as well. earlier
generations could still afford to just make “art.” but my generation can no
longer do so. the independent artist is a transitory phenomenon that still
survives in a few admirable and endearing examples; yet we have no desire
to produce new ones. so you won’t become a painter or sculptor in ulm,
but you are perfectly free to work in this direction in your free time, for a
hobby is both desirable and useful.

it will not be possible to open the school in ulm before the fall of 1952. until
then there will only be small work groups assisting us; but those who wish
to help must be able to do something practical. others who would like to
lend a hand might do so as construction assistants —that is a healthy ac-

1 Ulm School of Design [Hochschule für Gestaltung] (HfG).

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9. the bauhaus idea
from weimar to ulm
1
(1952)
after the proclamation of the first german republic in 1918, walter gropius
was, on henry van de velde’s recommendation, appointed his successor
as director of the academy of fine arts and the school of arts and crafts at
weimar2. social and economic changes brought about by the war necessi-
tated the reorganization of the two training institutes which van de velde
had established there between 1902 and 1906, and on april 1, 1919, the
local authorities agreed to their amalgamation as the staatllches bauhaus
[state bauhaus]3. thereupon gropius issued a manifesto appealing to mod-
ern-minded architects, painters and sculptors to come forward and co-op-
erate in its work by joining the staff as teachers.
three of the most independent artists of his day were named formmeister
[masters of form] to instruct in design, while the werkmeister were put in
charge of the technical side. the original formmeister were lionel feininger,
a painter and musician who ultimately settled in new york; the german
sculptor gerhard marcks; and the swiss painter and pedagogue johannes
itten, the present director of the museum of arts and crafts in zurich and
the school of arts and crafts there.4 they were later joined by the painters
paul klee (died 1940), oskar schlemmer (died 1943), lothar schreyer, and
georg muche; and soon thereafter by wassily kandinsky (died in paris in
1944) and laszló moholy-nagy (died in chicago in 1945). around 1925 some
of the most promising members of the first generation of bauhaus students
returned there to become formmeister: josef albers, marcel breuer, herbert
bayer, hinrik scheeper and joost schmidt.
the training at the bauhaus and the experimental work carried out there
were based on the same principles:
(1) that art and technique must be fused into one.
(2) that artistically gifted men and women ought to master the existing
technical possibilities so as to serve society by designing everything from
everyday objects like teacups to entire buildings, which are useful and prac-
tical as well as beautiful.
1  Hochschule für Gestaltung Ulm (UfG).
2 The fusion between the Grossherzoglich-Sächsischen Kunstschule [Grand-
Ducal Art School], founded on October 1, 1860, and which in 1910 became the
Grossherzoglich-Sächsischen Hochschule für Bildende Kunst [Grand-Ducal Saxon
College of Fine Arts], and the Grossherzogliche-Sächsischen Kunstgewerbeschule
Weimar [Grand-Ducal Saxon College of Arts and Crafts of Weimar], inaugurated on
April 1, 1908. Ed.
3 Official name proposed by Walter Gropius which reflects his program: the word
“Bauhaus” (literally “house of construction”) alluded to the medieval term “Bauhütte”
[church builders’ guilds]. So with this choice, he was stressing the training of a social
and spiritual community of creators over the products that they were to be created.
Ed.
4 Kunstgewerbemuseum Zürich and Zürcher Kunstgewerbeschule, respectively.
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(3) that existing prejudices against certain materials can be overcome by
giving student designers hands-on experience to learn their particular qual-
ities, peculiarities and potential uses. the method of teaching outlined in
(3), which johannes itten had adopted with conspicuous success at his own
school in vienna5, was embodied in the preliminary course [vorkurs] which
paved the way for courses on the theory of form [formlehre], color [farben-
lehre] and design [gestaltungslehre].
the marked influence that the bauhaus soon began to have on the design
of industrial products in germany was a pillar of strength to the german
werkbund. indeed, its influence on mass-produced goods could scarcely be
exaggerated. but citing examples would lead me away from the purpose of
this article and devolve into a critical analysis of style in relation to industrial
design.
numbers of venturesome young men and women were flocking to the
bauhaus from every part of the world to study under some of the most
outstanding artistic personalities of the day. the close and stimulating com-
radeship that developed as a result of their living and working together
under the same roof engendered that indispensable enthusiasm for a com-
mon aim that only a great art center like paris can arouse. as none of the
usual aesthetic constraints were imposed on the students, their work soon
evinced such freedom and vitality that the good burghers of weimar took
fright and protests ensued. the upshot was a dispute with the corporation,
which decided to withdraw the bauhaus’s municipal subvention, forcing
it to find a new home for itself. in 1925 its faculty and students moved to
dessau, which offered the major advantage of being an industrial as well as
an artistic center. this city had agreed to let a new bauhaus be built there
according to gropius’ own (now-famous) designs, where his idea of “a col-
lege of design”– a study program and practical experience, all in one—
could be fully realized.
in 1928, after ten years of inspiring leadership, gropius retired and the ar-
chitect hannes meyer of basel was chosen as his successor. meyer’s chief
concern was to increase the sale of things made in the bauhaus work-
shops so that poorer students could attend. this was a period of rapidly
mounting political tension, with the nazis hysterically denouncing “cultural
bolshevism” as a deadly foreign poison which could no longer be allowed
to corrupt the soul of the german people. a newly-elected town council
proceeded to dismiss hannes meyer and replace him with another archi-
tect, mies van der rohe. in 1932, after the nazis had managed to secure
a majority in dessau, the bauhaus was forced to close down. an attempt
made to continue part of its work in berlin as a privately-run school was
likewise suppressed a few months later; its teachers and students were
then forthwith declared “enemies of the state” and were either rounded up
and persecuted or forced to abandon their careers.
thus, in 1933, after fifteen years of continuous development, the world’s
most progressive hub of cultural activity was arbitrarily condemned to ex-
tinction and its empty buildings were left to rot. a young republic with faith
in the future had called the bauhaus into being to achieve the synthesis of
art and life and make “art for all” a reality; an evil, purblind tyranny hastened
to crush this brave adventure out of existence, as a foretaste of the trail
of destruction it was preparing to blaze across europe. but the ideal that
inspired the bauhaus was not dead, for its seed had been firmly planted.
in a few isolated spots in europe and america, where it had already germi-
nated and begun to take root, it was zealously tended and to good purpose
throughout the long, dark winter of 1933 to 1945, as proven by the fruit
5 During World War I, Itten moved to Vienna and founded an art school to earn a living
for himself. It was there that he met Walter Gropius. Ed.
it has yielded since. today there is very little good furniture that does not
clearly have the very characteristics once disdained as “the bauhaus style”
in germany, which have come to be highly-prized for precisely the same
reason. nearly all the schools of arts and crafts in the german-speaking
world have former bauhaus students on their faculty, if not as their direc-
tors. “bauhaus men” run the leading art and technical institutes in america,
and in germany itself they are regarded once again as the most experi-
enced, reliable designers available. after the war there was an extraordi-
nary recrudescence of public interest in the work achieved by the bauhaus,
which has spread from country to country. several attempts have since
been made to set up schools “according to the bauhaus model”, though
without much success. the same mistake was made in all of them: only cer-
tain features of its organization were adopted and no attempt was made to
develop them any further; the essential parts were left out, and there is no
substitute for them. in dessau gropius attained what were, at and for that
time, almost ideal conditions because he was able to gather round him a
group of highly-qualified teachers who –though leading artists in their own
right– were ready to give pride of place to solving the practical problems
of designing objects for everyday use, and knew how to do so without
lowering their high aesthetic standards in the slightest. that fusion of the
most vital elements of modern art with the essential principles of modern
technical design was the most decisive contribution of the bauhaus. it is,
of course, true that some of the things produced there during this heroic
pioneering phase unconsciously bear the mark of applied art of the period,
but this is by no means characteristic of the bauhaus movement. such oc-
casional lapses are inevitable, being inseparable from a system of training
based on the principle of leaving students completely free to find their own
creative expression in whichever field of design they care to choose.
it is only along these same well-tried lines that the basic plan of the bauhaus
can be further developed. now more than ever, i am convinced that the fine
arts are the primary formative influence on all design. in every epoch it has
always been the truly revolutionary painter or sculptor who have wrought
the works of art that first mirrored the spirit of his age, thereby setting free
that hitherto-imprisoned spirit to reverberate throughout every branch of
the arts and crafts. hence it is my firm belief that bad, incompetent or com-
mercially-minded artists should never be allowed to design mass-produced
goods. rather, this pressing task should be reserved for men whose out-
standing craftsmanship is governed by a keen sense of moral responsibility
to the community.
the generation of bauhaus teachers was still divided into artists and tech-
nicians. but my own generation has produced the type of designer who,
because he feels art to be life’s most precious gift, strives to serve society
by working out the practical problems that modern life presents us a daily
basis.
the new school of design at ulm is the direct continuation of the dessau
bauhaus and regards itself as such. it owes its inception to the geschwister-
scholl-stiftung [scholl siblings foundation], an institution founded by ms.
aicher-scholl in memory of a brother and sister of hers who were mur-
dered by the nazis while students at munich. mr. john j. mccloy, the united
states high commissioner in germany at the time, did much to encourage
and expedite this courageous project. funds raised thanks to his support in
america, together with the sum of money already allotted by the german
government and certain private donations, made it possible to cover the
cost of the buildings and their equipment. being a “bauhaus man” myself,
i was approached by ms. aicher-scholl and mr. ütlaicher a few years earlier,
and in due course the geschwister-scholl-stiftung appointed me to be the
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school’s first director, head up its architectural department and design the
buildings which would be required.
the founders of the ulm school believe art to be the highest expression of
human life; thus, our aim was to turn life itself into a work of art. as henry
van de velde proclaimed in his day, we mean to wage war on ugliness; and
ugliness can only be combated with what is intrinsically good – “good”
meaning that which is at once seemly and practical. as the direct heir to
van de velde’s own school at weimar, the dessau bauhaus had set precisely
the same objectives for itself6. although if we go further at ulm it is because
postwar requirements call for certain additions to the original curriculum.
for instance, we attach even greater importance to the design of everyday
objects, to fostering the broadest possible development of city and regional
planning; and to bringing visual design up to the standards made possible
by the latest technical advances. finally, we also created an entirely new
department for the gathering and dissemination of useful information.
experienced artists and theoreticians –young men and women with bold,
alert and eager minds– will come to ulm to teach or experiment in a supra-
national environment. i hope we shall be able to meet all the expectations
placed in us and create a new home for the old bauhaus ideals, where
young people of all nations can freely develop their creative faculties in a
favorable environment.
Originally published in German as “bauhaus-chronik. vom bauhaus in weimar
zur hochschule für gestaltung in ulm”, in: Deutsche Universitäts-Zeitung (Bill
1952, pp. 14-15). Reprinted as “vom staatlichen bauhaus in weimar zur hoch-
schule für gestaltung in ulm”, in: Magnum (Bill 1954e, pp. 59-60). Published in
Italian as “bauhaus da weimar a ulm”, in: Arti Visive (Bill 1953b, pp. 6-7). Pub-
lished in English as “the bauhaus idea from weimar to ulm”, in: Architect’s Year
Book (Bill 1953c, pp. 29-32).
Following World War II, various attempts were made to recover the Bauhaus
ideas about the teaching of design and architecture both in Germany and in the
United States. The latter took in many members of the Bauhaus who emigrated
after the school was closed down by the Nazis. In this piece –written by Bill after
the publication of his article “at our school you can’t become a painter…” (see
text nº 8 of this anthology), in which he expresses his opposition to traditional
artistic training at the Hochschule für Gestaltung Ulm (HfG) [Ulm School of
Design]–, Bill reasserts the legacy of the Bauhaus in Dessau as a model for his
school and makes clear his position regarding the presence of artists in design
education, favorable in his effort to recruit an excellent, highly-qualified faculty.
The Bauhaus legacy at the HfG Ulm is evident in the attempt to reform the
Grundlehre or basic design course, which brought together art, design and ar-
chitecture. In addition to basic training, students of design had to acquire a solid
knowledge of their surroundings. As Bill argues in his article “lehren am und aus
dem bauhaus” [teaching at the bauhaus and from the bauhaus]: “any training
program must take into account two essential factors: 1. the development of
creative skills through the acquisition of experience in a wide range of fields;
2. the development of critical skills based on analyzing social needs and their
impact on production and the product” (Form + Zweck, in: Bill 1979, p. 66).
To reform this course, Bill turns to two former Bauhaus directors and models
in the teaching of design: Henry van de Velde and Walter Gropius, with whom
6 He is referring to the abovementioned Grossherzogliche Kunstgewerbeschule [Grand-
Ducal Saxon College of Arts and Crafts], dissolved in 1915, during the first year of the
Great War. Ed.
287

10. a, b, c, d…
(1953)
ladies and gentlemen,
forgive me, when i speak to you about very important problems - i am
thinking about problems of worldwide importance for the culture of our
time, the time of machinism - using the vocabulary of a four year old child
and using the complex sentence of my own invention. maybe that such an
undertaking is a source of a lot of misunderstandings, but i have to take this
risk since i cannot change it.
it would have been easy for me to translate one of my premade speeches
or articles. but i hate to prepare speeches without knowing the special
circumstances under which i will have to make this speech. here, the con-
ditions are really new ones for me. i have never been in the states before.
i am coming from switzerland. our conditions are very different from yours.
i thought to know a great deal about the american problems in the field of
design, art and culture, because i am reading about these problems from
time to time. but i realize that all this knowledge is very theoretical, and
not based on own experiences. so, for this reason, i could not come here
with a premade speech. i could only give to mr. lionni a general title, “art,
business, culture, design”, this title includes all these problems i wanted to
speak about to you.
before coming here to the states i was in germany. there we are just start-
ing a school, following the bauhaus-principles. just these days, we begin
to construct the buildings, and in a few weeks we shall start to work with
the first group of students. i saw in germany that they have other problems
than in switzerland, because problems of production in general are differ-
ent. then we went to brazil. there we had been invited by the government to
advise on educational problems in the field of architecture, art and design.
this has been the first contact with absolutely other conditions than the
european ones. i saw that countries without the whole history of styles,
without the tradition of an old craftsmanship need other things than europe
and that all these problems must be settled on the ground they grow. then
we went to peru and stated that there were similar problems as in brazil.
now we are in the states. here it is again a little different. i know a lot of old
friends working here and i have seen your top reviews about architecture
and design, we also had exhibitions of modern architecture and design in
switzerland. we are in contact with museums of your country. but, when
we arrived a week ago in miami, and we saw for the first time the gardens
and houses from the airplane, i got a new impression of the problems in
your country. these houses, all individual, everyone on a high level and
on an agreeable standard, tell me that the influence of modern architec-
ture on the industrialized buildings, on the building business itself, is more
important than i thought before. nearly everyone of these houses which i
saw from the plane had a certain perfection and looked well designed. that
means that they are useful houses, they are well placed. however, i do not
want to say that they are perfect, or that they could not be done better. and
from above i saw just one of your big problems: the urban organization. as
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Fundación Juan March
the town is getting bigger and bigger, it is loosing its structure, new settle-
ments have no core, and all the activity trends to the center. the next exam-
ple i saw, also from the plane, was houston. some time later dallas. there
were always the same problems, very easy to see from above. but there,
one could observe a certain decentralization. between the structureless set-
tlements were bigger buildings: schools, department stores and others. but
not too well organized. there is a waste of space in the center of the town
just for parking lots. these problems are the same ones all over the world.
then we landed in denver. this town did never exist for me before. i did not
realize its importance. we crossed large, partly nice suburbs with lawns
between the houses and the streets, without intersection to the neighbours
garden. all that looked very clean, and, because of the trees in between, it
seemed to me agreeable to live in. i saw a lot of different designs. what i
had always seen in reviews as a single house became now a general as-
pect of great variety and, finally, all of these houses are the expression of
the tendency to sell to the customer something nice and perhaps useful.
it is not to deny that without the help of an architect, you could never live
under such agreeable circumstances in europe as in one of these mostly
prefabricated houses.
then, in the center of denver, we saw for the first time shops, showrooms
in which had been assembled all these things i never thought they could
really exist. show-windows filled up with most ugly things: crazy hats and
shirts, ties with photographic pictures of cowboys and horses in full color,
horrible and naïve jewellery. then i looked for pottery, glassware, for all
these things we need everyday. there was everywhere the same catastro-
phe; one department store only showed “hardoy-chairs “ but in a very in-
sufficient imitation. i can not say that i saw everything that could be seen
in denver, however, i am under the impression that all around it would be
quite the same. i will not deny that i saw some good architecture, so the
hotel in which we stayed. the facade was well constructed, composed by
bricks, glass walls and windows, without a special style; the interior, on
the contrary, was very common. then also, some buildings in the center of
the town can be considered as examples of a good architecture of the 19th
century. certainly much better than many new ones.
under this impression we went to aspen and are meeting here, all of us
interested in design. i thought that we all are more or less crazy to have the
idea to transform the aspect of the products of our time. we are perhaps
wrong with our ideals, and people may never agree with our creations. per-
haps, people do need decoration and ugly things. but do they really need
gadgets, in every kind of styling, cowboyed or streamlined?
are these really the questions of our time? what is our function in this time?
shall we really do silly things for people? what is the function of the design-
er, of an artist, today?
in order to settle some of these questions, i will follow the alphabet of the
title of my speech: a, b, e, d,: art, business, culture, design. i will add anoth-
er quartette: action, brain, creation, decoration.
first, i shall explain to you what i understand in speaking about art, busi-
ness, culture, design, and what the subtitle: action, brain, creation and dec-
oration has to do with the first one.
i define the notion “art” as “expression from an individual being adequate
to the most advanced knowledge and feeling of his time” and i limit this for
the plastic arts “with the medium of light, space, movement”. perhaps, this
is not very complete; but what does that mean?
1) “the expression from an individual”. it means that every creation on a
high level, and even that is art, is an individual process. this does not mean
that it is an individualistic process like self-expression. art always makes
sense only as an objective creation of general ideas. and just this is the
difference between individual and individualistic. the individual is a part of
the society and feels responsible not only for himself, but for the whole.
that means that his work, in this case, a work of art, must be so objective,
so clear, so significative as possible. the individualist does not feel respon-
sible for the society, his work will be self-expression because he lives in the
fallacy that his own person is of greatest importance.
2) part “being adequate to the most advanced knowledge and feeling of
his time”. that means, to give form to all of these advanced ideas which
cannot be explained otherwise than by artistic inspiration. so, the artist has
to create new symbols to explain the feeling for things coming in future.
this is one important function of art, and the task of an artist. the second
one is to give harmony in life. you see, my definition is not closed in itself,
it always comprises at the same time the relation between art and human
being. what i proposed is a high programme. it includes, no more nor less,
the formation of the whole life of everyday. that means, it finally includes
not only what we understand by plastic arts, and even not only all what is
generally considered as fine arts. i limit once more the notion “art”, using
the notion “concete art”. this concrete art is the opposite to that what is
abstract art. its background is no more the abstraction, the separation, it
is no more abstractionist. concrete art is the realization of abstract ideas in
the world of concrete things. on the way to creation, abstract ideas become
really visible and sensible. we have eliminated every parasite in painting
and sculpture. parasites, that means, objects of every kind and formation
or deformation like naked women, or men on horses, landscapes, still lifes
and all of these things which today may better be taken with the camera. all
of these things, we like in reality, but not as parasites in so-called “works of
art”. that does not mean that artists have no more interest in the real world
of objects and subjects. on the contrary: artists must take the responsibility
for the real world, for the objects creating things for every-day use, for the
subjects for their psychical and social health. works of art have an influence
on everybodys mind if they are in the environment of men. objects for use
as well as objects of art form the environment together with nature. the
whole environment is of great importance for human beings.
3) part of the definition “with the medium of light, space, movement”. that
means, a little bit more exact, that the medium in order to express an idea
in form of a work of art will be the light, that is color, clearness and shadow,
it also means space, as two-dimensional on the surface, or as a tri-dimen-
sional as a volume, or line in space, finally as four-dimensional movement
of light, volume and line in space. at last, art is an order, a prototype of
harmony. every artist has to establish an order and a method for his expres-
sion, for every work he has to limit the infinite possibilities. this certainly
is characteristical for every artistical expression, especially with respect to
concrete art, here it is the artist in particular who is responsible for the har-
mony in life of our mechanized century. we hope that art will be no more a
surrogate, but a source of the every-day-life.
to art, i have connected “action”. the sense of this is that art must become
active, must become action itself art is not something pleasant without
function, not something for decorating the walls or to be but in a museum.
art is action. a painting is a field of forces, a mixture of different tensions
and, finally, this field of tensions is producing all the time new forces like a
power-station. whether these forces are good or bad the artist is responsi-
ble for this. he is responsible for the actions of his works. however, action in
Fundación Juan March
this case cannot be understood only as action of a work of art, but as action
of the artist himself, because his life is action against nonactivity.
after all, i must underline that neither form, nor color, nor idea, nor action,
not all together is creating by itself a work of art, or a design. only the result
is that what counts and in regard to this the manner how the artist is treat-
ing his problems; and his imagination in finding out his manner of expres-
sion is of greater importance than any other parts of the process leading
to the result. again, only the result counts and its effect on human beings.
what about “business”, the second letter of the alphabet. i think that busi-
ness is neither wrong nor good. but often it is on the wrong side of trade.
unfortunately, business is frequently much more interested in waste than in
the production of really good things for a longer period of use. in this way,
business in the field of art is always dangerous, for works of art are becom-
ing commercial objects and so, artists come to be producers, which is of
great danger for the artistical development. i believe, business is overesti-
mated today, because everybody needs money and for this reason ques-
tions of moral have little attraction. but i can imagine that in a few years,
business in todays sense will no more be of the same importance. that is
the question of production, above all, of the production of well designed
goods of longer life, goods without the speculation of waste. on the one
side, this is a question of production, of better production in excellent qual-
ity of execution.
on the other hand, we will get into a time in which the production of en-
ergy will be changed: today, we are explorers of the natural sources of the
worlds energies. men first had to use wood for getting fire and by this pro-
duced heat, then the coal formed of old sunken forests; then the oil, com-
ing from the bodies of the saurians of the primitive time of our earth. finally,
we started to produce electric energy with the help of water, coal, oil. the
period of the exploration of these so-called natural forces producing energy
will change in a very short time and we will enter into the time of the use
of nuclear forces. this will completely change the techniques and produce
at the same time much more facilities for the human life. the only barrier
between this development and the public welfare might be the business.
that means that business will be against public welfare, because produc-
tion- capacity is so big and it must become bigger and bigger with the
media of propaganda, advertising and things like that. and right there is the
danger. machines no more are a help for human beings, but dictators. the
liberation of men from tiring and long work and haste, which would and
could be the result of machinism, would turn over a bad mass-production
of short-lived things of every kind of gadgets. instead of health and public
welfare, we would have haste and nervousness. for business, for indus-
try, for production would exist very little moral background. responsibility
would not exist. that would really be a lousy world to live in.
in a world like this, there will break out hate and political distress, commu-
nism and fascism, the twins of horror which limit our possibilities as human
beings. under these circumstances, business is against progress, or only
progressive in these cases where it is necessary to knock down the compe-
tition. i hope that the nuclear time will not only produce more gadgets, but
really bring the liberation of humanity. judging from the status of today, we
can say that a lot of wrong things in the world come from the business side.
a few institutions and some producers are of course not typical cases, but
perhaps they are forerunners of a future development: so the activity of the
289
container corporation in your country, or big foundations like rockefeller
and ford foundation. and i would also like to mention the olivetti- typewrit-
er-company as a typical european case for these examples. there are very
few others too, often smaller ones. if we look for the reason why these
companies or corporations are going other ways, we find out very quickly
that they are leaded by personalities of wider than a purely commercial
interest. they are not only interested in art and design, but in public welfare
too. if we take for example the olivetti company, we find out that adria-
no olivetti has not only built very progressive factories a long time ago,
but also houses for his workmen. he is producing not only machines of
perfect design, he is running stores and a propaganda in a leading man-
ner; however, this is not all, he is financing a series of different cultural
reviews of social interest, like “urbanstica”, the italian review for planning
and town-planning; “communita”, a review of social and political problems
as well as of cultural problems in all field s of human activities, really, a
very progressive review. then “metro n”, a review of architecture and “sele
arte”, an art review, a little bit in the direction of the late “magazine of art”
in the states, which will no more appear because – it is a shame – they
are out of money. but this is not all, every month, the “editione comunita”
is putting out a few books in the field of politics, economics, art, litera-
ture. i mention these examples to tell you that business, if it is supporting
the progress, is not only a helpful instrument for the production of useful
things, but at the same time a help for the general progress of the society.
what is the result, if there will be more and more like these few forerunners
in the industry of today and the products they are manufacturing become
better and still better in design and quality, the productivity becomes bigger
and bigger and technical equipment fulfills every need? then a time will
begin where every man has freedom and can live under conditions so that
he is able to develop his knowledge and his abilities in a free society. if we
fight for this freedom, and if we, as artists, create symbols for such freedom
in a kind of infinite rooms, we will have to pay a price for this freedom, too.
for all of us. we have to liberate us by ourselves from an only materialistic
thinking. in a time in which problems of production and energy will be set-
tled, when plenty of useful and nice things will be available for everybody,
when forces will be free to reorganize our towns and to reorganize large
parts of the devastated earth thus building a big garden, there we shall
get freedom and health. the price we pay is small, we only must turn our
attention from business to public aid. i do not think that an intervention
by the state is necessary for such a development. the day will come when
industry, business and production can no more concentrate their interest
only on moneymaking, when “moneymaking” will automatically become
nonsense, because everybody will be able to pay his expenses by working
less since production will be so well organized and machines will be useful
instruments and no more dictators. that is not only an economical and a
political question, it is above all a moral question. if we are against com-
munism, we cannot fight against it with fascism, but we can fight against
both with freedom and economical security. i was talking about the price
we have to pay: there it is: to renounce voluntarily several monopolistic
privileges. in the nearest future, businessmen must become leaders for
freedom and, for this reason, i have added as second notion to business,
“brain”. the transformation between the present manner of living and a fu-
ture harmony in life can only be reached by thinking. and, for that purpose,
men have a brain to think.
one has not only the brain to think about new inventions for the industry,
or about general philosophical problems, above all it is there to think about
our existence and how we could make it better. if we use the bran in this
way, all of the money making business becomes nonsense and human in-
telligence can create things to help and to serve and not to explore we must
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use the brain and think of our terrible situation we are living in as society.
and in what ridiculous situation we are, the “kings of all beasts” with all
of our troubles and little extravaganzas, with our wasting time for nothing
– i.e. in fact producing things we never can really use. we lost the natural
life, we lost harmony, we lost freedom, but we have business. these are no
more human living conditions and this is the bad side of the industrializa-
tion, in which automats are of useful help to men, we must use our brain
in building up new living conditions, those of the future, of a free society.
in this way, we come to notion 3, “culture”. under culture i understand: “a
state, in which power, knowledge and science is used to the best of human
development”. power for construction and play, not for destruction. pow-
der for firework, not for guns. electricity never for chairs, under no pretext.
knowledge for public welfare. science to reach more and more facilities for
life and for the pleasure of the human mind. all that is culture, and it is also
harmony in life on a high level, so high as it is possible in our time with our
infinite possibilities. culture is what gives value to life. under these condi-
tions, creation will be of greatest importance.
and now i shall explain to you what i understand under the second word
beginning with a “e”: “creation”. “creation is an action of mens intelligence
and inspiration”, creation is neither good nor bad, but in every case it is
indispensable for progress. for me, creation has nothing to do with crazy
inventions, it is something reasonable
and next, we come to the fourth of the notions: “design”. “design is the
process by which useful things are given the most beautiful and effec-
tive form, considering overall the function of these things”, you see, i limit
the signification of design, i do not speak about all things drawn up and
produced according to a design. i am speaking about useful things. and i
believe that one of the most important arguments in design is the use. the
useful things are those just around us every day.
i explained under “art” that the environment for human beings is of very
great importance. it is of primordial importance for human welfare. so, the
responsibility of the designer is very great. it is over all a moral one, he is
responsible for the physical environment of men; he is able to malee the
world crazy and sick, or to bring in harmony. here, at this point, i want to
remember the great moralists of modern design: henry van de velde, who,
as a painter, carne to design, when he built a house with all new furniture.
he did not want that his children grew up in an ugly environment. van de
velde became one of the greatest pioneers of the modern movement be-
fore 1900, and a lot of his early writings we can still read today with great
pleasure. two months ago, we celebrated together his 90th birthday. he will
always have his place in the first line of the fight for good and valuable de-
sign. then adolf loos, who wrote in his essays many important things about
design, and i especially remember his essay on ornament and crime. there,
he is speaking about the common sources of ornament and criminality, per-
haps a little bit too exaggeratedly, but the core of his explanations is today
as right as it was 40 years ago.
i remember one more of these pioneers: walter gropius, who has built up
the famous bauhaus which gained influence all over the world and which
had above all a moral background. many parts of the bauhaus-doctrine
were powerfully influencing education and industry, design and architec-
ture. but the bauhaus-doctrine as a whole did never take root again after
the destruction of the bauhaus by the nazis. i am telling something more
about the bauhaus at this conference because we are starting a new institu-
tion –the continuation of the bauhaus– in germany for which walter gropius
has given me his full support. it is the so-called “hochschule für gestaltung”
at ulm, the translation of the name may be “college of design”. we are just
starting with the buildings which will be finished in spring 1954. on the first
of august we will start with the first group of students, some students are
now collaborating in our construction office, but not only on account of the
actuality of these facts i am speaking about this project. it is also for the
reason that we are very grateful to the american people and their authori-
ties for the great help they have given us for our project. in the first place,
there were above all mr. john j. mccloy and his consultants who gave us
their support and took the responsibility for helping us to realize our plans.
this is the story: during the war, there were a few students in munich fight-
ing against the nazi regime and for freedom. they prepared a student re-
bellion against the regime. they were captured and executed by the nazis,
they were six and among them a brother and sister - the scholls - who were
the important leaders. after the war, the father of these two became mayor
of the town. of ulm. ulm is a lace of 100,000 inhabitants together with its
environs, a town with a good industry and the highest church tower in the
world. in the middle ages, a population of about 9’000 people built this
dome for 20’000 people. ulm not only has the highest tower, but a man
was born there who is today known for his high ideals, as a leading figure in
science and morality - the great philosopher and scientist albert einstein. in
ulm after the war, the scholls’ sister, inge scholl, founded an evening school
for adult education because she said all political excesses originate from
ignorance and stupidity: if i can help to educate people, political sense will
become better. so she worked in her school with a very good programme
for adult education. the best-known people of germany and foreign coun-
tries gave lectures at her school. it was in 1948 that i went through ulm for
the first time and got in contact with this school and the leading people
of the community ... since then, i have always been in good contact with
these people. it is now four years since i received a letter from ulm, contain-
ing a programme for a new school with more social and political accents
and the invitation to collaborate as consultant and architect. i learned that
mr mccloy had offered inge scholl his support for her activities in ulm.
in this time, inge scholl founded the “‘geschwisterscholl- stiftung” as the
organization undertaking the new school project. my contact with the
whole school-planning became more and more close, so that the founda-
tion asked me if it would be possible for me to accept the position of the
rector of the school and the head of the architectural faculty. long before
this, we founded a committee of trustees in which men like van de velde
and gropius are together with men of science and humanities.
the pedagogical idea i had always been talking about, now i had the chance
to realize it. after long negotiations, we got a promise from mr mccloy
that, if we could collect a matching sum as high as the american contribu-
tion, we would receive the money for building and equipping the school.
in working this out, over the two years inge scholl worked like sisyphus. if
we finally carne to a result, it was on account of the prestige of the brother
and sister scholl and the generous gesture of mr mccloy who, together
with mrs mccloy, last year brought the cheque to ulm just before leaving
germany. so we had taken a good step toward the realization. i will not tell
you how many further steps had to be done until the date i mentioned, and
how many things had to be settled with the german authorities regarding
intrigues from several sides. just these days now, we are starting with the
buildings and in five weeks our first courses will begin. most of our teach-
ers are old and young friends of mine and come from several countries.
we are a team. i am telling you all this as a demonstration of the theme:
why do not exist more schools of the bauhaus-type. and i will give you the
key for the answer: in ulm, there are several chances coming together: a
leading group of young idealist s, the will to resist the tendencies of nazism
Fundación Juan March
as symbolized by the brother and sister scholl, the open hand of the us
high commissioner john mccloy and his consultants, a good climate at the
community of ulm, prepared by the “volkshochschule”, well-meaning au-
thorities of the town of ulm and the land, some interest of the industry for
getting new models for its production, and last but not least, a team willing
to teach under conditions which, perhaps, are not the best ones from the
economic point of view, but are compensated by a certain independence. i
must underline that our school is an independent one, and that government
and community only give us a certain support. i could tell you now what
we will be doing in this school, but i hope you will certainly see results in a
short time. and results always are much more significant than well looking
programmes. in short, we are educating creative people to be able to do
useful things for every-day-life.
herewith i am closing my information about ulm. at this occasion, i wish to
express our deep gratitude to your nation for your important support of our
project. i am happy in giving my thanks to you here, at the aspen design
conference, the first audience i am meeting in the states, when i came here
for the first time.
let’s now go back to the notion of “design”. before turning to the history of
the ulm school, i spoke about morality and responsibility in design. for me
the moral background for design comes first. the designer is responsible
for his work, and that is just what i want to underline: a designer must be
a top-notch artist, not an artist of second rate. design is a responsible work
in getting the culture of our time. in this sense, art as pure art, is the fore-
runner for everyday design. but from the cultural point of view, design is so
important as art because design is going into mass production for everyday
consumption. here business can help, education of the consumer can help.
but, as stated before, unfortunately, business often goes the wrong way,
they are interested in sleeky design instead of really good one. a lot of
todays design is for waste, it has only been done for business but not for
cultural reason.
and here we are coming to the notion of “decoration”. decoration is some-
thing extra, an addition. it is not primarily useful. i personally am against
decoration. i do not like it in the old nor in the modern sense. but in the
modern sense, this play with symbols, like squares and the use of all of these
pure forms in design, typography and decoration, is nonsense. most of the
streamlined goods, decorated with snaky lines and funniest lineaments,
without any other function as to bluff the not educated customer, are against
every feeling of moral. designers are responsible for these things. they must
have the power to resist such demands of ignorant clients.
here i must add a few words about the living conditions and independence
of the designer. that is a word to the students first, because they will be
responsible in the future. if you are studying, you think perhaps of getting
good job one day. that is an illusion. if you will be independently work-
ing designer, your conditions will not be much better than those of the so
-called free artists. you will always be dependent on economical facts. the
only way you can make it is to work more or less in teams, at the same
time you must be able to change your living conditions and to be happy
under every condition. but always, you must be free to say “no”. you have
to change security against adventure, you must be able to drive for many
years the best car in the world and go by feet tomorrow. with this risk you
pay your freedom and your existence as moral human beings. under these
conditions you will become good designers.
i will show you an example of good design and give a critic: here i have a
parker pen. it is the cheap model. i do not have this cheap model because
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it is cheap, but because it is a better design. there exists a parker 51, with
a silly decoration in the form of a plume on its clip. why? certainly not for
reasons of function. my cheap one is absolutely perfect in construction
of the clip, but the clip of the expensive one is for decoration only, really
worthless. j am asking: would the designer of the parker go around as a
beggar, if he would not make such bad design and if he would only say: i
am doing one model, you can produce it for different prices, one with gold,
the other with steel. if you are looking at the parker of which i do not know
the number, you see that it is a useful instrument and it has many well
designed characteristics: i will speak only about the name parker and the
cap. most of the products are completely destroyed by the imprinting of
the name of the producer or his trademark. i mention two extreme cases:
on the one hand dunhill. if you look at the dunhill pipe you only see a white
pint, marking “i am by dunhill!”. a german firm is producing a series of
new models of stainless steel knife, fork and spoon. the models have been
done well, however, the nice form being is spoiled by the kind of inscription
and marks. not so parkers pen: the name is engraved in the best possible
manner on the cap. but why did the designer two models of cap, a really
good one and a bad one?
on the examples of the pens, i was showing you the typical result for dec-
oration, and i am following further on the alphabet and coming now to
“form”. i was mentioning it for two reasons: first, because form is the result
of any design, secondly, i wrote a book entitled “form”. the book is written
in german, french and english, in simultaneous text. there you will find
some remarks of which i cannot speak about today. i do not have enough
time to repeat all i have written some time ago in another book, “idea”,
wherein is printed a longer essay of mine talking about “beauty as result of
function, and beauty as function”. these two books are the only ones which
i wrote in english about problems of design. this i have mentioned for your
information only and also for underlining that communication could find
easier ways than by conferences.
it would take a lot of time speaking about form today, and we could hardly
speak about it without the notion “function”. so i will only explain to you
my own point of view on this question of relation of form and function.
one of the really great architects said some time ago: form does not follow
function. i do not agree with him. form must follow function; without func-
tion, form cannot exist. but i must add that function alone is no argument
for a good form. it would never be good to make form against function.
one without the other cannot exist. the important question is only how to
make a good form for a determinated function. and this we cannot explain,
inasmuch as this is an act of creation, some are able to create, others not,
some do it better, some not so good. the ability to create cannot be learned,
the only thing we can learn is one more step, following the alphabet, “m”
for morality and its sister, modesty.
i believe this is perhaps the most important of all i wish to tell you. i un-
derstand under “morality”: “action of the individual against temptations of
the society, action of the individual in the sense of common interest and
common health”. this means that for every action of an individual, this
individual is personally responsible. so every action from one individual to
another, or against society must have a moral background. i take the ex-
ample of “art”. do you think that all we often understand under the notion
“art” is coming out of a moral background? never. the bigger part of it is
ranking between harmless self-deception and a very clear swindle against
public. most of this so-called art comes out of vanity, or often it is only
bluff. but real art can only grow on a moral background and with sense
for responsibility. but how is it with the moral background for culture and
design? culture without a moral background is decadence. design without
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Fundación Juan March
moral background is a crime against society. bad design makes the envi-
ronment of human life to an ugly one, it is infiltrating ugly things into the
subconscious of men, it makes life a nonsense since life only has sense at
a high level of culture, well ordered in a nice and harmonious environment.
this is why we are working. that is about morality.
and now “modesty”: like morality, modesty is one the most important at-
titudes of human existence. modesty is very closely to morality and grows
out of this. modesty in the field of art does not mean mediocrity, it is just
the contrary of this. modesty in art and design means: “to do a work only
with the absolute tendency to do something as well as possible”. for the
plastic arts it means: to do a work as an objective realization of an objective
idea, without any self-expression, so that one day everybody can under-
stand the signification of this objective and universal language works of art
are growing only in this way to new symbols and messages in the old and
magic sense of art. in this sense, art will become of much bigger interest in
a time of plenty, which certainly is coming. art and design will then become
a wide field of
activity, as art will really be one of the creative parts of life, namely the high-
est expression of the human mind. and design will be more important for its
only purpose, will no more be to serve the interests of sale and competition,
but to bring harmony in our environment.
if all of us, designers and producers, artists and critics, work with the same
honesty and the same modesty, we could certainly change our nervous
and hasty life. if designers are only doing honest and modest design and
resistent other demands, good design would be found more often and still
improve in quality. and this better design will finally pay – perhaps not in
money, but in a harmonious life.
Lecture given in English at the International Design Conference at Aspen (Col-
orado, USA) on June 23, 1953. It was originally written by Max Bill not in Ger-
man, but in rudimentary English –as he himself notes at the beginning of his
lecture– with the help of a friend. First published in English as “a, b, c, d...”, in:
max bill. funktion und funktionalismus… (Bill 2008d, pp. 35-50); and reprinted
in: form, function, beauty = Gestalt with significant modifications (Bill 2010, pp.
42-59). At the express wish of Jakob Bill, the version selected for this catalog is
the one that appears in funktion und funktionalismus…, in order to respect his
father´s original words and its value as a “historical document”.
The title of this lecture, “a, b, c, d...”, sums up the subjects that interested Bill
at the time: art, business, culture, design/decoration. This is the period when Bill
is totally wrapped up in building and directing the Hochschule für Gestaltung
Ulm (HfG Ulm) [Ulm School of Design]. In this talk, he seizes the opportunity to
express his ideas about what type of training future designers should receive;
training which, in his opinion, must also have a moral and social foundation.
The Aspen conferences began in 1951, promoted by veteran Bauhaus design-
er Herbert Bayer and Egbert Jacobsen. They both had professional ties to the
sponsor of the event, the Container Corporation of America, a company that
also backed the Chicago Institute of Design and appointed László Moholy-Nagy
its director (cf. Banham 1974). Max Bill participated in the Aspen conference in
1953 and 1967. Weeks before giving that lecture, Bill had been invited by the
Brazilian government –through Niomar Moniz Sodré, director of the Museu de
Arte Moderna de Rio de Janeiro (MAM-RJ) –, to visit Brazil. His stay was exten-
sively covered in the press, especially his negative comments about the exces-
sive formalism of Brazilian architecture, which was then enjoying widespread
international renown. His criticism is expressed in the last lecture he delivered
just before leaving for the United States, on June 9, 1953, at the Faculty of
Architecture at the Universidad de São Paulo, in which he urged students to
design modest, clear, harmonious structures suited to the needs of man and at
the service of society (cf. García 2011, pp. 166-76). On his way to the United
States Bill stopped in Peru where he was reunited, after twenty-five years, with
Joself Albers – who would go on to teach his basic design course at the HfG 11. mondrian
Ulm soon thereafter.
After delivering his lecture at the Aspen conference, Bill traveled to Chicago (1955)
and New York, where he met with personalities form the world of culture, ar-
chitecture and design such as Charles Eames, Philip Johnson, Edgar Kaufmann,
Konrad Wachsmann and Nikolaus Pevsner (Max Bill in: Hüttinger 1977, p. 36).
Some of them would also become guest professors at the future HfG Ulm.

the yardstick of modern painting

the development of modern painting since cubism can be traced in four
major directions that are exemplified by four artists and their work. it was
pablo picasso who defined a kind of painting that transforms the appear-
ance of natural phenomena, that seems expressionistic, often socio-critical
or volcanic. to paul klee what mattered was giving form to the processes
beneath the surface of everyday life. in the pictures of wassily kandinsky
the world of external objects is replaced by new, invented forms; they rely
solely on the interplay between shapes and colors. where these three ap-
proaches no longer suffice, where an altogether different kind of picture
organization is wanted, something absolute and radically exclusive, one
has recourse to a fourth standard: piet mondrian.

piet mondrian’s evolution

mondrian’s career began with pictures that were conventional even for his
time. when one considers that 1890, the year in which mondrian began to
paint, also saw the death of vincent van gogh, it is astonishing how little
of such innovation can be seen in his early works. yet it would hardly have
been possible for him to have known the work of his great compatriot then.

it was only around 1900 that his approach became less rigid, and this quite
obviously under the influence of art nouveau in combination with theosoph-
ical notions. until around 1910 mondrian worked through all the period’s
known forms of expression. van gogh, edvard munch and the pointillists all
had an influence on mondrian’s work. the painter, who was then approach-
ing forty, managed to produce a few extraordinary works: dune landscapes
and the towers of domburg and westkapelle, and finally flowers and his first
of paintings of trees. in 1911 mondrian moved to paris, and thus came into
contact with the problem of cubism. the cubism of the thanks to georges
braque, pablo picasso, and juan gris, the cézanne era had just been aban-
doned and the brief period of analytical cubism had begun. in it mondrian
pursued his own path, basing his cubist compositions mainly on tree and
sea motifs in addition to occasional still lifes. unquestionably, his works
were unlike those of the true “cubists” even in their compositional ele-
ments, also stood out for their original rhythmic structure.

whereas the cubists switched from analytical to synthetic cubism, increas-

ingly reintroducing natural objects, mondrian consistently took the opposite
path, carrying the earlier trend still further. he systematized structures as a
result of the cubist liberation from the object. his works from 1914, though
still based on the representation of recognizable objects, include them only
as a distant memory of figurativism. in this mondrian was the only one
to carry cubism to a logical conclusion, whereas the classical “cubists,”
faced with the problem of “objecthood”1, can be said to have given up.
originally, cubism was not meant to be merely a formalistic restructuring
of the external world of objects so as to better accommodate them in the
limited space of the picture. it was an intellectual concept, a desire to em-

1 Gegenständlichkeit. Ed.

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ploy the means of composition in their universality; that is, without being
restricted by the world of objects. in 1914 mondrian returned to holland,
where came into contact with theo van doesburg and later bart van der
leck: both of whom, each in his own way, were also searching for solutions
to painterly problems. as a result of his exchanges with them, mondrian
began to concentrate on primary colors, hoping to justify theoretically the
course he had taken. the journal de stijl, founded by theo van doesburg
in 1917, triggered a lively interchange that mainly included, in addition to
the abovementioned artists, the painter and sculptor georges vantongerloo,
the painter vilmos huszar, the architects jacobus oud, jan wils and robert
van’hoff, and the poet antony kok.
beginning in 1917, in the known works of piet mondrian the last vestiges of
natural phenomena disappear. he was now painting pictures with colored
or black rectangles on a white background. then finally in 1918 he devel-
oped the form of expression that has made him such an important figure
in the world of art. in 1919 he returned to paris, and in 1920 he founded,
with a treatise of the same name, what he called “neo-plasticism,” an art of
rhythmic relationships. that treatise recently appeared in its original french
version in the catalog of the mondrian exhibition in ‘s-gravenhague2, and
it was also published in german, under the title piet mondrian, neue gestal-
tung. Neoplastizismus in the 5th edition of the “bauhausbücher” (1925).3
in 1920 mondrian still believed that a complete dissolution of painting might
be achieved by reducing it to horizontal and vertical relationships on a flat
surface and reducing the number of colors to a few gray-blue shades and
the primary colors yellow, red and blue. he also believed in the integration
of art in the design of everyday objects and the resulting self-destruction of
painting. yet he still continued to paint.
in 1925 his bluish-gray fields gave way to white planes, so that during the
last twenty years of his career his compositions rely on six colors at most:
the three “non-colors”, white, black, and gray; and the three primary colors,
yellow, red, and blue. a new pictorial element was added in 1932: the em-
phasized double line, and finally, after several years of residence in london,
during his last years in new york he produced pictures with color elements
that are partially liberated from the black-and-white structure, and in his last
works— new york city, broadway boogie-woogie and the unfinished victory
boogie-woogie4—even dissolved that structure altogether, replacing it with
rhythmic colors.
sadly, when mondrian died in new york on february 1, 1944, his picture
victory boogie-woogie, meant to be a magnificent victory dance, was left
unfinished. and the war was not over yet, either. these last pictures exhibit
a radiance, a simmering, restrained dynamism achieved primarily from the
interplay between white and shades of yellow and gray, an exuberance that
is no longer the triumph over everything tragic that mondrian had once
called for in his days of ascetic dogmatism. he surely came closest to that
goal in the years 1931–36.
2 Bill is referring to the catalog of the monographic exhibition at the Haags
Gemeentemuseum in the Hague, from February 10 to April 12, 1955. ‘s-Gravenhage is
the official name of The Hague. Ed.
3 The “Bauhausbücher” [Bauhaus books], the collection of books put out by the
Bauhaus from 1925 to 1930 under the direction of Walter Gropius and László Moholy-
Nagy, printed by the publishing house Albert Langen. Ed.
4 New York City I, 1942 (Musée National d’Art Moderne-Centre Georges Pompidou,
Paris); Broadway Boogie-Woogie, 1943 (Museum of Modern Art, New York), Victory
Boogie-Woogie, 1944 (Haags Gemeentemuseum, The Hague). Ed.
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Fundación Juan March
mondrian’s pictures prove that highly convincing, beautiful works can be
created despite—or perhaps precisely because of—a limitation to two or
three colors.
what mondrian did not do
mondrian came from holland. because of this, the uninformed assume
that his painting is typically dutch, influenced by holland’s canals as seen
from an airplane. this notion is just as senseless as the one that holds that
mondrian was a calculator, and accordingly that all his pictures have to do
with the “golden section” (by which harmonious relationships in general
are probably meant). mondrian painted his pictures without calculation and
without a ruler, but rather with a sure sense of relationships and a string
for measuring.
his work and its influence
today, a good eleven years since piet mondrian’s death, it is already appar-
ent how influential his œuvre is and what place it will assume in art history.
mondrian ranks among the great netherlandish masters, jan van eyck, ro-
gier van der weyden, peter paul rubens, rembrandt vam rijn, jan vermeer
and Vincent van gogh. like them, he has made a decisive contribution to the
development of european art.
moreover, his position is comparable to that of paul cézanne. if cézanne
introduced “cubism” by attempting to achieve an autonomous structur-
ing of the picture plane, it was mondrian who managed to complete that
structuring, thus opening another door for the development of art, just as
cézanne had before him in another sense. and even though for a time,
mondrian believed this would lead to the dissolution of painting, he proved
with his own work that this conclusion was false. yet he was correct about
one thing —though with it painting was neither dissolved nor rendered
superfluous—: his works, in effect, have been an essential influence on the
integration of art in daily life. architecture, interior design, graphic art and
objects of everyday use have become “purified” in the way that mondrian
demonstrated in such an exemplary manner in his work. and though this
whole process of purification cannot be traced to his influence alone, one
can say without exaggeration that there is quite obviously a congruity in
these efforts. mondrian was certainly correct about one development: an
integration of art in the design of everyday objects is in full swing, and just
as desirable as it was when he presented his treatise thirty-five years ago.
his aesthetic criteria have played an important role in this.
as for the sphere of the fine arts, developments that can be traced back to
mondrian have by no means ceased; on the contrary, his theories are con-
stantly being debated anew.
First published in German as a preface to the catalog of the exhibition Piet Mon-
drian (Zurich 1955, pp. 7-10), which also included a 1938 article by Mondrian,
“Kunst ohne Objekte” [Art without Object]. The catalog and the poster for the
exhibition were both designed by Max Bill. Published in Spanish, with slight
modifications, in: Nueva Visión. Revista de Cultura Visual, nº 9 (1957), pp. 5-8.
Bill regards Mondrian as one of the pioneers in concrete art. He shows his
work in exhibitions dedicated to this artistic movement and in his article “über
konkrete kunst” [on concrete art], published in the journal Werk (Bill 1938, pp.
250-54), with the illustration of a Mondrian painting and a clarification about the
subject of Neo-Plasticism. He mentions the artist in his articles “vom flächigen
zum räumlichen” [from surface to space] (cf. text nº 7 of this anthology), in the
chapter “artistic expression in construction” of the book Robert Maillart (cf.
text nº 4 of this anthology), in which he compares Mondrian´s painting with the
metal framework of the reinforced concrete pieces designed by the engineer
Maillart, and dedicates an article to him, “die komposition I/1925 von piet mon-
drian”, in: Jahresbericht (Bill 1956b), as well as the piece “piet mondrian”, in: 12. the designed environment
of the future
Die Grossen der Weltgeschichte (Bill 1970).
Back in 1947 Bill had written an article about Mondrian that was published
in the journal Werk (Bill 1947). In 1957 two of the texts from the catalog of the
exhibition at the Kunsthaus Zürich (1955) appeared in Nueva Visión, edited by (1964)
Tomás Maldonado. Through Maldonado, Argentinean concrete artists come into
contact with Bill’s theories. The close relationship between Bill and these art-
ists helped inspire the creation of this journal and the publishing house Nueva
Visión, which printed Spanish translations of texts about concrete art, which
were also picked up by the publishing house Infinito.
In 1982 Bill gave a lecture at the Fundación Juan March as part of the univer-
how a person arranges his environment is unquestionably something that
sity course “Cuatro lecciones sobre Mondrian” [Four Lessons about Mondrian],
defines him, and when one considers the variety of objects man has cre-
organized in conjunction with the exhibition Piet Mondrian which took place
ated over the course of his evolution one can only marvel at the wealth of
at the foundation’s Madrid headquarters from January 19 to March 26, 1982.
his imagination. when we make a more in-depth analysis, two different
categories of objects can be distinguished. first, there are all those required
to organize and maintain life, namely tools, housing, utensils for the pro-
visioning and preparation of food and such. then there are those that are
more associated with a sense of play, whose purpose often has not rational
explanation, like jewelry, artworks, symbols, and the like. on the one hand,
then, we have objects that equip one’s environment, and on the other those
objects connected to its design.

if i speak here only of the inventions tied to the world of objects and not
those of the intellect, it is because the latter would make me stray too far
from my subject: the designed environment of the future. nevertheless, i
have to emphasize that the entire world of objects results from thinking,
pondering, inventing, from the experiences one has amassed, and that in
every age the creation of anything has relied on man’s ability to think. the
transition from homo sapiens to the specialized homo faber was accom-
panied by the development of man’s capacity to think, and determined by
his ability to learn and to draw conclusions from what he has learned. thus,
man is also capable of shaping his environment to meet his needs, and of
setting himself up in the world in the way he finds most convenient and
most beautiful, with the help of technology on the one hand, and design
on the other.

i draw an express distinction between equipping one’s environment and

designing it. the first belongs to the realm of technology, the second to the
realm of design. of course, one could object that technology has a certain
amount of design to it, just as design could not do without technology. with
a simple illustration, i would like to explain how these two creative activities
relate to each other: imagine a circle, with energy at the top and material at
the bottom — that is to say, the same thing in the form of substance, on the
one hand, and in the form of energy on the other. then let us assume that
man stands in the center of this circle. his loftiest interests of an immaterial
nature would be concentrated in his thinking, much like energy is concen-
trated. this pure thinking would move in the direction of science on the one
hand, in the direction of art on the other. now, the closer that thinking in
the direction of science comes to the realm of material, the more science
is manifested in technology. and the more artistic thinking is materialized,
the more it becomes involved in environmental design. this imaginary cir-
cle, with man at the center and its top half dominated by science and art,
becomes at its bottom man’s material surroundings, through the interpen-
etration of the two areas of interest. on the one side we clearly see the
technological functions of equipping the environment, on the opposite side
the aesthetic functions of environmental design.

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the scheme i have just constructed may not be valid in every respect, but
it is a tool that i like to use to place certain contemporary phenomena in
the context of historical developments and analyses. this contextualization
allows one to observe situations critically and to imagine, with the help
of analogies, if not what the future will look like, the path that will lead us
there.
and with this in mind we come to the subject of the designed environment
of the future”.
without an analysis of the current situation, without an analysis of the past
that has led to the present, any prognosis for the future is meaningless. yet
then the question arises of which standards and guidelines such analysis
is to follow. which branches of the humanities can be of help, which of
the exact sciences provide the standards? from my experience, i have to
assume that the standards are to be found where man’s material interests
are most in evidence: namely in anthropology, in sociology and in history.
these disciplines allow us to establish what people and societies were like
at any given time in the past.
based on comparable images, the relationships that are of interest to us
when it comes to considering a possible evolution appear. we know that
things used to be different in the past. this may seem self-evident, but the
factors that made them so are important for us today. by no means am i
claiming that things were better or worse in the past, they were simply dif-
ferent. and clearly, or perhaps only apparently, there were times that were
better integrated than ours. times for which many people feel a certain
nostalgia as compared to our own.
if we subject our own time to analysis to assess it from a critical standpoint,
doubtless its most prominent feature is its plurality, not only with respect to
the forms of expression that manifest themselves and coexist, but also in
terms of sheer numbers: there is a huge number of people –and this num-
ber continues to grow— living today under conditions that are in part very
different, yet furnished with objects that are the same everywhere.
whether we view this situation as progress or a regression, whether we
choose to see it as desirable or disastrous, one thing is certain: we find
ourselves immersed in a overwhelming chaos – a chaos so well-organized
that we are scarcely aware of it any longer. and this chaos is also probably
the reason why we ask ourselves how all this will play out and wonder how
it all came to be this way.
in our well-organized world, seemingly administered in a perfect manner,
we are nearing the point of no longer having clean, fresh water. and not
only because water pollution has rapidly increased since the beginning of
industrialization, or because the detergents used today to meet our hygien-
ic standards with the help of ingenious machines are poisoning our water-
ways and those who live near them. even rain and the air are polluting our
water by adding radioactive substances to it. and all this is happening in a
world in which we believe we can rely on reason, on the accumulation and
evaluation of experience, on legislation and administration.
why do i mention water as an example, when i am supposed to be talking
about the design of the environment and its future? because water is a
particularly extreme example of the failure of law and reason. because this
example shows that the things most essential for life were neglected long
ago, before we began to suffocate in the chaos of traffic, in the chaos of air
pollution, in the chaos of noise, in the chaos of the availability of all manner
of useful, useless, and harmful things. this shows that human life is sur-
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Fundación Juan March
rounded by all kinds of dangers, dangers of various degrees that seemingly
do not have much to do with the danger of a badly-designed environment.
and yet all these things are related. thanks to the disorganization in the
world, people become indifferent in their perception of disorganization in
general. one disorder draws another after it, and today what we see as
order –in the state, in economic life, in transportation, wherever we look
analytically– is in fact only one big regulated disorder, an organized disor-
ganized chaos.
to try to create order in a specific sphere, namely the design of our envi-
ronment, is a difficult undertaking, yet it is not entirely hopeless. and above
all it is not senseless. both man’s immediate and larger environment have
always had an influence on his development. the things around us, their
relationship to us –that is, the value we attach to them– consciously or un-
consciously help shape us. this interrelationship between man and object,
between object and man, means that a certain order can be established
between people and things.
again and again, this knowledge has led to efforts to design the environ-
ment, always with the aim of making it better, not based only on aesthetic
programs, but on efforts born of a profound sense of responsibility that
repeatedly –even today– have called for a change in the environment to
restore it with natural harmony. this makes me think of the rational beauty
of objects as championed by henry van de velde, and how after the turn of
the century1 they were defended even more exclusively by adolf loos and
hermann muthesius within the framework of the german werkbund. the
problems created by industrialization left their mark on the subsequent de-
velopment of the werkbund chapters, and also led walter gropius to found
the bauhaus.
despite all these efforts, what has been achieved seems quite meager in
the light of the goal that had been set: that is, the creation a more humane
environment. what ultimately remained was little more than a change, a
new style instead of the previous one, one more style added to the existing
ones, an unintentional spreading of the chaos.
and yet this assertion is not entirely fair: after all, over the course of a few
decades such efforts have led to the fact that it is now possible to buy
those industrial products that make up our everyday surroundings that do
not pretend to be anything more than beautiful, practical utensils. highly
sought-after objects that were displayed decades ago in special exhibitions
as unique creations are now produced and sold in similar form by the thou-
sands.
this fact also give us a glimpse into the future: it seems possible to de-
sign man’s more immediate surroundings. and there are also available ap-
proaches toward the rational design of his larger environment: his home,
his housing development, his religion (sic), his landscape.2
naturally one then asks what it really means to rationally design man’s more
immediate and larger environment. however, i don’t feel that i need to em-
phasize that when i refer to “design of the environment” i am not thinking
of either furniture in the overelaborate baroque style or any other kind of
“classy ornaments” 3 retrieved from the attic or the product of the whimsi-
1 In the early 20th century. Ed.
2 max bill, form: eine bilanz über die formentwicklung um die mitte des XX. jahrhunderts.
Basel: K. Werner, 1952. (The footnotes of this text that appear in lower-case letters
were written by Max Bill himself. Ed.
3 Wertverschaffende ornamente. With these words, Bill is referring to the ornamentation
added to something because it is believed to make that thing more valuable. Ed.
cal craftspeople’s imaginations. i imagine a “designed environment” to be
one in which each object perfectly fulfills its function, and in which each
object has a natural form suited to its function and designed in such a way
that it has a natural charm. this means both small things and large ones, the
spoon as well as the housing development, the piece of furniture as well as
the placement of a road in the landscape.
design is the natural form suited to the nature of a thing; it is prerequisite to
an complete harmony among things. just as the most varied plants, flow-
ers, leaves, and grasses establish the character of a meadow, without be-
ing identical to each other but interacting harmoniously, the objects of our
surroundings can complement each other if they conform to the principle
of utility. that there are, can be and must be different degrees of utility de-
pends solely on function. that is, utility is determined by function, as shown
by two very different objects, for example a picture (a work of art) and a pair
of shears (a utensil). the picture is an object of spiritual use. the shears are
a tool. the picture largely obeys laws of aesthetics, the shears serve a prac-
tical purpose. the farther the picture diverges from the laws of aesthetics
as a medium for transmitting aesthetic information, the less serviceable it
is to the soul. 4 the more the pair of shears diverges from its utility, the less
aesthetically pleasing it is.
this thesis can probably be questioned, both as a whole and in detail. i
adopted it years ago as a working hypothesis, and i am still not inclined
to change it. that means that i accept it as valid. this is probably owing to
the fact that i took as a starting point the concept of function; that is, the
function between the human being as user and the object as a useful tool.
this function encompasses all partial functions, from the aesthetic to the
purely utilitarian. design of the environment takes its guidelines from the
function of man.
now let’s talk about the future prospects for design. let’s assume that de-
sign is practiced according to the best of one’s knowledge and in good
conscience. this implies that the designer not only has a highly developed
analytical ability, one that allows him to clearly recognize the functional
issues, but that he also has an incorruptible sense of responsibility that
prevents him from succumbing to any sort of external pressure or tempta-
tion: in short, he must be able, based on his knowledge and discernment,
to design an object in such a way that in it all its functions are brought
into harmony, that is to say, he must give the nature of an object –its inner
logic– a valid form.
developing such abilities is not easy and hardly a matter of course. very
specific aptitudes and abilities are required, and even if a person has them,
proper training and the right practices are also needed.
we are not exactly blessed with training centers for design. their develop-
ment is rather recent, and there is as yet no reliable tradition; most of them
are repurposed schools of applied art, which simply on the basis of their
cultivation of craft, in the sense of applied art decoration, have taken on the
new discipline: the design of objects for industrial production. but they lack
every qualification for the job. all of these repurposed applied art schools,
which now call themselves academies and such, have failed in their training
4 during the discussion, kaiser (sic) wondered whether it was enough to characterize
a picture simply as an object for spiritual use by the soul and to judge it based on its
function as a spiritual tool. in times of tempestuous development in art, pictures have
been produced that were perceived as ugly in their day, which only in retrospect, after
further development, proved to be “aesthetically valid” and came to be accepted.
in any case, the notion of “utility” with respect to the work of art still requires
explanation and differentiation.
Fundación Juan March
of designers because they have no idea about the true foundations, and be-
cause unfortunately it is widely assumed that design is a matter of exterior
form. but since this visible form is the expression of function, one cannot
approach design from the standpoint of form—that would be modeling, not
designing. and since function can only be understood through analysis, it
is not enough to only develop the ability to model something. thus, at the
beginning of any training in design one learns to think logically and analyt-
ically and to exercise the ability to synthesize. today there are a few places
in the world where an attempt is made to develop design ability as it should
be. and again and again we are starting to see the unfortunate results. most
of these schools were founded based on the bauhaus idea –some of them
by its former members– drawing on their experiences at that school, rea-
sonably modified and adapted to our time. it has been some thirteen years
since we founded one such institution in memory of the scholl siblings, the
hochschule für gestaltung ulm (hfg) [ulm school of design]. 5
whether we can see a future in the design of the environment actually
depends on whether there are people capable of designing in the sense
described above. and this can only happen if we solve the problem of train-
ing. for sadly, the era of the gifted dilettante has passed, and the coming
generation will no longer be able to approach problems in the way that
was still possible when the consequences of all that we do were not fully
grasped. therefore it is highly desirable that training centers be established
and become functional, institutions that devote themselves to the training
of designers fully aware of the importance of their task.
to be sure, one can assert that there are already competent designers out
there today, but also that, in addition to true design, mere pseudo-design is
flourishing. it appears that many of our contemporaries are easily satisfied
by anything that “looks modern,” whose outward appearance meets their
demand for what is new and elegant. and there are plenty of craftsmen and
designers6 ready to respond to this need for novelty by producing mod-
ernistic creations that are a mockery of good taste and quite obviously
determine most of what is being mass-produced today. i shall only say
a few words about the way these products are foisted on unsuspecting
buyers. with the help of cleverly-devised advertisements in the press and
in film, the chaos of supposedly modern form is pumped into the mass-
es. these products, the fruit of unscrupulous marketing and thoughtless
“pseudo-design”, have come to be the expression of our rapidly rising
standard of living. this total inundation of such an important part of our
culture –that is, our living environment– will not be without repercussions
in other areas. never before have human beings been surrounded by such a
dreadful hodgepodge of odds and ends; never before has their immediate
surroundings sunk to such an abysmal depth as has been made possible
by industrialization.
yet never before have the opposing forces been as alert as they are today.
there are, in fact, producers who make good objects only good objects,
and there are those who make good objects but also others that are not.
perhaps it has never been as possible as it is today to find on the market,
based on one’s own particular taste, all the fine, beautiful, and useful things
5 i was greatly involved in this undertaking at the time. but precious years went by
before our ideas were understood by all those whose help was needed and the
required funds were placed at our disposal. by 1955, when we were finally able to
move into our own buildings, all those involved were so demoralized that everyone
believed he had a better way to teach design than everyone else, and so it has
remained to this day, even after i stepped down as the school’s director more than
eight years ago. nonetheless, one can always hope that they day will come when
this instrument for the training of true designers regains momentum and becomes
productive.
6 Formgeber [form-givers].
297
 energy
art
th ink
ing scie
nc
e 13. well-being in
ae st h etic
human being
fu
environment
nc
io
ns
t
te
s cie n c e
matter
needed to furnish one’s immediate surroundings. this is the upside of an ef-
fort that has been going on for more than half a century now. but how many
of our contemporaries have the ability to select those things that make up
what could be called a proper environment for human beings? surely only
a tiny minority. the others are dominated by merchandisers, plagued by a
misguided sense of ostentation, and at best end up surrounded by mod-
ernistic kitsch. according to this point of view, it would not be very sensible
to make any prognoses about the future prospects for the environment. we
can only hope for change, and change can only be brought about through
education. education from childhood on. this is a public responsibility, a
task for our schools. a huge and beautiful task. for a person’s surroundings
form him without his knowing it; external order promotes order within. this
is not merely a question of aesthetics but ultimately an existential one; a
question of human survival. 7
Lecture delivered at “Mensch und Zukunft” [Man and Future], a conference
organized by the Deutsche Institut für Bildung und Wissen [German Institute
for Education and Knowledge] at the Pädagogische Hochschule Weingarten
(Baden-Württemberg) [Weingarten School of Pedagogy] from June 3 to 8, 1963
and published a year later as “gestaltete umwelt in der zukunft” in the minutes
of this conference (Bill 1964a) and in: Die Pädagogische Provinz (Bill 1964, p.
65-72). Illustrated with a sketch by the author himself. Reprinted in: max bill.
funktion und funktionalismus… (Bill 2008, pp. 169-78).
Bill’s presence at the recently-inaugurated Weingarten School of Pedagogy
is probably due to his experience as director of the Hochschule für Gestaltung
Ulm (HfG Ulm) [Ulm School of Design]. That would also be the reason why he
was invited, a year later, to curate and design the pavilion for the “Bilden und
Gestalten” [Educate and Create] section of the 1964 Swiss national exhibition
in Lausanne.
7 During this debate, behler (sic) emphasized that with respect to the design of man’s
larger environment, it was above all a matter of seeing the extent to which the basic
features of a future society were already anticipated in the present design of houses,
cities, housing developments and industrial buildings, and whether the image of
society implied in this design was that of a sound society or one that held dangers
for mankind. In any case, the concept of “utility” as a design maxim needed to be
interpreted from this point of view. In this context bonk (sic) referred to the important
role of the pedagogy of design, but also the problem it entails, for it has to strike
a balance between satisfying the engineered world’s demands for adaptation and
constantly resisting the consequent tendency to equate the personal and individual.
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Fundación Juan March
a small state
ctio n s
(1968)
n
l fu
ca
ni
ch
on december 21 the painter, sculptor, architect, and product designer max
bill was awarded the city of zürich’s art prize for 1968 (cf. nzz of december
23, nº 792, foreign edition nº 352). professor eduard höttinger gave the
award citation, which will be published in full in the literature supplement
of december 29. max bill spoke about “well-being in a small state”; the full
text of his speech is reproduced below.
so that we rightly understand each other, let me first explain what i mean
by a “little state”; then i will talk about well-being, what it is based on, what
it requires, and its consequences.
today the small state is a polity that, as a matter of principle, depends on
being respected by big states. that is to say it depends on both interaction
and its own actions. it is said that its actions cannot be wholly independent
of the decisions made by the big states. even if that is true, it must be noted
that in this the little state is no less independent than the big states them-
selves. for they too are ultimately interdependent.
we in switzerland think of the state as the “canton”; that is, an even smaller
entity than the confederation, which —as the name suggests—is an associ-
ation formed in order to better solve common problems. just as this confed-
eration is a community, so is the state, the canton, a community, namely of
municipalities, and these in turn of families, and these in turn of individuals.
all this strikes us as perfectly self-evident and hardly worthy of mention.
but it is of crucial importance for what follows, for our state is made up of
these individuals, and they have rights, in conformity with the laws they
have made themselves or about which they are at least polled following the
rules of democracy. whether the individual exercises his rights within this
framework, whether he follows the rules like others, is his own decision. in
any case, he has the option of doing so.
what is important for us in all this is the fact that within our democratic
system, within our relatively small state structure, the potential for the indi-
vidual to have an influence on the whole can be greater than in a big state,
as long as our democratic rights are not adulterated or, by contrast, big
states do not stray from democratic principles and become dictatorships.
it is a fact that big states are much more likely to slip out of individuals’
control and fall into the hands of people who then take away people’s rights
because they are too inconvenient for them, or because the powers that be
represent interests opposed to the interests of the people.
even though in little states the zest for governing at times verges on intoler-
able, it is brought under control again and again by their democratic organi-
zational structure. and even if such corrections do not appear immediately,
it is true —at least in our country— that they always lead to improvements
and never make the situation worse.
even if one knows that detours are taken thanks to manipulated media by
offering us shadowy deals and agreements, partial knowledge and false
judgments; even if one knows that many things could be done differently,
faster, and better, it must be noted that all this does not lead to any major
catastrophes, and that positive developments are slow but unstoppable.
it must also be noted that in our little state, an individual’s rights are well
protected so long as he does not infringe on the freedom rights of others;
that is, in ways different than those established by democratic rules.
although though this does happens now and again, and then it is probably
more reasonable and preferable to face the situation with ideas instead of
water cannons, for example; because otherwise one easily falls into a big-
state mentality inappropriate to a little state, one that ultimately feels that
thanks to its superior power it is justified in charging in anywhere in the
world with the help of bombs and a huge arsenal of weapons or in illegally
attacking so-called “sister nations” and putting pressure on them.
now in a little state, we are likely to be spared such things (as long as we
remain vigilant), and that is one of its greatest advantages. we cannot and
do not wish to impose our way of life on anyone, though perhaps we are
frequently inclined to see it as the best of all, and again and again to some-
what pedantically pride ourselves on it and behave accordingly.
now these observations have a great deal to do with what one might call
“well-being”. they are to some extent its foundation. well-being presup-
poses a relatively high degree of political and —we must stress here—eco-
nomic security.
well-being thus rests first on security –and not on a conscious security, but
also on the feeling of security. And second, although equally important, on
the sense of freedom.
well-being is what makes life worth living. it has to do with the equilibrium
one needs to carry out his activities effectively. again and again there have
been attempts to find new ways to make this well-being available to all. one
could even assert that –at least in theory– all modern religions, including
christianity and communism, strive to make well-being a universal condi-
tion.
from what i said at the beginning, it is clear that the prerequisites for
well-being are more likely found in a little state than in a large one.
but well-being also depends on factors other than security and personal
freedo: namely, on one’s immediate environment, that is one’s natural sur-
roundings and the things man has added to them to protect his physical
existence.
these are above all the achievements of technology, which over time and
at an increasingly swift pace have been developed for the production and
exchange of goods necessary for life. these goods, in turn, can be capable
of spreading well-being. i said “can,” but perhaps “could” would be better,
for to an increasing degree goods are produced that do not contribute to
contentment. this would be cause for discontent, if one did not have the
freedom to ignore such goods.
the question now arises whether it is indeed possible to ignore them. and
to answer this question, sadly one has to recognize that only an especially
purposeful education can give one the ability to judge the value –or lack
thereof— of the objects that have been recently added to our environment.
Fundación Juan March
for today one’s own experience must confront the tremendous power of
advertising.
the capacity for judgment is an attribute based on both knowledge and
experience; on a knowledge of details and of contexts. the foundations for
such knowledge are education and training. and that is why the educational
system is of crucial importance —not only for the development of individual
abilities in general and specialist knowledge in particular, but also for the
cultivation of the personality, and with it self-assurance as a basis for con-
tinued well-being in the small state; for only by perfecting it can its continu-
ity be assured. and change –that is to say improvement— is only possible
through criticism. and only knowledge makes the proper criticism possible.
this indicates that everything is interrelated in a single cycle. it also shows
the difficulty of maintaining an unmanipulated democracy within a pluralis-
tic society where people with the most varied degrees of education, from
the mountain farmer to the physicist in CERN [european organization for
nuclear research] live side by side. even so, i prefer our form of democracy
to any other.
as an individual, this democracy pleases me. i have the freedom that allows
me to pursue my intellectual interests without limitations; even taboos ar-
en’t of essential importance. i have the freedom to move from this country
to another and do something different there, or i can stay here and do
what is best suited to my abilities. no one has ever come to me and pro-
hibited me from engaging in one of my many activities: writing a book or a
newspaper article or expressing my opinion, even when it is not necessarily
shared by the majority.
this freedom is the basis of my well-being, and with it i can express criti-
cism whenever i feel the need. this also requires me to take other people’s
criticism just as seriously as my own, recognizing that this will allow us
to find a way that will help both parties move foreward. i feel that such
constant engagement is the path we must take. it is of little help to us if
we copy foreign methods that even are not successful even there, but that
have a certain spectacular effect. our path consists of finding and putting
into practice clear solutions by clearly identifying and addressing the prob-
lems. for we must learn from our experiences: on the whole revolutions
have always brought more setbacks than peaceful democratic progress.
yet it is limiting to say that we, as a small state –as we have already de-
scribed– have the unique opportunity to follow the democratic path instead
of destroying it. that should not mean that revolutionary ideas are not highly
desirable in order for us to keep up with developments around us. it is even
essential that we develop new ideas, that we plunge into intellectual adven-
tures, at least, that we make some intellectual effort. for only this will allow
us to ensure our right to exist and with it, our well-being. what we need is
to rethink the possibilities. to some degree it is a methodology of creative
thought that has to be developed, for we have the intellectual and personal
freedom to conceive of new things and examine them. in short, we need
possiblities, not only for research aimed at a specific purpose, but also for
experimentation.
you may ask yourselves what this proposal has to do with well-being in a
small state, and what it has to do with this art award I am receiving from
the city of zürich today.
my proposal is quite simply meant as an admonition that well-being can
only be maintained if we continue to develop the foundations of our lives.
299
this has to do with the art prize, for these are worries and concerns that i
not only have today but have always had. the transformation of our envi-
ronment and the design of its components have always attracted my very
special attention. if i attempt to create exemplary arrangements of colors
on a surface or volumes in space, this is nothing but experimentation with
visible analogies and patterns of thought that become factors, directly and
without any explication, for the proper functioning of associations.

to condense problems into such elementary forms of expression and thus

find solutions that scarcely need to be changed: that is my goal. but the
pictures and scuptures are there to express –as fiedrich hegel once said–
the loftiest interests of the human spirit. for myself, my objects serve as
standards by which to assess other, more complicated processes that for-
ever attempt to reduce to elementary that i try again and again to reduce
to elementary thought associations. this is possible because i also demand
from painting and sculpture that same transparency –in terms of their verifi-
ability– as all the designs in our environment and the political and economic
methods that serve to realize them.

but apart from the work of art’s utility as an analogy, it is a clear conveyor of
the ideas from the time in which it was created, and as such the vehicle for
carrying messages from today to the future—messages that are perhaps
misinterpreted, but unalterable.

this explanation brings me back, once again, to well-being in the small

state.

if we take a closer look at the possibilities at our disposal, there is no room

for discontent in the small state. well-being would only give way to discon-
tent if our options were wasted and not utilized. we must not only trust
in the state, because we are the state, and therefore responsible for our
well-being in it.

Originally published in German as “das behagen im kleinstaat”, in: Neue Zürch-

er Zeitung (Bill 1968, pp. 5-6).
Speech by Max Bill at the awards ceremony for the Zurich Kunstpreis [Art
Prize] on December 21, 1968.
In this speech, Bill shares his ideas about politics, a subject that has always
been of great interest to him. During World War II, he takes a stance against
Fascism, helping colleagues and friends who had fled from both the Italian dic-
tatorship –such as the Italian architects Ernesto Nathan Rogers and Lanfranco
Bombelli– and the German regime. Over the course of his lifetime, he helped
form associations of artists –such as Allianz–, and designers –such as the Swiss
Werkbund–; he came up with initiatives to introduce progressive culture such as
the i.p.c. (institut für progresive kultur), and took political stances in the regional
and federal administrations: in 1960 he was elected to the confederation’s art
commission –a post he held until 1969–, and in 1961 was elected to the Zurich
municipal council. As an artist, he understood art as an activity that should
shape the environment and serve society.

300

Fundación Juan March

Fundación Juan March
works cited

This bibliography is divided into three

sections: books, articles and exhibitions.
It includes the works by Max Bill cited
in the texts contained in this catalog,
although there is also a specific, more
complete bibliography (cf. pp. 308-317)
dedicated to the artist where his writings
appear in chronological order.
At the express wish of Jakob Bill,
references to works by Max and Jakob Bill
are in lower-case letters, according to the
Bauhaus custom observed by both father
and son. Full references to the exhibition
catalogs cited in the “books” section can
be found in “exhibition catalogs”.

302

Fundación Juan March


books
a Maeght, 1951.
ALBERS [1954] 2014
Josef Albers, “Mis cursos en la
Hochschule für Gestaltung de Ulm”
(1954), in: Josef Albers, medios
mínimos efecto máximo [exh. cat.].
Madrid: Fundación Juan March, 2014.
b BILL 1955a
BANHAM 1974
Reyner Banham (ed.), The Aspen
Papers. Twenty Years of Design
Theory from the International Design
Conference in Aspen. London: Pall Mall
Press, 1974.
BARDI 1982
Pietro Maria Bardi, História do MASP.
São Paulo: Quadrante, 1982.
BARREIRO 2009
Paula Barreiro López, La abstracción
geométrica en España (1957-
69). Madrid: Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Científicas, 2009.
BESTGEN 2007
Ulrike Bestgen, “…eine geistige,
fortschrittliche Richtung”, in: Max Bill.
Die Schönheit der Ratio [exh. cat.].
Weimar: Klassik Stiftung, 2007,
pp. 11-21.
BILL 1936
Max Bill, “konkrete gestaltung”,
in: Zeitproblem in der Schweizer
Malerei und Plastik [exh. cat.]. Zurich:
Kunsthaus Zürich, 1936.
BILL 1939
Max Bill, Le Corbusier & P. Jeanneret.
Oeuvre complète 1934-38, vol. 3.
Zurich: Girsberger, 1939, pp. 7-10
[9th ed. Zurich: Les Éditions
d’Architecture (Artemis), 1975]
BILL 1940
Max Bill, “die beherrschung des
raumes”, in: Almanach neuer Kunst
in der Schweiz. Zurich: Verlag für
Architektur AG, 1940, pp. 13-14.
BILL 1945
Max Bill, wiederaufbau. dokumente
über zerstörungen, planungen,
konstruktionen. Erlenbach-Zurich:
Verlag für Architektur AG, 1945.
BILL 1949a
Max Bill, robert maillart: brücken und
konstruktionen / ponts et constructions
/ bridges and construction. Erlenbach-
Zurich: Verlag für architektur AG,
1949 [3rd ed. Zurich: Les Éditions
d’Architecture (Artemis), 1969].
BILL 1949b
Max Bill, wassily kandinsky, 10 farbige
reproduktionen. Basel: Holbein-Verlag,
1949.
BILL 1951
Max Bill, wassily kandinsky. Paris:
BILL 1952
Max Bill, form: eine bilanz über die
formentwicklung um die mitte des
XX. jahrhunderts / a balance sheet of
mid-twentieth-century trends in design
/ un bilan de l’evolution de la forme
au milieu du XXe siècle. Basel: Karl
Werner, 1952.
Max Bill, ludwig mies van der rohe.
Milan: Il Balcone, 1955.
BILL 1955b
Max Bill, “la concepción matemática
en el arte de nuestro tiempo”, in:
Tomás Maldonado, Max Bill. Buenos
Aires: Nueva Visión, 1955.
BILL 1973
Jakob Bill, die glockenbecherkultur und
die frühe bronzezeit im französischen
rhonebecken und ihre beziehungen
zur südwestschweiz. Basel:
Schweizersche Gesellschaft für Ur- und
Frühgeschichte, 1973.
BILL 2008a
Jakob Bill, “max bill und das corso in
zürich”, in: Max Bill: Aspekte seines
Werkes [exh. cat.]. Sulgen: Niggli,
2008, pp. 171-75.
BILL 2008b
Jakob Bill, max bill am bauhaus.
Bern: Benteli, 2008.
BILL 2008c
Max Bill, “gestaltete umwelt in der
zukunft”, in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill.
funktion und funktionalismus. Schriften:
1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008.
BILL 2008d
Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill. funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften: 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008.
BILL 2008e
Max Bill, “funktion und gestalt”, in:
Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill. funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften: 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 129-47.
BILL and GIEDION-WELCKER 2009
Max Bill and Carola Giedion-Welcker,
Wassily Kandinsky. Barcelona:
Polígrafa, 2009.
BILL 2010
Max Bill, form, function, beauty
= gestalt. London: Architectural
Association, 2010.
BILL and KANDINSKY 1955
Max Bill (ed.) and Wassily Kandinsky,
Essays über Kunst und Künstler.
Stuttgart: Hatje-Cantz, 1955.
Fundación Juan March
BUCHSTEINER and LETZE 2005
Thomas Buchsteiner and Otto Letze,
“Max Bill”, in: Max Bill: Maler,
Bildhauer, Architekt, Designer
[exh. cat.]. Stuttgart: Hatje-Cantz,
2005, pp. 22-24.
c Chicago Press, 1983.
CEYSSON 1986
Bernrd Ceysson, “A propos des années
cinquante: tradition et modernité”, in:
25 Ans d´art en France: 1960-85. Paris:
Larousse, 1986, pp. 9-62.
CLIMENT ORTIZ 1978
Javier Climent Ortiz (ed.), Francisco
Cabrero 1939-78. Madrid: Xarait, 1978.
e Jahrbuch für Formgebung / Annuaire
ENDICOTT BARNETT 1995
Vivian Endicott Barnett, “Hommage an
Max Bill und Wassily Kandinsky”, in:
Kandinsky nelle collezioni svizzere / in
den Schweizer Sammlungen / dans les
collections suisses [exh. cat.]. Milan:
Skira, 1995, pp. 138-45.
f
FABBRI 2011
Roberto Fabbri, Max Bill in Italia: lo
spazio logico dell’architettura. Milan-
Turin: Mondadori, 2011.
FIEDLER and FEIERABEND 1999
Jeannine Fiedler and Peter Feierabend,
Bauhaus. Cologne: Könemann, 1999
[Spanish ed.: Könemann, 2000].
FREI 1991
Hans Frei, Konkrete Architektur?: über
Max Bill als Architekt. Baden: Lars
Müller, 1991.
FUCHS 2001
Walter Fuchs, “Die Modernität der
Schweizerischen Landesbibliothek,
1798-2001”, in: Susanne Bieri and
Walther Fuchs, Bibliotheken bauen:
Tradition und Vision / Building for
Books: Traditions and Visions. Basel:
Birkhäuser, 2001, pp. 305-75.
g in Science. New York: George Braziller,
GARCÍA 2011
María Amalia García, El arte abstracto.
Intercambios culturales entre Argentina
y Brasil. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI, 2011.
GERSTNER 1957
Karl Gerstner, Kalte Kunst? Zum
Standort der heutigen Malerei. Teufen:
Arthur Niggli, 1957.
GIEDION 1941
Siegfried Giedion, Space, Time
and Architecture. The Growth of a
New Tradition. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1941 [1st ed. in
Spanish: Espacio, tiempo y arquitectura.
Barcelona: Editorial Científico Médica,
1955].
GUILBAUT 1983
Serge Guilbaut, How New York Stole
the Idea of Modern Art. Abstract
Expressionism, Freedom, and the
Cold War. Chicago, The University of
h
HAHN 2008
Peter Hahn, “Bill und das Bauhaus”, in:
Max Bill. Aspekte seines Werkes [exh.
cat.]. Sulgen: Niggli, 2008, pp. 73-83.
HATJE 1952
Gerd Hatje (ed.), Idea 53: International
Design Annual / Internationales
international des formes utiles. Vienna:
Arthur Niggli, 1952.
HELLER 1995
Martin Heller, “Unendliche Schleife des
reinen Ausdrucks”, in: Handbuch über
Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit
[exh. cat.]. Zurich: Museum für
Gestaltung / Basel / Frankfurt / Zurich:
Stroemfeld, 1995.
HEUSSER et al. 1979
Hans-Jörg Heusser et al., Schweizer
Kunst der Gegenwart: Sammlung der
Gotthard-Bank. Zurich: Orell Füssli,
1979 [Kataloge Schweizer Museen und
Sammlungen Collection, nº 4].
HÜTTINGER 1977
Eduard Hüttinger, Max Bill. Zurich: ABC
Verlag, 1977.
HÜTTINGER 1978
Eduard Hüttinger, Max Bill. New York:
Rizzoli, 1978.
k
KANDINSKY [1926] 1996
Vasili Kandinsky, Punto y línea sobre
el plano. Contribución al análisis de los
elementos pictóricos [1926]. Barcelona /
Buenos Aires / Mexico: Paidós, 1996.
KEPES 1965
Gyorgy Kepes (ed.), Structure in Art and
1965.
KEPES 1967a
Gyorgi Kepes (ed.), La Structure dans
les arts et dans les sciences. Brussels:
La Connaissance, 1967.
KEPES 1967b
Gyorgi Kepes (ed.), Struktur in Kunst
und Wissenschaft. Brussels: La
Connaissance, 1967.
KOELLA 2008
Rudolf Koella, “Bill vor Bill: zum
Frühwerk des Künstlers”, in: Max Bill.
Aspekte seines Werkes [exh. cat.].
Sulgen: Niggli, 2008, pp. 27-39.
303

l Dimensions, 1973.
LEOZ 1969
Rafael Leoz, Redes and ritmos
espaciales. Madrid: Blume, 1969.
m SPITZ 2002
MALDONADO 1955
Tomás Maldonado, Max Bill. Buenos
Aires: Nueva Visión, 1955.
MARZÁ and QUETGLAS 2005
Fernando Marzá and Josep Quetglas,
Le Corbusier et le livre. Barcelona:
COAC, 2005.
MÜLLER 2015
Lars Müller (ed.), max bill’s view of
things. die gute form: an exhibition
1949. Baden: Lars Müller Publishers,
2015.
q Abstraction. Strategies for Public
QUIJANO 2002
Marcela Quijano, “Programm der
Geschwister Scholl Hochschule. Eine
aktive Schule für Kultur und Politik,
Ulm, 1949-50. HfG-Archiv Ulm”, in:
HfG Ulm, Programm wird Bau; die
Gebäude der Hochschule für Gestaltung
Ulm. Ulm: Solitude, 2002.
r WINGLER 1968
ROTH 1940
Alfred Roth (ed.), Die Neue Architektur
/ the New Architecture / La Nouvelle
Architecture. Erlenbach-Zurich: Verlag
für Architektur AG, 1940.
ROVIRA 2000
José María Rovira, “El mar nunca tuvo
un sueño”, in: En busca del hogar.
Coderch 1940-64. Barcelona: COAC,
2000.
RUIZ CABRERO 2007
Gabriel Ruiz Cabrero (ed.), “Vida y obra
de Asís Cabrero”, in: Francisco de Asís
Cabrero. Madrid: Fundación COAM,
2007.
RÜEGG 2008
Arthur Rüegg, “Die Erziehung zum
‘bewussten menschen’: Max Bill als
Lehrer”, in: Max Bill: Aspekte seine
Werks [exh. cat.]. Sulgen: Niggli, 2008.
s de cultura visual, nº 1 (December
SECKENDORFF 1989
Eva von Seckendorff, Die Hochschule
für Gestaltung in Ulm: Gründung
(1949-53) und Ära Max Bill (1953-57).
Marburg: Jonas Verlag, 1989.
SMITHSON 1973
Alison and Peter Smithson, Without
Rethoric: An Architectural Aesthetic,
304
1955-72. London: Latimer New
SMITHSON 2004
Peter Smithson, Conversaciones con
estudiantes. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili,
2004.
René Spitz, HfG Ulm: The View Behind
the Foreground: The Political History of
the Ulm School of Design (1953-68).
Stuttgart / London: Axel Menges, 2002.
STABER 1966
Margit Staber, Konkrete Kunst, vol. 66.
St. Gallen: Édition Galerie Press, 1966.
u räumlichen”, in: Architecture, nº 7
URSPRUNG 2004
Philip Ursprung, “Continuity: Max
Bill’s Public Sculpture and the
Representation of Money”, in:
Charlotte Benton (ed.), Figuration/
Sculpture in Europe 1945-68. Aldershot
/ Burlingon: Ashgate, 2004, pp. 231-49.
w BILL 1946b
WICK 1986
Rainer Wick, La pedagogía de la
Bauhaus. Madrid: Alianza editorial,
1986.
Hans Maria Wingler, Das Bauhaus,
1919-33: Weimar Dessau, Berlin und
die Nachfolge in Chicago seit 1937.
Bramsche: Gebr. Rasch & Co., 1968
[2nd ed.].
articles
a als funktion”, in: Werk, XXXVI, nº 8
AQUINO 1953
Flávio Aquino, “Max Bill critica a nossa
moderna arquitetura”, in: Manchete, nº
60 (June 13, 1953), pp. 38-39.
b BILL 1950b
BARDI 1951a
Pietro María Bardi, “Diseño industrial
en San Pablo”, in: Nueva Visión. Revista
1951), pp. 9 and 11.
BARDI 1951b
Pietro María Bardi, “Arte concreto en
Brasil”, in: Nueva Visión. Revista de
cultura visual, nº 1 (December 1951),
back cover.
Bauhaus 1928
Bauhaus, nº 4 (1928).
Fundación Juan March
BIGAS, BRAVO and CONTEPOMI 2009
Montserrat Bigas, Luis Bravo and
Gustavo Contepomi, “Proyectar el
infinito. Miralles, Max Bill, Klee”,
in: EGA. Revista de expresión gráfica
arquitectónica, nº 14 (June 2009),
pp. 146-57.
BILL 1938
Max Bill, “über konkrete kunst”, in:
Werk, XXV, nº 8 (1938), pp. 250-54.
BILL 1939
Max Bill, “la maitrise de l’espace”, in:
XXème Siècle, II, nº 1 (1939), pp. 51-53.
BILL 1944
Max Bill, “ein standpunkt”, in:
Abstrakt-Konkret, nº 1 (1944), n.p.
BILL 1945
Max Bill, “zur zeichung nr. 21/1932
von wassily kandinsky”, in: Abstrakt-
Konkret, nº 8 (1945).
BILL 1946a
Max Bill, “erfahrungen bei
der formgestaltung von
industrieprodukten”, in: Werk, XXXIII,
nº 5 (1946), pp. 167-70.
Max Bill,“franz kupka: zum 75.
geburtstag”, in: Werk, XXXIII, nº 9
(1946), pp. 106-07.
BILL 1946c
Max Bill,“vasili kandinsky”, in: Werk,
XXXIII, nº 4 (1946), pp. 128-32.
BILL 1948
Max Bill, “ausstellungen: ein beitrag
zur abklärung von fragen der
ausstellung-gestaltung”, in: Werk,
XXXV, nº 3 (1948), pp. 65-71.
BILL 1949a
Max Bill, “die mathematische
denkweise in der kunst unserer zeit”,
in: Werk, XXXVI, nº 3 (1949), pp. 86-91.
BILL 1949b
Max Bill, “schönheit aus funktion und
(1949), pp. 272-74.
BILL 1950a
Max Bill, “el pensamiento matemático
en el arte de nuestro tiempo”, in: Ver y
estimar, nº 17 (May 1950), pp. 1-7.
Max Bill, “lo spazio infinito come
soggetto plastico”, in: AZ, nº 8
(June-July 1950), p. 3.
BILL 1951a
Max Bill, “beleza provinda de função
e beleza como função”, in: Hábitat 2
(January-March 1951), pp. 61-65.
BILL 1951b
Max Bill, “de la surface à l’espace”, in:
XXème Siècle, nº 2 (1951), pp. 59-65.
BILL 1951c
Max Bill, “bei uns kann man nicht
maler werden […] gedanken zu einer
hochschule für gestaltung”, in: Die
Neue Zeitung, nº 213 (September
1951).
BILL 1951d
Max Bill, “il pensiero matematico
nell’arte contemporánea”, in: AZ, nº 11
(April 1951), pp. 1-2.
BILL 1952
Max Bill, “bauhaus-chronik. vom
bauhaus in weimar zur hochschule
für gestaltung in ulm”, in: Deutsche
Universitäts-Zeitung, nos. 23-24
(December 22, 1952), pp. 14-15.
BILL 1953a
Max Bill, “vom flächigen zum
(1953).
BILL 1953b
Max Bill, “bauhaus da weimar a
ulm”, in: Arti Visive, nº 3 (December
1952-January 1953), pp. 6-7.
BILL 1953c
Max Bill, “the bauhaus idea from
weimar to ulm”, in: Architect’s Year
Book, nº 5 (1953), pp. 29-32.
BILL 1954a
Max Bill, “vom flächigen zum
räumlichen”, in: Spirale, 3 (1954),
pp. 6-11.
BILL 1954b
Max Bill, “o arquiteto, a arquitetura, a
sociedade”, in: Habitat, nº 14 (January-
February 1954), n.p.
BILL 1954c
Max Bill, “el arquitecto, la arquitectura
y la sociedad”, in: Revista de
Arquitectura SCA (May-August 1954),
pp. 1-2.
BILL 1954d
Max Bill, “architect, architecture and
society”, in: Architectural Review,
CXVI, nº 694 (October 1954),
pp. 238-39.
BILL 1954e
Max Bill, “vom staatlischen bauhaus in
weimar zur hochschule für gestaltung
in ulm”, in: Magnum, nº 1 (1954),
pp. 59-60.
BILL 1955a
Max Bill, “base y finalidad de la
estética en la época del maquinismo”,
in: Revista Nacional de Arquitectura,
nº 160 (April 1955), p. 5.
BILL 1955b
Max Bill, “el arquitecto, la arquitectura
y la sociedad”, in: Revista Nacional de
Arquitectura, nº 163 (July 1955),
pp. 1-2.
BILL 1956a
Max Bill, “umweltgestaltung nach
morphologischen methoden”, in: Werk
und Zeit. Monatszeitung des Deutschen
Werkbundes, V, nº 11 (1956), pp. 4-5.
BILL 1956b
Max Bill, “die komposition I/1925 von
piet mondrian”, in: Jahresbericht der
zürcher Kunstgesellschaft. Zurich, 1956.
BILL 1957
Max Bill, “ein denkmal”, in: Werk,
XLIV, nº 7 (1957), pp. 250-54.
BILL 1958
Max Bill, “josef albers”, in: Werk, XLV,
nº 4 (1958), pp. 135-38.
BILL 1959
Max Bill,“der modellfall ulm. zur
problematik einer hochschule für
gestaltung”, in: Form, nº 6 (1959),
pp. 18-.
BILL 1963
Max Bill, “vorfabriziertes bauen:
freiheit oder bindung?”, in: Form,
nº 24 (November 1963), pp. 9-10.
BILL 1964a
Max Bill, “gestaltete umwelt in der
zukunft”, in: Mensch und Zukunft:
Referate der Tagung des Deutschen
Instituts für Bildung und Wissen,
minutes from the conference “Man and
Future”, held from June 3 to 8, 1963
in Weingarten (Baden-Würtemberg).
Frankfurt am Main: Hirschgraben
Verlag, 1964.
BILL 1964b
Max Bill, “gestaltete umwelt in der
zukunft”, in: Die pädagogische Provinz,
nos. 2-3 (1964), pp. 65-72.
BILL 1966a
Max Bill, “das individuelle und das
allgemeine in der architecktur”, in: V.
Diskusionsforum Schöner Wohnen 4-5
April 1966 (publication of the debate
forum Schöner Wohnen, April 4-5,
1966). Stuttgart: Verbis Verlag, 1966.
BILL 1966b
Max Bill, “das individuelle und das
allgemeine in der architecktur”, in:
Bauen + Wohnen = Construction
+ habitation = Building + Home:
internationale Zeitschrift, XX, nº 8
(1966), pp. 1-4.
BILL 1966c
Max Bill, “georges vantongerloo”, in:
XXème Siècle, nº 26 (1966), n.p.
BILL 1968
Max Bill, “das behagen im kleinstaat”,
in: Neue zürcher Zeitung, nº 795 (1968),
pp. 5-6.
BILL 1970
Max Bill, “Piet Mondrian”, in: Die
Grossen der Weltgeschichte, vol. VIII.
Zurich: Kindler-Verlag, 1970.
BILL 1973
Max Bill, “monumento al preso
político desconocido”, “el arquitecto,
la arquitectura y la sociedad” and “la
concepción matemática en el arte de
nuestro tiempo”, in: Nueva Forma:
arquitectura, urbanismo, diseño,
ambiente, arte, nº 92 (1973), pp. 40-41,
56-57 and 58-60.
BILL 1976
Max Bill, “vom bauhaus bis ulm”, “die
magie der gestalteten gegenstände”
and “autonome gegenstände für den
geistigen gebrauch”, in: Du, XXXVI, nº
6 (1976), pp. 12-21, 22-49 and 50-59.
BILL 1979
Max Bill, “lehren am und aus dem
bauhaus”, in: Form + Zweck, nº 3
(1979), p. 66.
BILL 1988
Max Bill, “die funktion der
gestalteten objekte”, in: Zeitschrift
für schweizerische Archäologie und
Kunstgeschichte / Revue suisse d’art et
d’archéologie / Rivista svizzera d’arte
e d’archeologia / Journal of Swiss
Archeology and Art History, XLV, nº 1
(1988), pp. 50-52.
BILL 1990
Max Bill, “beauté issue de la fonction,
beauté en tant que fonction”, in: Faces,
nº 15 (1990), pp. 24-27.
BILL 2001
Max Bill, “la concepción matemática
en el arte de nuestro tiempo” and
“monumento al preso político
desconocido”, in: DPA. Documents de
projectes d’arquitectura, nº 17 (2001),
pp. 6-11 and 40-45.
BURSTOW 1998
Robert Burstow, “The Limits of
Modernist Art as a ‘Weapon of the
Cold War’: Reassessing the Unknown
Patron of the Monument to the
Unknown Political Prisoner”, in: Oxford
Art Journal, XX, nº 1 (1998/7),
pp. 68-80.
c Karin Gimmi, “Max Bill: artista
COSTA 1953
Lúcio Costa, “A nossa arquitetura
moderna: oportunidade perdida”, in:
Manchete, nº 63 (July 4, 1953), p. 49.
d 1927”, in: 2G. Revista internacional de
Diário de São Paulo 1951a
“Museu de Arte. Inauguração da
exposição de Max Bill”, in: Diário de
São Paulo (March 1, 1951).
Diário de São Paulo 1951b
“Esta aberta no Museu de Arte a
exposição dedicada a Max Bill”, in:
Diário de São Paulo (March 3, 1951).
Domus 1950
“bellezza proveniente dalla funzione e
bellezza come funzione”, in: Domus, nº
250 (September 1950), pp. 1-3.
Fundación Juan March
e Arte [XVII International Art History
E. W. 1928a
E. W., “Ausstellung: Bauhaus-
Malschule”, in: Anhalter Anzeiger (May
31, 1928).
E. W. 1928b
E. W., “Anhaltischer Kunstverein –
Ausstellung Malklasse Kandinsky”, in:
Volksblatt für Anhalt (June 5, 1928).
f projectes d’arquitectura, nº 17 (2001),
FERRAZ 1951
Geraldo Ferraz, “Uma página anterior
(Max Bill, pintor, escultor e arquiteto
no Museu de Arte)”, in: O Jornal (May
23, 1951) [reproduced in: Geraldo
Ferraz, Retrospectiva. Figuras, raízes e
problemas da arte contemporânea.
São Paulo: Cultrix-EDUSP, 1975,
pp. 174-77].
FERREIRA MARTINS 1999
Carlos Ferreira Martins, “Hay algo
de irracional... Apuntes sobre la
historiografía de la arquitectura
brasileña”, in: Block, nº 4 (1999),
pp. 8-22.
Folha da Manhã 1951
“Duas grandes exposições no Museu
de Arte”, in: Folha da Manhã (April 15,
1951).
FREI 1990
Hans Frei, “La Hochschule für
Gestaltung et l’ombre du Bauhaus”, in:
Faces, nº 15 (spring 1990), pp. 9-10.
g History, I, nos. 3-4 (1988).
GIMMI 2004a
Karin Gimmi (ed.), 2G. Revista
internacional de arquitectura, nos. 29-
30 (2004).
GIMMI 2004b
de exposiciones”, in: 2G. Revista
internacional de arquitectura, nos. 29-
30 (2004), pp. 30-43.
GIMMI 2004c
Karin Gimmi, “Max Bill, arquitecto:
Biblioteca Nacional Suiza, Berna,
arquitectura, nos. 29-30 (2004),
pp. 58-59.
GOMRINGER 1958
Eugen Gomringer, “Max Bill und die
konkrete Dichtung”, in: Max Bill.
Festschrift zum 50. Geburtstag. Teufen:
Arthur Niggli, 1958, pp. 56-62.
GORELIK 1994
Adrián Gorelik, “Nostalgia y plan: El
Estado como vanguardia”, in: Gustavo
Curiel, Renato González Mello and
Juana Gutiérrez Haces, Arte, historia
e identidad en América. Visiones
comparativas, minutes from the XVII
Coloquio Internacional de Historia del
Colloquium] held in 1993 in Zacatecas
(Mexico). Mexico: Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de México,
Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas,
1994, pp. 656-70.
GRAF 2001
Franz Graf, “La construcción de la
estructura como arte: el pabellón
‘Educar y crear’ en la Expo 64 de
Lausanne”, in: DPA. Documents de
pp. 46-51.
GRIJALBA BENGOETXEA 2000
Alberto Grijalba Bengoetxea, Cabrero:
la arquitectura de Francisco Cabrero.
Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid,
2000.
h
H. B. 1928
H. B., “Ausstellung der Malklasse des
Bauhauses”, in: Dessauer Zeitung
(May 26, 1928).
Habitat 1951
“beleza provinda da funçao e beleza
como funçao”, in: Habitat, nº 2
(January-March 1951), pp. 61-64.
j
JACOB 1988
Heiner Jacob, “A Personal View of an
Experiment in Democracy and Design
Education”, in: Journal of Design
k
KANDINSKY 1938
Vasili Kandinsky, “Art concret”, in:
XXème Siècle, nº 1 (1938), pp. 369-73.
KOZLOFF 1973
Max Kozloff, “American Painting During
the Cold War”, in: Artforum, XI, nº 9
(1973), pp. 43-54.
l
LIERNUR 1999
Jorge Francisco Liernur, “The South
American Way. El ‘milagro’ brasileño,
los Estados Unidos y la Segunda
Guerra Mundial (1939-43)”, in: Block,
nº 4 (1999), pp. 23-41.
LOOS 1993 [1920]
Adolf Loos, “Art et Architecture”,
in: Action Cahiers individualistes de
Philosophie (October 1920) [The
original German source is unknown.
French translation by Claire Goll, in:
Adolf Loos, Escritos II. Madrid: El
Croquis, 1993].
305

m q
MALDONADO 1951
Tomás Maldonado, palabras
preliminares in: Nueva Visión. Revista
de cultura visual, nº 1 (December
1951), p. 2.
MALDONADO 1958
Tomás Maldonado, “Neue
Entwicklungen in der Industrie und die
Ausbildung des Produktgestalters”, in:
Ulm, nº 2 (October 1958), pp. 25-40.
MATER 1994
Joan Mater, “The Ascendancy of
Abstraction for Public Art: The
Monument to the Unknown Political
Prisoner Competiton”, in: Art Journal,
LIII, nº 4 (1994), pp. 28-36.
MOOS 1992
Stanislaus von Moos,
“Industrieästhetik”, in: Ars Helvetica.
Die visuelle Kultur der Schweiz, XI
(1992).
MOOS 1995
Stanislaus von Moos, “Schönheit als
Funktion. Anmerkungen zu Bill”, in:
Rassegna, XVII, nº 62 (1995), p. 69.
MOOS 2008
Stanislaus von Moos, “Kalter Krieg
und Neue Stadt. Frontverwischungen
in der Architekturdiskussion der
Nachkriegszeit”, in: Neue zürcher
Zeitung, April 26, 2008 (available
online).
MUTHESIUS 1912
Hermann Muthesius, “Wo stehen
wir”, in: Jahrbuch des Deutschen
Werkbundes, 1912.
o sur la base de la peinture concrète”,
OTEIZA 1953
Jorge de Oteiza, “El concurso
internacional en Londres: protesta del
escultor Oteiza [memoria del proyecto
del escultor Jorge de Oteiza]”, in:
Revista Nacional de Arquitectura,
nº 138 (June 1953), p. 45-48.
OTXOTORENA and POZO 2001
José Miguel Otxotorena and José
Manuel Pozo, “Modernidad con
minúscula: la casa Cabrero, un hallazgo
autodidacta”, in: AACC. Arquitecturas
Contemporáneas, vol. 3: Francisco
Cabrero de Asís. Madrid: T6 Ediciones,
2001, pp. 6-25.
p MADRID-BARCELONA 1980
PUIG 1965
Roberto Puig, “Memoria-Manifiesto”,
in: Revista Arquitectura, nº 78 (1965),
pp. 32-40.
306
QUINTAVALLE 1977a
Arturo Carlo Quintavalle, “Max Bill”,
in: Quaderni, nº 38 (1977).
QUINTAVALLE 1977b
Arturo Carlo Quintavalle, Max Bill.
Parma: Università Comune Provincia di
Parma, 1977.
r [exh. cat. Caracas, Museo de Bellas
ROGERS 1951
Ernesto Rogers, “Unidad de Max Bill”,
in: Nueva Visión. Revista de cultura
visual, nº 1 (December 1951), pp. 11-12.
ROMERO BREST 1951
Jorge Romero Brest, “Primera Bienal
de San Pablo”, in: Ver and estimar,
nº 26 (November 1951), pp. 1-40.
s g
STABER 1962
Margit Staber, Casabella Continuità,
nº 259 (January 1962).
t Manuel Fontán and María Toledo (eds.).
THOMAS 1993
Angela Thomas, “Max Bill. The Early
Years-An Interview”, in: The Journal of
Decorative and Propaganda Arts, nº 19
(1993), pp. 98-119.
TUÑÓN 1995
Emilio Tuñón, “La estatua de la vida”,
in: Circo, nº 27 (1995).
v cat. Herford, Marta Herford, February
VAN DOESBURG 1930
Theo van Doesburg, “Commentaires
in: Art concret, nº 1 (April 1930).
exhibitions
a Kandinsky nelle collezioni svizzere
APPENZELL 2003
Im Mondquadrat: Aspekte der
Sammlung Arp-Hagenbach [exh. cat.
Appenzell, Museum Liner, October
26, 2003-January 24, 2004], Jakob Bill
(ed.). Düsseldorf: Richter, 2003.
b
BADEN 1970
Wassily Kandinsky [exh. cat. Baden,
Staatliche Kunsthalle Baden-Baden,
July 10-September 27, 1970], Max
Bill and Klaus Gallwitz (eds.). Baden:
Fundación Juan March
Staatliche Kunsthalle Baden-Baden,
1970.
BASEL 1944
Konkrete Kunst [exh. cat. Basel,
Kunsthalle Basel, March 18-April 16,
1944]. Basel: B. Schwabe, 1944.
c de Cultura, Educación, Juventud y
CARACAS 1979
Max Bill: pinturas, esculturas, gráfica
Artes, October 21-November 18, 1979].
Caracas: Consejo Nacional de Cultura,
1979.
COLOGNE 1968
Graphic Tectonic. Ein Zyklus von acht
Lithographien aus dem Jahr 1942 [exh.
cat. Cologne, Galerie Der Spiegel,
1968], Margit Staber (ed.). Cologne:
Galerie Der Spiegel, 1968.
GSTAAD 1943
Moderne Malerei [exh. cat. Gstaad,
Palace-Hotel, July 30-August 15, 1943].
Gstaad: [n.p.], 1943.
h Madrid: Fundación Juan March, 2014.
HANNOVER 1968
Josef Albers zu seinem 80. Geburtstag:
Lithografien, Serigrafien [exh. cat.
Hannover, Kestner-Gesellschaft, May
15-June 9, 1968]. Hannover: Kestner-
Gesellschaft, 1968.
HERFORD 2008
Max Bill: Ohne Anfang ohne Ende [exh.
2-March 20, 2008], Lorenzo Benedetti
and Friederike Fast (eds.). Zurich:
Scheidegger & Spiess, 2008.
l MILAN 2006
LEVERKUSEN 1959
Max Bill [exh. cat. Leverkusen,
Städtisches Museum Leverkusen,
Schloß Morsbroich, June 19-July 26,
1959]. Opladen: Middelhauve, 1959.
LUGANO 1995
/ in den Schweizer Sammlungen /
dans les collections suisses [exh. cat.
Lugano: Museo Cantonale d’Arte, June
4-October 8, 1995], Vivian Endicott
Barnett and Manuela Kahn-Rossi (eds.).
Milan: Skira, 1995.
m
Max Bill [exh. cat. Madrid, Museo
Español de Arte Contemporáneo,
February 1980; Barcelona, Fundació
Joan Miró, March 12-April 20,
1980]. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura,
Dirección General del Patrimonio
Artístico, Archivos y Museos;
Barcelona: Polígrafa, 1980.
MADRID 1989a
Arte Geométrico en España 1957-89
[exh. cat. Madrid, Centro Cultural de
la Villa, April 1989], Julián Gil and
Fernando Arias (eds.). Madrid: Área
Deportes, 1989.
MADRID 1989b
Arte sistemático y constructivo
[exh. cat. Madrid, Centro Cultural de
la Villa, April 1989], Julián Gil and
Fernando Arias (eds.). Madrid: Área
de Cultura, Educación, Juventud y
Deportes, 1989.
MADRID 2003
Suiza Constructiva [exh. cat. Madrid,
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina
Sofía, February 4-May 12, 2003],
Patricia Molins (ed.). Madrid: Museo
Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía,
2003.
MADRID 2014
Josef Albers: medios mínimos, efecto
máximo [exh. cat. Madrid, Fundación
Juan March, March 28-July 6, 2014].
MILAN 1959
Enzo Mari [exh. cat. Milan, Galleria
Studio Danese, 1959], Max Bill AND
Bruno Munari (eds.). Milan: Muggiani,
1959.
MILAN 1996
Minimal Tradition: Max Bill und die
einfache Architektur 1942-96 / Minimal
Tradition. Max Bill e l’architettura
semplice 1942-96 [exh. cat. Milan, XIX
Triennale di Milano, 1996], Hans Frei,
Karin Gimmi and Stanislaus von Moos
(eds.). Baden: Müller, 1996.
Max Bill: pittore, scultore, architetto,
designer [exh. cat. Milan, Palazzo
Reale, March 29-June 25, 2006]. Milan:
Electa Mondadori, 2006.
p
PALMA-CUENCA 2015
Max Bill: obras de arte multiplicadas
(1938-94) [exh. cat. Palma, Museu
Fundació Juan March, February 25-
May 30, 2015; Cuenca, Museo de Arte
Abstracto Español, June 24-September
18, 2015], Jakob Bill and Manuel
Fontán (eds.). Madrid: Fundación Juan
March, 2015.
s
ST. GALLEN-HANNOVER 1967
Max Bill [exh. cat. St. Gallen, Galerie im
Erker, April 8-May 27, 1967]. St. Gallen:
Galerie im Erker, 1967. Reprinted in:
Max Bill [exh. cat. Hannover, Kestner-
Gesellschaft, June 14-July 14, 1968].
Hannover: Kestner-Gesellschaft, 1968.
STUTTGART 1948
Josef Albers, Hans Arp, Max Bill
[exh. cat. Stuttgart, Galerie Herbert
Herrmann, July-August 1948].
Stuttgart: Der Galerie, 1968.
STUTTGART 2005
Max Bill: Maler, Bildhauer, Architekt,
Designer [exh. cat. Stuttgart,
Kunstmuseum, September 10,
2005-January 8, 2006]. Ostfildern-Ruit:
Hatje Cantz, 2005.
STUTTGART-MÚNICH 1949
Zürcher konkrete Kunst [exh. cat.
Stuttgart, Galerie Lutz & Meyer, April-
May 1949; Munich, Moderne Galerie
Otto Stangl, May-June 1949], Hans
Hildebrandt (ed.). [s.l.], 1949.
u Abt and Sigfried Giedion (eds.). Zurich:
ULM 1956
Max Bill [exh. cat. Ulm, Ulmer
Museum, 1956 and other venues], Max
Bill (ed.). Ulm, Ulmer Museum, 1956.
w 1947]. Zurich: Kunsthaus Zürich, 1947.
WEIMAR 2007
Max Bill. Die Schönheit der Ratio [exh.
cat. Weimar: Neues Museum, March
4-July 29, 2007], Ernst-Gerhard Güse
and Ulrike Bestgen (eds.). Weimar:
Klassik Stiftung, 2007.
WINTERTHUR 2008
Max Bill. Aspekte seines Werkes
[exh. cat. Winterthur: Kunstmuseum
Winterthur and Gewerbemuseum,
January 20-May 12, 2008], Sandra
Gianfreda and Dieter Schwarz (eds.).
Sulgen: Niggli, 2008.
z Piet Mondrian [exh. cat. Zurich,
ZURICH 1936
Zeitproblem in der Schweizer Malerei
und Plastik [exh. cat. Zurich, Kunsthaus
Zürich, June 13-July 22, 1936], Otto
Kunsthaus Zürich, 1936.
ZURICH 1947
Allianz: Vereinigung moderner
schweizer Künstler [exh. cat. Zurich,
Fundación Juan March
Kunsthaus Zürich, May 23-June 21,
ZURICH 1949a
Antoine Pevsner, Georges Vantongerloo,
Max Bill [exh. cat. Zurich, Kunsthaus
Zürich, October 15-November 13,
1949]. Zurich: Kunsthaus Zürich, 1949.
ZURICH 1949b
Die gute Form. Wanderausstellung des
Schweizerischen Werkbundes [exh.
cat. Zurich, Kunstgewerbemuseum-
Museum für Gestaltung], Max Bill
(ed.). Zurich: Kunstgewerbemuseum-
Museum für Gestaltung, 1949.
ZURICH 1955
Kunsthaus Zürich, May 22-July 1,
1955], Max Bill (ed.). Zurich: Orell
Füssli, 1955.
ZURICH 1956
Josef Albers, Fritz Glarner, Friedrich
Vordemberge-Gildewart [exh. cat.
Zurich, Kunsthaus Zürich, April 28-
June 10, 1956], Max Bill (ed.). Zurich:
Kunsthaus Zürich, 1956.
ZURICH 1960a
Konkrete Kunst: 50 Jahre Entwicklung
[exh. cat. Zurich, Helmhaus Zürich,
June 8-August 14, 1960], Max Bill and
Margit Staber (eds.). Zurich: Helmhaus
Zürich, 1960.
ZURICH 1960b
Dokumentation über Marcel
Duchamp [exh. cat. Zurich,
Kunstgewerbemuseum-Museum
für Gestaltung, June 30-August 28,
1960], Serge Stauffer (ed.). Zurich:
Kunstgewerbemuseum-Museum für
Gestaltung, 1960.
ZURICH 1972
Max Bill: Neue Werke / Recent Works
[exh. cat. Zurich, Marlborough Galerie
AG, June 14-August 19, 1972]. Zurich:
Galerie Marlborough, 1972.
ZURICH 1995
Handbuch über Sicherheit und
Zusammenarbeit [exh. cat. Zurich,
Museum für Gestaltung, November
22, 1995-January 28, 1996], Ulrich
Binder and Martin Heller (eds.). Zurich:
Museum für Gestaltung / Basel /
Frankfurt / Zurich: Stroemfeld, 1995.
307
max bill
bibliography

309 texts by max bill

315 texts on max bill

308

Fundación Juan March


texts
by max bill
books
1938
quinze variations sur un même thème.
Includes 16 lithographs by the artist.
Paris: Éditions des chroniques du jour,
1938.
1939
Introduction, in: Le Corbusier & P.
Jeanneret. Oeuvre complète 1934-38,
vol. 3. Zurich: Girsberger, 1939, pp.
7-10. Reprinted by Zurich: Verlag
für architektur as of the fifth edition
in 1965 [9th ed. Zurich: Les Éditions
d’Architecture (Artemis), 1975].
1940
“schweizer ausstellung an der
triennale di milano (1936)” / “the swiss
exhibition at the ‘triennale di milano’
1936”/ “section suisse d’exposition
‘triennale di milano’ 1936”, in: Alfred
Roth (ed.), Die Neue Architektur /
the New Architecture / La Nouvelle
Architecture. Erlenbach-Zurich: Verlag
für Architektur AG, 1940, pp. 173-78.
Published in Spanish as “pabellón
suizo en la trienal de milán”, in: Nueva
Forma: arquitectura, urbanismo, diseño,
ambiente, arte, nº 92 (1973), p. 52;
and in: DPA. Documents de Projectes
d’Arquitectura, nº 17 (2001), pp. 24-29.
1941
5 construktionen + 5 compositionen:
10 original-grafische blätter. Zurich:
Allianz-Verlag, 1941.
1942
x=x. Zurich: Allianz-Verlag, 1941.
1943
Introduction, in: Leo Leuppi, 10
Compositionen. Zurich: Allianz-Verlag,
1943.
1945
Introduction, in: Jean Arp, 11
Configurations. Zurich: Allianz-Verlag,
1945.
“eines tages”, in: Jean Arp, 11
Configurations. Zurich: Allianz-Verlag,
1945.
Introduction in: wiederaufbau,
dokumente über zerstörungen,
planungen, konstruktionen. Erlenbach-
Zurich: Verlag für Architektur AG, 1945,
pp. 7-8.
1949
“die form in der schweiz” (December
1949), in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill:
funktion und funktionalismus. schriften,
1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008,
pp. 31-34.
“die gute form”, in: Die gute Form.
Wanderausstellung des schweizerischen
Werkbundes [exh. cat. Zurich,
Kunstgewerbemuseum-Museum für
Gestaltung], Max Bill (ed.). Zurich:
Kunstgewerbemuseum-Museum
für Gestaltung, 1949. Reprinted in:
Jakob Bill (ed.), Max Bill: funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 27-30.
Published in English as “the good
form”, in: Max Bill, form, function,
beauty = gestalt. London: Architectural
Association, 2010, pp. 32-41; in:
Architecture Words, nº 5 (2010), pp.
28-31; and in: Jakob Bill (ed.), Max
Bill’s View of Things. Die gute Form:
An Exhibition 1949. Zurich: Lars Müller
Publishers, 2015, pp. 146-47.
Introduction, in: wassily kandinsky, 10
farbige Reproduktionen. Basel: Holbein-
Verlag, 1949.
moderne schweizer architektur
1925-45. Basel: Karl Werner, 1949.
“der künstlerische ausdruck der
konstruktion”, in: Max Bill: robert
maillart: brücken und konstruktionen
/ ponts et constructions / bridges and
construction. Erlenbach-Zurich: Verlag
für architektur AG, 1949 [3rd ed. Zurich:
Les Éditions d’Architecture (Artemis),
1969]. Published in Spanish as “la
expresión artística de la construcción”,
in: Ciclo (March-April 1949), pp. 29-34.
Reprinted in English as robert maillart:
bridges and construction. London: Pall
Mall, 1969.
1951
“Kandinsky als pädagoge und
erzieher”, in: Max Bill: Maler, Bildhauer,
Architekt, Designer [exh. cat. Stuttgart,
Kunstmuseum, September 10,
2005-January 8, 2006, and other
venues in Europe and South America].
Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005,
pp. 18-21. Published in French as
“kandinsky, l’éducateur”, in: Kandinsky
1900-10. Paris: Maeght Éditeur, 1951,
pp. 95-98, with English and Spanish
translations (p. 172). Published in
Spanish and English in: Max BIll
and Carola Giedion-Welcker, Wassily
Kandinsky. Barcelona: Polígrafa,
2009, pp. 7-13. Published in Italian as
“kandinskij pedagogo ed educatore”,
Fundación Juan March
in: Max Bill, pittore, scultore, architetto,
designer [exh. cat. Milan, Palacio
Real, March 29-June 25, 2006]. Milan:
Electa, 2006.
“hommage à kandinsky”, in: Kandinsky
1900-10. Paris: Maeght Éditeur, 1951,
pp. 11-12.
1952
“erziehung und gestaltung” /
“education and design” / “education
et création”, in: form: eine bilanz über
die formentwicklung um die mitte des
XX. jahrhunderts / a balance sheet of
mid-twentieth-century trends in design
/ un bilan de l’évolution de la forme
au milieu du XXe siècle. Basel: Karl
Werner, 1952. Published in Spanish as
“educación and creación”, in: Nueva
Visión, nº 4 (November 1953), pp. 7-8.
“form und kunst” / “form and art” /
“forme et art”, in: form: eine bilanz über
die formentwicklung um die mitte des
XX. jahrhunderts / a balance sheet of
mid-twentieth-century trends in design
/ un bilan de l’evolution de la forme
au milieu du XXe siècle. Basel: Karl
Werner, 1952, pp. 6-11; and as “forma
y arte”, in: Suiza Constructiva
[exh. cat. Madrid, Museo Nacional
Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, February
4-May 12, 2003]. Madrid: MNCARS,
2003, pp. 162-63.
Introduction, in: Wassily Kandinsky,
Über das geistige in der kunst. Beitrag
zur Analyse der malerischen Elemente.
Bern-Bümpliz: Benteli, 1952.
1953
“a, b, c, d...”, lecture given in
English on June 26, 1953 during the
International Design Conference at
Aspen (Colorado, USA) and published
in English in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill:
funktion und funktionalismus. schriften,
1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 35-
50, and in: Max Bill, form, function,
beauty = gestalt. London: Architectural
Association, 2010, pp. 42-59.
“konstanz und veränderung” (1953), in:
Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill: funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 65-77.
Published in English as “continuity and
change”, in: Max Bill, form, function,
beauty = gestalt. London: Architectural
Association, 2010, pp. 71-81.
“die gute formale gestaltung”, lecture
given on October 26, 1953 for the
companies Neue Gemeinschaft für
Wohnkultur e.v., of Stuttgart, and
Sozialwerk für Wohnung und Hausrat
Gemeinnützige GMBH, of Baden-
Baden, at the City of Ulm conference
hall. Ulm. Published in: Jakob Bill (ed.),
max bill: funktion und funktionalismus.
schriften, 1945-88. Bern: Benteli,
2008, pp. 77-91. Published in English
as “good formal design”, in: Max
Bill, form, function, beauty = gestalt.
London: Architectural Association,
2010, pp. 81-94.
1955
Introduction, in: Wassily Kandinsky,
Punkt und Linie zu Fläche. Bern-
Bümpliz: Benteli, 1955.
Introduction, in: Wassily Kandinsky,
Essays über Kunst und Künstler.
Stuttgart: G. Hatje, 1955.
“form, funktion, schöneit” / “forma,
función, belleza” / “form, function,
beauty”, in: Tomás Maldonado, Max
Bill. Buenos Aires: Nueva Visión, 1955,
pp. 118-20. Reprinted in German
in: Max Bill [exh. cat. Ulm, Ulmer
Museum, 1956 and other venues],
Max Bill (ed.), Ulm, Ulmer Museum,
1956, pp. 18-20 (catalog designed
by Max Bill). Reprinted in Spanish in:
Nueva Forma: arquitectura, urbanismo,
diseño, ambiente, arte, nº 92 (1973),
p. 67. Reprinted in German in: Jakob
Bill (ed.), max bill: funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 101-2.
“ein denkmal” / “un monumento” / “a
monument”, in: Tomás Maldonado,
Max Bill. Buenos Aires: Nueva Visión,
1955, pp. 67-75. Reprinted in German
in: Werk, XLIV, nº 7 (1957), pp. 250-
54; and in: Eduard Hüttinger, Max
Bill. Zurich: ABC Verlag, 1977, 118-
25. Reprinted in English in: Eduard
Hüttinger, Max Bill. New York: Rizzoli,
1978, pp. 118-25. Reprinted in Spanish
as “monumento al preso político
desconocido”, in: Nueva Forma:
arquitectura, urbanismo, diseño,
ambiente, arte, nº 92 (1973), p. 40;
and in: DPA. Documents de projectes
d’arquitectura, nº 17 (2001), pp. 40-
45. Reprinted in Spanish and English
as “monumento al preso político
desconocido” / “monument to the
unknown political prisoner”, in: Karin
Gimmi (ed.), 2G. Revista internacional
de arquitectura, nos. 29-30 (2004),
pp. 144-49.
ludwig mies van der rohe. Milan: Il
Balcone, 1955. Published in Spanish
in: ludwig mies van der rohe. Buenos
Aires: Infinito, 1956, pp. 7-20.
Expanded German edition in the journal
Universitas: Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft,
Kunst und Literatur, nº 24 (1969),
pp. 969-74, following the architect’s
death in August of that same year.
“aufgabe und ziel der hochschule für
gestaltung”, special supplement of
the newspaper Schwäbischen Donau-
Zeitung, October 2, 1955.
1957
die gute form: 6 jahre auszeichnung
“die gute form” an der schweizer
309
mustermesse in basel und vom
zentralvorstand des schweizerischen
werkbundes SWB. Winterthur:
Buchdruckerei, 1957.
“der einfluss der zweiten industriellen
revolution auf die kultur”, talk given
on March 7, 1957 at the Villa Hügel
(Essen) at the invitation of the
Gemeinnütziger Verein Industrieform
e.v and published in: Jakob Bill (ed.),
max bill: funktion und funktionalismus.
schriften, 1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008,
pp. 109-25.
“definition des begriffes produktform”
(31-05-57), in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill:
funktion und funktionalismus. schriften,
1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008,
pp. 125-29. Published in English
as “definition of the term ‘product
form’”, in: Max Bill, form, function,
beauty = gestalt. London: Architectural
Association, 2010, pp. 103-4.
Tapetenmuster für salubra mit
einführung. Ulm: 1957.
1958
“funktion und gestalt”, lecture
given on February 26, 1958 at
the Eidgenössischen Technischen
Hochschule (ETH) [Escuela Politécnica
Federal] de Zurich, published in:
Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill: funktion
und funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-
88. Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 129-47.
Published in English as “function and
gestalt (1958)”, in: Max Bill, form,
function, beauty = gestalt. London:
Architectural Association, 2010,
pp. 104-22.
1959
Introduction, in: Wassily Kandinsky,
Punkt und Linie zu Fläche. Bern:
Benteli, 1959 [4th ed.].
Introduction, in: Enzo Mari [exh. cat.
Milan, Galleria Studio Danese, 1959],
Max Bill and Bruno Munari (eds.).
Milan: Muggiani, 1959. Reprinted
with slight modifications in the
catalog Exposição de Arte Concreta.
Retrospectiva 1951-59 [exh. cat. Rio de
Janeiro, Museu de Arte Moderna, July
1960]. Rio de Janeiro, Museo de Arte
Moderna, 1960, n.p., and in Margit
Staber, Konkrete Kunst. St Gallen:
Éditions Galerie Press, 1966, p. 17.
1963
“de la camelote qui coute cher...”,
lecture given in 1963 at the Congrès
International d’Esthétique industrielle
in Paris and published in: Jakob
Bill (ed.), max bill: funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 161-65.
310
1964
“mes rapports avec l’architecture
grecque”, in: Roland Martin, Monde
grec. Architecture universelle. Freiburg:
Office du livre, 1964, pp. 3-6.
“sind europäische
gestaltungsmethoden bezüglich
umweltgestaltung universell
anwendbar (in kunst, architectur,
stadtbau, gerät)?”, lecture given at
L’Europe et le monde: Conférence
Européenne de la Culture, Basel, 1964,
and published in: Jakob Bill (ed.),
max bill: funktion und funktionalismus.
schriften, 1945-88. Bern: Benteli,
2008, pp. 173-83. Published in
English as “are european methods
of environmental design universally
applicable (in art, architecture, urban
planning, product design)?, in: Max
Bill, form, function, beauty = gestalt.
London: Architectural Association,
2010, pp. 143-47.
1965
Introduction, in: Hans Neuburh,
Schweizer Industrie Grafik. Zurich: ABC
Verlag, 1965.
“struktur als kunst? kunst als struktur?”
(1965), in: Gyorgi Kepes (ed.), Struktur
in Kunst und Wissenschaft. Brussels:
La Connaissance, 1967, p. 150;
and in: Eduard Hüttinger, Max Bill.
Zurich: ABC Verlag, 1977, pp. 166-
67. Published in English as “structure
as art? art as structure?”, in: Gregory
Kepes (ed.), Structure in Art and in
Science. New York: George Braziller,
1965, p. 150. Partially published in
French as “la structure comme art? art
comme structure?”, in: Gyorgy Kepes,
La Structure dans les arts et dans les
sciences. Brussels: La Connaissance,
1967. Reprinted in English in: Eduard
Hüttinger. Max Bill. Max Bill. New
York: Rizzoli, 1978, pp. 154-55.
Partially published in Spanish and partially
reprinted in English as “¿estructura
como arte? ¿arte como estructura?” /
“structure as art? art as structure?”,
in: Karin Gimmi (ed.), 2G. Revista
internacional de arquitectura,
nos. 29-30, 2004, pp. 270-71.
1968
“kunst als unveränderbare tatsache”,
in: Eduard Hüttinger, Max Bill. Zurich:
ABC Verlag, 1977, pp. 181-205.
Published in English as “art as non-
changeable fact”, in: Antony Hill (ed.),
Data: Directions in Art, Theory and
Aesthetics. An Anthology. London:
Faber & Faber, 1968. Published in
French in: Max Bill: œuvres 1928-
69 [exh. cat. Paris, Centre national
d’art contemporain, October
30-December 10, 1969]. Paris: Centre
national d’art contemporain, 1969.
Published in Spanish as “el arte
Fundación Juan March
como hecho inalterable”, in: Max
Bill [exh. cat. Madrid, Museo de Arte
Contemporáneo de Madrid, February
1980]. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura,
1980, pp. 41-56. Published in Catalan
as “l’art com a fet inalterable”, in: Max
Bill [exh. cat. Barcelona, Fundació
Joan Miró, March 12-April 20, 1980].
Barcelona: La Polígrafa, pp. 65-68.
“josef albers”, in: Josef Albers and
Margit Weinberg-Staber, Josef Albers.
Graphic Tectonic. Cologne: Galerie
der Spiegel, 1968. Includes eight
lithographs from 1942.
“lieber will”, in: Lieber freund: Künstler
schreiben an Will Grohmann. Colonia:
Dumont-Schauberg, 1968.
“zur kulturellen situation in Zurich”,
in: Zürcher Almanach. Zurich: Benziger,
1968.
1970
“antwort auf umfrage des
internationalen design-zentrum berlin”
(January 1970), in: Jakob Bill (ed.),
max bill: funktion und funktionalismus.
schriften, 1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008,
pp. 197-201. Published in English as
“response to the international design
centre in berlin”, in: Max Bill, form,
function, beauty = gestalt. London:
Architectural Association, 2010,
pp. 160-63.
Introduction, in: Herbert Spencer,
Pionere der modernen Typographie.
Munich: Juncker, 1970.
11 x 4: 4. Zurich: Edition Bischofberger,
1970.
“Piet Mondrian”, in: Die Grossen
der Weltgeschichte, vol. VIII. Zurich:
Kindler-Verlag, 1970.
“Wassily Kandinsky·, in: Die Grossen
der Weltgeschichte, vol. VIII. Zurich:
Kindler-Verlag, 1970.
1971
“fortsetzung notwendig”, in: Eckhard
Neumann (ed.), Bauhaus und
Bauhäusler. Bern: Hallwag, 1971.
1972
system mit fünf vierfarbigen zentren,
anleitung zum betrachten eines bildes.
St. Gallen: Erker, 1972.
1974
16 constellations. Includes 16
original lithographs. Paris: Société
Internationale d’Art XXème Siècle,
1974.
transcoloration in fünf quadraten.
Norderstedt: Meissner, 1974.
1976
“costruttivismo”, in: Enciclopedia
italiana. Rome, Istituto
dell’Enciclopedia Italiana, 1976.
1977
“feststellungen”, in: Eduard Hüttinger,
Max Bill. Zurich: ABC Verlag, 1977,
pp. 228-30. Reprinted in German as
“feststellungen 1978” and published
in Italian, with slight modifications,
in: Max Bill: Maler, Bildhauer,
Architekt, Designer [exh. cat. Stuttgart,
Kunstmuseum, September 10,
2005-January 8, 2006, and other
venues in Europe and South America].
Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005,
pp. 154-55. Published in English as
“statement 1974-77”, in: Eduard
Hüttinger, Max Bill. New York: Rizzoli,
1978, p. 212. Published in Spanish
as “determinaciones 1978”, in: Max
Bill [exh. cat. Madrid, Museo de Arte
Contemporáneo de Madrid, February
1980]. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura,
p. 2. Reprinted in Spanish and English:
“constataciones” / “statements”,
in: Karin Gimmi (ed.), 2G. Revista
internacional de arquitectura, nos. 29-30
(2004), p. 264. Published in Catalan as
“determinacions: 1978”, in: Max Bill
[exh. cat. Barcelona, Fundació Joan Miró,
Barcelona, March 12-April 20, 1980].
Barcelona: La Polígrafa, pp. 35-41.
7 twins. Includes 7 silkscreen prints.
Neuchâtel: Édition Média, 1977.
“the work of hans hinterreiter”, in:
Hans Hinterreiter [exh. cat. Zurich,
Galerie Dr. Istvàn Schlégl]. Zurich:
Istvàn Schlégl, 1977.
1979
”vom funktionalismus zur funktion”,
lecture given by Max Bill on July 13,
1979 at the Faculty of Architecture and
Urban Planning at the University of
Stuttgart upon receiving an honorary
degree, published in: Jakob Bill (ed.),
max bill: funktion und funktionalismus.
schriften, 1945-88. Bern: Benteli,
2008, pp. 201-5. Published in English
as “from functionalism to function”,
in: form, function, beauty = gestalt.
London: Architectural Association,
2010, pp. 163-68.
1982
Text in: Fritz Glarner, Letzte Werke.
Neuchâtel: Édition Media, 1982.
1986
8 transcolorationen. Porfolio containing
8 silkscreen prints and a preface by
Max Bill, printed on the occasion of
the Max Bill retrospective at the Museo
Mücsarnok in Budapest. Budapest:
Pesti Mühely, 1986.
1988
“die funktion der gestalteten objekte”,
in: Zeitschrift für schweizerische
Archäologie und Kunstgeschichte /
Revue suisse d’art et d’archéologie /
Rivista svizzera d’arte e d’archeologia
/ Journal of Swiss Archeology and Art
History, XLV, nº 1 (1988), pp. 50-52.
1995
die grafischen reihen. Stuttgart: Gerd
Hatje, 1995.
2000
max bill: unendliche schleife 1935-95
und die einflächner. Bern: Benteli, 2000.
articles
1933
“über gebäudebeschriftungen”,
in: Schweizer Reklame, nº 3 (1933).
1934
“ausstellungs-reklamebauten: halb
prospekt, halb architektur”,
in: Schweizer Reklame, nº 4 (1934).
Reprinted in German and published
in English as “exhibition-advertising
buildings: half brochure, half
architecture”, in: max bill. typografie,
reklame, buchgestaltung / typography,
advertising, book design. Zurich: Niggli,
1999, p. 157.
1937
“die typografie ist der grafische
ausdruck unserer zeit”, in: Schweizer
Reklame, nº 3 (1937). Reprinted in
German and published in English
in: max bill, typografie, reklame,
buchgestaltung / typography,
advertising, book design. Zurich:
Niggli, 1999, pp. 158-59. Reprinted
in German in: Max Bill: Maler,
Bildhauer, Architekt, Designer [exh. cat.
Stuttgart, Kunstmuseum, September
10, 2005-January 8, 2006, and other
venues in Europe and South America].
Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005,
pp. 242-43.
1938
“über konkrete kunst”, in: Werk, XXV,
nº 8 (1938), pp. 250-54.
“les paysans suisses et la forme
absolue”, in: XXème Siècle, nº 4 (1938).
1939
“la maîtrise de l’espace”, in: XXème
Siècle, II, nº 1 (1939), pp. 51-53.
Published in German as “die
beherrschung des raumes”, in:
Almanach neuer Kunst in der Schweiz.
Zurich: AG, 1940, pp. 13-14. Published
in Italian as “la costruzione concreta e
il dominio dello spacio”, in: Domus,
nº 210 (June 1946), pp. 18-21.
1940
“paul klee”, in: Werk, XXVII, nº 8
(1940), and in: Neue zürcher Zeitung,
nº 977 (July 8, 1940).
1942
“vom sinn der begriffe in der modernen
kunst”, in: Abstrakt-Konkret (1942).
Subsequently published in: Josef
Albers, Hans Arp, Max Bill [exh. cat.
Stturtgart, Galerie Herbert Hermann,
July-August 1948]. Stuttgart: Galerie
Herbert Hermann, 1948.
1943
“sophie taeuber-arp”, in: Werk, XXX,
nº 6 (1943), pp. 167-71.
“unsere wohnung”, in: Neue zürcher
Zeitung (March 14, 1943).
“von der abstrakten zur konkreten
malerei im XX. jahrhundert”, in: Pro
arte, II, nº 15-16 (1943).
1945
“paul eluard. pablo picasso”, in:
Abstrakt-Konkret, nº 6 (1945).
“sophie taeuber-arp”, in: Abstrakt-
Konkret, nº 6 (1945).
“usa baut”, in: Werk, nº 11 (1945).
“warum ich hin und wieder schmuck
herstelle”, in: Werk, XXXII, nº 12
(1945), pp. 368-69.
“zur zeichnung nr 21/1932 von Wassily
Kandinsky”, in: Abstrakt-Konkret, nº 8
(1945).
1946
“Braque-Kandinsky-Picasso”,
in: Neue zürcher Zeitung, nº 1836
(October 13, 1946).
“der architektonische ausdruck
von reinen betonbauwerken”, in:
Cementbulletin, XIV-XV, nº 7 (1946).
“László Moholy-Nagy”, in: Domus,
nº 216 (July-October 1946), p. 46.
“erfahrungen bei der formgestaltung
von industrieprodukten”, in: Werk,
XXXIII, nº 5 (1946), pp. 167-70.
Reprinted in German in: Jakob Bill (ed.),
max bill: funktion und funktionalismus.
schriften, 1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008,
pp. 9-15. Published in English as “my
experience of product design”, in: Max
Bill, form, function, beauty = gestalt.
London: Architectural Association,
2010, pp. 22-27.
Fundación Juan March
“franz kupka: zum 75. geburtstag”,
in: Werk, XXXIII, nº 9 (1946), pp. 106-7.
“pittura concreta”, in: Domus, nº 206
(February 1946), pp. 37-46.
“über typographie […] mit 10
reproduktionen nach arbeiten des
verfassers”, in: Schweizer graphische
Mitteilungen, nº 4 (1946), pp. 193-200.
Published in English as “on typography
[...] with ten reproductions from
the author”, in: max bill, typografie,
reklame, buchgestaltung / typography,
advertising, book design. Zurich: Niggli,
1999, pp. 160-66.
“wassily kandinsky”, in: Werk, XXXIII,
nº 4 (1946), pp. 128-32.
1947
“antoine pevsner”, in: Werk, XXXIV,
nº 1 (1947).
“der italienische briefbogen”, in:
Schweizer graphische Mitteilungen,
nº 5 (1947).
“mondrian”, in: Werk, XXXIV, nº 4
(1947).
1948
“ausstellungen: ein beitrag zur
abklärung von fragen der ausstellung-
gestaltung”, in: Werk, XXXV, nº 3
(1948), pp. 65-71.
“graphic art in the atom world” /
“graphik im bereich der atome”
/“ graphismes dans le monde des
atomes”, in: Graphis, IV, nº 21 (1948).
1949
“das differenzierte wohnquartier in der
stadt von morgen”, in: Heute (1949).
Published in Spanish as “el barrio
como elemento urbano diferenciado”,
in: Tomás Maldonado, Max Bill. Buenos
Aires: Nueva Visión, 1955, pp. 101-4.
Reprinted in Spanish in: Nueva Forma,
nº 92 (1973), p. 62.
“die mathematische denkweise in
der kunst unserer zeit”, in: Werk,
XXXVI, nº 3 (1949), pp. 86-91.
Reprinted in German in: Antoine
Pevsner, Georges Vantongerloo, Max
Bill [exh. cat. Zurich, Kunsthaus
Zürich, October 15-November 13,
1949]. Zurich: Kunsthaus, 1949;
in: Tomás Maldonado, Max Bill.
Buenos Aires: Nueva Visión, 1955,
pp. 38-41, and in: Eduard Hüttinger,
Max Bill. Zurich: ABC Verlag, 1977,
pp. 117-28. Published in Italian as
“il pensiero matematico nell’arte
contemporánea”, in: AZ, nº 11 (April
1951), pp. 1-2. Published in Spanish
as “el pensamiento matemático en
el arte de nuestro tiempo”, in: Ver
and estimar, nº 17 (1950), pp. 1-7.
Published in Spanish and in English as
“la concepción matemática de nuestro
tiempo”/ “the mathematical approach
in contemporary art”, in: Tomás
Maldonado, Max Bill. Buenos Aires:
Nueva Visión, 1955, pp. 33-38.
Reprinted in English in: Eduard
Hüttinger, Max Bill. New York: Rizzoli,
1978, pp. 105-17. Reprinted in
Spanish in: Nueva Forma: arquitectura,
urbanismo, diseño, ambiente, arte,
nº 92 (1973), pp. 58-62; in: Max Bill
[exh. cat. Madrid, Museo de Arte
Contemporáneo de Madrid, February
1980]. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura,
1980, pp. 17-26; in: DPA. Documents
de projectes d’arquitectura, nº 17
(2001), pp. 6-11. Reprinted in Spanish
and English in: Karin Gimmi (ed.), 2G.
Revista internacional de arquitectura,
nos. 29-30 (2004), pp. 256-63.
Published in Catalan as “la concepció
matemática en l’art del nostre temps”,
in: Max Bill [exh. cat. Barcelona,
Fundació Joan Miró, March 12-April
20, 1980]. Barcelona: La Polígrafa,
pp. 25-35.
“haus für ein künstlerpaar in Ascona”,
in: Bauen + Wohnen = Construction
+ habitation = Building + Home:
internationale Zeitschrift, nº 5 (1949).
“joost schmidt”, in: Werk, XXXVI,
nº 39 (1949).
“schönheit aus funktion und als
function”, in: Werk, XXXVI, nº 8
(1949), pp. 272-82. Reprinted in
1952 in English, German and French
as “beauty from function and as
function” / “schönheit aus funktion
und als function” / “beauté issue
de la function, beauté in tant que
function”, in: Gerd Hatje (ed.), Idea
53: International Design Annual
/ Internationales Jahrbuch für
Formgebung / Annuaire international
des formes utiles. Vienna: Arthur Niggli,
1952, pp. 16-18, 10-12, and 23-25
respectively. Reprinted in German
in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill: funktion
und funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 15-27.
Published in Italian as “bellezza
proveniente dalla funzione e bellezza
come funzione”, in: Domus, nº 250
(September 1950), pp. 1-3. Published
in Portuguese as “beleza provinda da
funçao e beleza as funçao”, in: Habitat,
nº 2 (January-March 1951), pp. 61-64.
Reprinted in French as “beauté issue de
la function, beatuté in tant que function”,
in: Faces, nº 15 (1990), pp. 24-27.
Reprinted in English as “beauty from
function and as function”, in: Max
Bill, form, function, beauty. London:
Architectural Association, 2010,
pp. 32-41; and in: Jakob Bill (ed.), Max
Bill’s View of Things. Die gute Form:
An Exhibition 1949. Zurich: Lars Müller
Publishers, 2015, pp. 146-47.
311
1950
“lo spazio infinito come soggetto
plastico”, in: AZ, nº 8 (June-July
1950), p. 3. A German version entitled
“die unendlichkeit als plastisches
thema”, dated in 1954, is kept at the
max, binia + jakob bill stiftung. In this
document, it indicates that there is a
French version,“l’espace infini comme
sujet plastique”, a translation that Bill
sent to Raymond F. Piper (Syracuse,
USA), in a letter dated February 8,
1954, along with another text and four
images of his work (three sculptures
and one painting), material that was
to be included in the book that the
latter was putting together, Cosmic
Art. Partially published in German
as “die unendlichkeit als plastisches
thema”, in: Max Bill: Maler, Bildhauer,
Architekt, Designer [exh. cat. Stuttgart,
Kunstmuseum, September 10, 2005-
January 8, 2006]. Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje
Cantz, 2005, pp. 122-23.
“projekt für turmhäuser”, in: Werk,
XXXVII, nº 37 (1950).
1951
“bei uns kann man nicht maler werden
[…] gedanken zu einer hochschule für
gestaltung”, in: Die neue Zeitung,
nº 213 (September 1951).
“vom flächigen zum räumlichen”,
undated text housed at the max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung. Published
for the first time in French as “de la
surface à l’espace”, in: XXème Siècle,
nº 2 (1951), pp. 59-65. Published in
German, with slight modifications,
in: Architecture. Revue bimestrielle
d’architecture et d’urbanisme, nº 7
(1953), pp. 239-46, and in: Spirale 3
(1954), pp. 6-11.
1952
“bauhaus-chronik. vom bauhaus in
weimar zur hochschule für gestaltung
in ulm”, in: Deutsche Universitäts-
Zeitung, nos. 23-24 (December 22,
1952), pp. 14-15. Reprinted as “vom
staatlischen bauhaus in weimar zur
hochschule für gestaltung in ulm”,
in: Magnum, nº 1 (1954), pp. 59-60.
Published in Italian as “bauhaus da
weimar a ulm”, in: Arti Visive, nº 3
(December 1952-January 1953),
pp. 6-7. Published in English as “the
bauhaus idea: from weimar to ulm”,
in: Architect’s Year Book, nº 5 (1955),
pp. 29-32.
1953
“grundlage und ziel der ästhetik im
maschinenzeitalter”, lecture given at
the Congrès international d’Esthétique
industrielle in Paris on September 16,
1953 and published in: Baukunst und
Werkform, nº 9 (1955), pp. 558-61.
Published in French as “base et but de
312
l’esthètique au temps du machinisme”,
in: Esthétique industrielle, nº 10 (1954),
pp. 60-63. Published in Spanish as
“base y finalidad de la estética en la
época del maquinismo”, in: Revista
Nacional de Arquitectura, nº 160
(April 1955), pp. 5-13; and in: Nueva
Forma: arquitectura, urbanismo, diseño,
ambiente, arte, nº 92 (1973), p. 50.
“typography today”, in: Typographica,
nº 5 (1953).
1954
“notizen über meine politische und
weltaunschauliche einstellung” (1954),
manuscript kept at the HfG-Archiv Ulm
(unpublished).
“o arquiteto, a arquitetura, a
sociedade”, lecture given at the Bienal
de São Paulo on June 9, 1953 and
published in: Habitat, nº 14
(January-February 1954), n.p.
Published in Spanish as “el arquitecto,
la arquitectura y la sociedad”, in:
Revista de Arquitectura SCA
(May-August 1954), pp. 1-2, and
reprinted in: Revista Nacional de
Arquitectura, nº 163 (1955), pp. 1-2,
and in: Nueva Forma: arquitectura,
urbanismo, diseño, ambiente, arte, nº 92
(1973), pp. 56-57. Published in English
as “architect, architecture and society”,
in: Architectural Review, CXVI, nº 694
(October 1954), pp. 238-39.
1955
“aufgabe und ziel der hochschule für
gestaltung”, special supplement of
the newspaper Schwäbischen Donau-
Zeitung, October 2, 1955.
Introduction, in: Piet Mondrian
[exh. cat. Zurich, Kunsthaus Zürich,
May 22-July 1, 1955]. Zurich: Orell
Füssli, 1955. Published in Spanish,
with slight modifications, as “piet
mondrian”, in: Nueva vision. Revista
Cultural Visual, nº 9 (1957), pp. 5-8.
“rede von herrn max bill anlasslich
der eröffnung der hochschule für
gestaltung am 2. oktober 1955” (1955),
typed text kept at the HfG-Archiv Ulm
(unpublished).
“umweltgestaltung nach
morphologischen methoden”, lecture
at the Hochschule für Gestaltung
Ulm (HfG) [Ulm School of Design] on
October 20 and 21, 1956 and published
in: Werk und Zeit. Monatszeitung des
Deutschen Werkbundes, V, nº 11 (1956),
pp. 4-5. Reprinted in: Jakob Bill (ed.),
max bill: funktion und funktionalismus.
schriften, 1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008,
pp. 103-8.
“zum heutigen stand der baukunst”, in:
Neue zürcher Zeitung, nº 2969 (1955).
Published in English as “the beginning
of a new epoch in architecture”, in:
Fundación Juan March
Architectural Desing, nº 11
(November 1955), pp. 335-38. Published
in Spanish and reprinted in English as
“sobre el estado actual de construir”
/ “the beginning of a new epoch in
architecture”, in: Karin Gimmi (ed.), 2G.
Revista internacional de arquitectura,
nos. 29-30 (2004), pp. 266-69.
1956
“die komposition I/1925 von piet
mondrian”, in: Jahresbericht der
zürcher Kunstgesellschaft. Zurich,
1956.
1957
“aktuelle probleme der gestaltung”,
in: Vir. Informationsorgan für
Führungskräfte der Wirtschaft, nº 3
(1957), pp. 98-101.
“die gute form”: in: Werk, XLIV, nº 44
(1957), pp. 138-40.
1958
“die unbekannte gegenwart: eine
thematische schau des warenhauses
globus Zurich, von max bill”, in: Neue
grafik, nº 1 (1958).
“josef albers”, in: Werk, XLV, nº 4
(April 1958), pp. 135-38. Published in
Spanish and English in Josef Albers:
medios mínimos, efecto máximo / Josef
Albers: Minimal Means, Maximum
Effect [exh. cat. Madrid, Fundación
Juan March, March 28-July 6, 2014].
Manuel Fontán and María Toledo (eds.).
Madrid: Fundación Juan March, 2014,
pp. 330-31.
1959
“der modellfall ulm. zur problematik
einer hochschule für gestaltung”, in:
Form, nº 6 (1959), pp. 18-. Reprinted
in German in: Max Bill: Maler,
Bildhauer, Architekt, Designer [exh. cat.
Stuttgart, Kunstmuseum, September
10, 2005-January 8, 2006, and other
venues in Europe and South America].
Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005, pp.
38-47. Published in Italian in: Max Bill:
pittore, scultore, architetto, designer
[exh. cat. Milan, Palazzo Reale, March
29-June 25, 2006]. Milan, Electa, 2006,
pp. 38-47.
“jacques viénot”, in: Werk, XLVI, nº 5
(1959).
“kataloge für kunstausstellungen
1936-58”, in: Neue Grafik, nº 2 (1959),
p. 13.
“zur gestaltung von ausstellungen”,
in: Neue Grafik, nº 4 (1959), pp. 2-7
1960
“l’amenagement du milieu ambiant”,
in: Architecture, Formes + Fonctions,
nº 7 (1960-61), pp. 118-. Reprinted in
French in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill:
funktion und funktionalismus. schriften,
1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 149-
55. Published in English as “managing
our enviroment”, in: Max Bill, form,
function, beauty = gestalt. London:
Architectural Associaton, 2010,
pp. 123-28.
“une lettre à zodiac: le bauhaus de
demain”, in: Zodiac, nº 5 (1960).
1961
“über die güte der guten form”,
in: Form, nº 15 (1961), pp. 32-33.
Reprinted in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill:
funktion und funktionalismus. schriften,
1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 155-
59. Published in English as “what is
good about the good form”, in: Max
Bill, form, function, beauty = gestalt.
London: Architectural Association,
2011, pp. 128-34.
1963
“darf ein ofen: ein ofen sein?”, in:
Form, nº 23 (1963), p. 35. Reprinted
in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill: funktion
und funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-
88. Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 159-61.
Published in English as “may a heater
be a heater?”, in: Max Bill, form,
function, beauty = gestalt. London:
Architectural Association, 2010,
pp. 132-34.
“der halbsektor l’art de vivre: bilden
und gestalten”, in: Schweizerische
Bauzeitung, LXXX1, nº 15 (April 1963),
p. 241.
“einige erfahrungen mit der
vorfabrikation und einige schlüsse
daraus”, in: Form, nº 24 (1963).
“erfahrung mit uhren”, in: Süddeutsche
Zeitung, nº 255 (October 1963), p. 24.
Reprinted in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill:
funktion und funktionalismus. schriften,
1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008,
pp. 165-69. Published in English as
“what I know about clocks”, in: Max
Bill, form, function, beauty = gestalt.
London: Architectural Association,
2010, pp. 140-43.
“gestaltete umwelt in der zukunft”
(1963), lecture given during the
conference “Mensch und Zukunft”
[man and future], organized by the
Deutsche Institut für Bildung und
Wissen [German Institute for Education
and Knowledge] at the Paedagogische
Hochschule Weingarten (Baden-
Württemberg) [Weingarten School
of Pedagogy] from June 3 to 8, 1963
and published in the minutes of the
conference: Mensch und Zukunft:
Referate der Tagung des Deutschen
Instituts für Bildung und Wissen.
Frankfurt am Main: Hirschgraben
Verlag, 1964, and in: Die pädagogische
Provinz, nos. 2-3 (1964), pp. 65-72.
Reprinted in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill:
funktion und funktionalismus. schriften,
1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008,
pp. 169-78.
“vorfabriziertes bauen: freiheit oder
bindung?”, in: Form, nº 24 (1963).
1964
“art of living pavilion, swiss national
exhibition, lausane 1964”, in:
Architectural Record, nº 34 (December
1964), pp. 614-19.
1965
“le corbusier. texte und
bezeichnungen: kritik, polemik und
präsentation”, in: Neue zürcher Zeitung,
nº 3867 (September 19, 1965).
“responsibility in design and
information”, lecture given in Vision
65, Chicago, in 1965 and published
in: The American Scholar, XXXV, nº 2
(spring 1966), pp. 311-12. Reprinted
in Jakob Bill (ed.), Max Bill: funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-88. Bern:
Benteli, 2008, pp. 189-93; and in: Max
Bill, form, function, beauty = gestalt.
London: Architectural Association,
2010, pp. 147-51.
“sinn ohne sinn?”, in: Form, nº 32
(1965), pp. 37-39. Reprinted in:
Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill: funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 183-89.
Published in English as “sense without
sense?”, in: Max Bill, form, function,
beauty = gestalt. London: Architectural
Association, 2010, pp. 151-57.
1966
“das individuelle und das allgemeine
in der architecktur”, in: V.
Diskusionsforum Schöner Wohnen 4-5
April 1966 (publication of the debate
forum Schöner Wohnen, April 4-5,
1966). Stuttgart: Verbis Verlag, 1966;
and in: Bauen + Wohnen = Construction
+ habitation = Building + Home:
internationale Zeitschrift, XX,
nº 8 (1966), pp. 1-4.
“responsibility in design and
information”, in: American Scholar,
III, nº 2 (spring 1966), pp. 311-12.
Reprinted in: Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill:
funktion und funktionalismus. schriften,
1945-88. Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 189-93
and in: Max Bill, form, function, beauty
= gestalt. London: Architectural
Association, 2010, pp. 147-51.
“georges vantongerloo”, in: XXème
Siècle, nº 26 (1966), n.p. A slightly
modified version appears in: Splitter,
nº 6 (1972). Reprinted in German and
published in Italian in: 1986 Georges
Vantongerloo 100 Jahre [exh. cat.
Berlin, Akademie der Künste, May
4-July 15, 1986]. Milan: Electa; Berlin:
Frölich und Kaufmann, 1986. Reprinted
in German in: Max Bill: Maler, Bildhauer,
Architekt, Designer [exh. cat. Stuttgart,
Kunstmuseum, September 10,
2005-January 8, 2006, and other
venues in Europe and South America].
Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005,
pp. 28-31. Reprinted in Italian in:
Max Bill, pittore, scultore, architetto,
designer [exh. cat. Milan, Palacio
Real, March 29-June 25, 2006]. Milan:
Electa, 2006.
1967
“laudatio für max von moos”, in: Neue
zürcher Zeitung, nº 932 (1967).
“the education of the architect” / “la
formation de l’architecte”, in: Uia,
Revue de l’union internationale des
architectes, nº 44 (1967), pp. 23-31.
1968
“ars multiplicata”, in: Kunst, nº 29
(1968). Interview with Max Bill,
later included in the catalog for the
exhibition Max Bill. Oeuvres 1928-
69 [exh. cat. Paris, Centre National
d’Art Contemporain (CNAC), October
30-December 10, 1969; Grenoble,
Musée de Peinture et de Sculpture,
December 13, 1969-February 1,
1970]. Paris, Centre National d’Art
Contemporain 1969. Partially translated
into Spanish in the catalog for the
exhibition Max Bill: obras de arte
multiplicadas como originales (1938-94)
[exh. cat. Palma, Museu Fundación
Juan March, February 25-May 20,
2015; Cuenca, Museo de arte abstracto
español, July 24-September 18, 2015].
Madrid: Fundación Juan March, 2015.
“das behagen im kleinstaat”, in: Neue
zürcher Zeitung, nº 795 (1968), pp. 5-6.
Speech given by Max Bill upon
receiving the City of Zurich Kunstpreis
[Art Prize] on December 21, 1968.
“die künstliche krise. ulms gestalter
brauchen keine selbständigkeit”, in:
Crist und Welt, nº 9 (March 1968), p. 17.
“träume vom leben auf
zahnarztstühlen”, in: Form, nº 41
(1968), p. 24. Reprinted in: Jakob
Bill (ed.), max bill: funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008, pp. 193-97.
Published in English as “dreams of
life on the dentist’s chair”, in: Max
Bill, form, function, beauty = gestalt.
London: Architectural Association,
2010, pp. 157-60.
“will grohmann”, in: Werk, LV, nº 7
(1968).
1969
“einige feststellungen über kunst”,
in: Neutralität (October 1969).
Fundación Juan March
“ludwig miës van der rohe, 1886-69”,
in: Neue zürcher Zeitung (August 1969).
“walter gropius: architekt und erzieher
in unserer zeit”, in: Universitas, nº 11
(1969).
1970
“versuch über material und methoden
des dichtens”, in: Neutralität (August
1970).
1971
“funzione dell’arte e dell’artista nella
società”, in: La biennale di Venezia,
XXI, nos 67-68 (1971).
1973
“radio studio Zurich”, in: Werk, LX,
nº 10 (1973), pp. 1223-28.
“sistema de cinco centros con cuatro
colores”, in: Nueva Forma, nº 92
(September 1973), p. 69.
1976
“autonome gegenstände für den
geistigen gebrauch”, in: Du, XXXVI,
nº 6 (1976), pp. 50-59.
“bauen als teil der gestalteten
umwelt”, in: Du, XXXVI, nº 6 (1976),
pp. 64-69.
“die magie der gestalteten
gegenstände”, in: Du, XXXVI, nº 6
(1976), pp. 22-49.
“josef albers gestorben”, in: Neue
zürcher Zeitung (March 29, 1976).
“vervielfältigte kunstwerke als
originale”, in: Du, XXXVI, nº 6 (1976),
pp. 60-63.
“vom bauhaus bis ulm”, in: Du, XXXVI,
nº 6 (1976), pp. 12-21.
1977
“lettres à jean gorin, 1945”, in: Macula,
nº 2 (1977).
1979
“lehren am und aus dem bauhaus”,
in: Form + Zweck, nº 3 (1979), p. 66.
1980
“Max Bill: ‘En la Bauhaus la pintura
era casi clandestina’”, Max Bill
interview by Juan Manuel Bonet in the
newspaper El País (January 31, 1980).
1982
“il teatro d’ell’expo”, in: Abitare, nº 206
(1982).
1986
“arp? hans arp? jean arp? arp!”, in: Du,
nº 9 (1986), pp. 54-59.
1988
“die funktion der gestalteten objekte”,
lecture for the 12th colloquium
organized by the Swiss Association of
Art Historians in Zurich on November
7 and 8, 1987 with the theme “Art
and Design”. Published in German,
English and French as “die funktion
der gestalteten objekte” / “the function
of created objects” / “la function des
objets à forme”, as well as in Italian,
in: Zeitschrift für schweizerische
Archäologie und Kunstgeschichte,
XLV, nº 1 (1988), p. 50. Reprinted in:
Jakob Bill (ed.), max bill: funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008, p. 205. Published
in French, Italian and English as “la
fonction des objets à forme” / “la
funzione degli oggetti creati” / “the
function of created objects“, in: Revue
suisse d’art et d’archéologie / Rivista
svizzera d’arte e d’archeologia / Journal
of Swiss Archeology and Art History,
pp. 51-52. Reprinted in English in: Max
Bill, form, function, beauty = gestalt.
London: Architectural Association,
2010, p. 168.
exhibition catalogs
ZURICH 1936
“konkrete gestaltung”, in: Zeitprobleme
in der schweizer Malerei und Plastik
[exh. cat. Zurich, Kunsthaus Zürich,
June 13-July 22, 1936], Otto Abt
and Sigfried Giedion (eds.). Zurich:
Kunsthaus Zürich, 1936 (catalog and
typography designed by Max Bill).
Reprinted in Spanish and in English as
“diseño concreto” / ”concret design”,
in: Karin Gimmi (ed.), 2G. Revista
internacional de arquitectura,
nos. 29-30 (2004), p. 255
ZURICH 1942
“Der verständnisvollen haltung...
”, in: Allianz: Vereinigung moderner
schweizer Künstler [exh. cat. Zurich,
Kunsthaus Zürich, May 23-June 21,
1942], Max Bill (ed.). Zurich: Kunsthaus
Zürich, 1942 (catalog designed by Max
Bill).
GSTAAD 1943
“konkrete kunst nennen wir...”, in:
Moderne Malerei [exh. cat. Gstaad,
Palace-Hotel, July 30-August 15, 1943].
Gstaad: [n.p.], 1943 (catalog designed
by Max Bill).
BASEL 1944
“ein standpunkt”, in: Konkrete Kunst
[exh. cat. Basel, Kunsthalle Basel,
March 18-April 16, 1944], Max Bill
(ed.). Basel: B. Schwabe, 1944
(catalog designed by Max Bill).
313
ZURICH 1947
“worte rund um malerei und plastik”,
in: Allianz: Vereinigung moderner
schweizer Künstler [exh. cat. Zurich,
Kunsthaus Zürich, May 23-June 21,
1947]. Zurich: Kunsthaus Zürich, 1947.
Reprinted in: Konkrete Kunst: 50 Jahre
intwicklung [exh. cat. Zurich, Helmhaus
Zurich, June 8-August 14, 1960], Max
Bill and Margit Staber (eds.). Zurich:
Helmhaus Zurich, 1960; and in: Margit
Staber, Konkrete Kunst, vol. 66.
St. Gallen: Édition Galerie Press, 1966,
pp. 13-15.
STUTTGART 1948
“unendlicher raum umgrenzt, zur
plastik dreiteilige einheit“ and “vom
sinn der begriffe in der modernen
kunst”, in: Josef Albers, Hans Arp, Max
Bill [exh. cat. Stturtgart, Galerie Herbert
Hermann, July-August 1948]. Stuttgart:
Galerie Herbert Hermann, 1948.
STUTTGART-MUNICH 1949
“konkrete kunst”, in: Zürcher konkrete
Kunst [exh. cat. Stuttgart, Galerie Lutz
& Meyer, April-May 1949; Munich,
Moderne Galerie Otto Stangl, May-
June 1949], Hans Hildebrandt (ed.).
[s.l.], 1949. Reprinted in German
in: Margit Staber, Konkrete Kunst.
St. Gallen: Edition Galerie Press, 1966,
p. 7, and in: Eduard Hüttinger, Max
Bill. Zurich: ABC Verlag, 1977, p. 73.
Published in Italian as “arte concreta”,
in: Arturo Carlo Quintavalle (ed.),
Max Bill. Parma: Grafiche STEP, 1977.
Published in English as: “concrete art”,
in: Eduard Hüttinger, Max Bill. New
York: Rizzoli, 1978, p. 61. Published
in Spanish as “arte concreto”, in: Max
Bill: pinturas, esculturas, gráfica [exh.
cat. Caracas, Museo de Bellas Artes,
October 21-November 18, 1979].
Caracas: Consejo Nacional de Cultura,
1979; in: Max Bill [exh. cat. Madrid:
Museo Español de Arte
Contemporáneo, February 1980].
Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura,
Dirección General del Patrimonio
Artístico, Archivos y Museos, 1980,
p. 15; in: Suiza Constructiva [exh. cat.
Madrid, Museo Nacional Centro de
Arte Reina Sofía, February 4-May
12, 2003]. Madrid: Ministerio de
Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2003,
p. 34. Published in Catalan as “art
concret”, in: Max Bill [exh. cat.
Barcelona, Fundació Joan Miró,
Barcelona, March 12-April 20, 1980].
Barcelona: La Polígrafa, p. 14.
ZURICH 1949
“unter einer guten form
verstehen wir...”, in: Die gute
Form. Wanderausstellung des
Schweizerischen Werkbundes
[exh. cat. Zurich, Kunstgewerbemuseum-
Museum für Gestaltung]. Zurich:
Kunstgewerbemuseum-Museum für
Gestaltung, 1949.
314
ZURICH 1950
Introduction in: Futurismo & pittura
metafisica [exh. cat. Zurich, Kunsthaus
Zürich, November-December de
1950]. Zurich: Kunsthaus Zürich, 1950
(catalog designed by Max Bill).
FREIBURG 1951
“realismus und abstraktion”, in:
Max Bill, Julius Bissier, Georges
Vantongerloo [exh. cat. Freiburg,
Kunstverein, September 1951].
Freiburg: Kunstverein Freiburg i. Br.,
1951.
ZURICH 1951
Introduction in: Moderne Kunst aus der
Sammlung Peggy Guggenheim
[exh. cat. Zurich, Kunsthaus Zürich,
April-May 1951]. Zurich: Kunsthaus
Zürich, 1951.
ZURICH 1955
“piet Mondrian und der massstab der
modernen malerei”, in: Piet Mondrian
[exh. cat. Zurich, Kunsthaus Zürich
Kunsthaus Zürich, May 22-July 1,
1955]. Zurich: Kunsthaus Zürich,
1955 (graphic design of the catalog
by Max Bill). Reprinted with slight
modifications in Spanish in: Nueva
Visión, nº 9 (1957), pp. 5-8.
ZURICH 1956
Introduction in: Josef Albers, Fritz
Glarner, Friedrich Vordemberge-
Gildewart [exh. cat. Zurich, Kunsthaus
Zürich, April 28-June 10, 1956]. Zurich:
Kunsthaus Zürich, 1956.
ZURICH 1957a
“aktuelle probleme der gestaltung”,
in: Max Bill: Architektur, Plastik,
Produktform, Publizistik, Typografie
[exh. cat. Zurich, Helmaus Zurich,
September 21-October 20, 1957].
Zurich: Helmaus Zurich, 1957.
ZURICH 1957b
“die unbekannte gegenwart”, in:
supplement about the exhibiton at
Globus department store in Zurich,
1957.
ZURICH-LONDON 1959
Introduction in: Swiss Design: An
Exhibition of Standard Swiss Design
for Everyday Use [exh. cat. Zurich,
Schweizerischer Werkbund, Zurich;
London, Ceylon Tea Centre]. Zurich:
Schweizerischer Werkbund, 1959.
ZURICH 1960
“zu marcel duchamp”, in:
Dokumentation über Marcel
Duchamp [exh. cat. Zurich,
Kunstgewerbemuseum, June
30-August 28, 1960], Serge Stauffer
(ed.). Zurich: Kunstgewerbemuseum,
1960, pp. 5-11 (catalog designed by
Max Bill).
BASEL 1962
Brochure from the exhibition at the
Galerie Hilt in Basel, 1962.
Fundación Juan March
LONDON 1962
Introduction in: Georges Vantongerloo
[exh. cat. London, Malborough Fine
Art Gallery, November 1962], Max Bill
(ed.). London: Marlborough Fine Art,
1962 (catalog designed by Max Bill).
SÃO PAULO 1967
“andreas christen. peter stämpfli”, in:
Swiss [9. Bienal de São Paulo, 1967].
Bern: Eidgenössisches Departement
des Innern, 1967.
ST. GALLEN-HANNOVER 1967
“wie sieht die kunst aus um das jahr
2000?”, in: Max Bill [exh. cat. St.
Gallen, Galerie im Erker, April 8- May
27, 1967]. St. Gallen: Galerie im Erker,
1967. Reprinted in: Max Bill [exh. cat.
Hannover, Kestner-Gesellschaft, June
14-July 14, 1968]. Hannover: Kestner-
Gesellschaft, 1968 (catalog designed
by Max Bill).
BERN 1968
Textos in: Max Bill: Malerei und plastik
1928-68 [exh. cat. Bern, Kunsthalle
Bern, April 6-May 12, 1968]. Bern:
Stämpfli, 1968.
COLOGNE 1968
“josef albers”, in: Graphic tectonic. Ein
Zyklus von acht Lithographien aus dem
Jahr [exh. cat. Cologne, Galerie Der
Spiegel, 1968], Margit Staber (ed.).
Cologne: Galerie Der Spiegel, 1968.
PARIS-GRENOBLE 1969
“ars multiplicata” (1968), in: Max
Bill. Oeuvres 1928-69 [exh. cat. Paris,
Centre National d’Art Contemporain
(CNAC), October 30-December 10,
1969; Grenoble, Musée de Peinture
et de Sculpture, December 13,
1969-February 1, 1970]. Paris, Centre
National d’Art Contemporain, 1969.
ZURICH-BERLIN 1969
Introduction in: Zürcher Künstler,
konkrete und phantastische Richtungen
[exh. cat. Zurich, Helmahaus Zurich,
November 29-December 31, 1969;
Berlin, Galerieräume Jebenstrasse 2,
January 17-February 23, 1970]. Zurich:
Helmhaus Zurich, 1969.
BADEN 1970
Texts in: Wassily Kandinsky [exh. cat.
Baden, Staatliche Kunsthalle Baden-
Baden, July 10-September 27, 1970],
Max Bill and Klaus Gallwitz (eds.).
Baden: Staatliche Kunsthalle Baden-
Baden, 1970.
BERLIN 1970
“ich habe meinen weg gewählt. der
weg der kleinen schritte”, in: Design?
Umwelt wird in Frage gestellt [exh. cat.
Berlin, Internationales Design-Zentrum,
1970], Kyra Stromberg and Ulrich
Conrads (eds.). Berlin: Internationales
Design Zentrum, 1970.
BERN 1972
“fritz glarner”, in: Fritz Glarner [exh.
cat. Bern, Kunsthalle Bern, August
12-September 24, 1972], Fritz Glamer,
Max Bill and Carlo Huber (eds.). Bern:
Kunsthalle, 1972.
BONN-BAD GODESBERG 1972
“vervielfältige kunstwerke als
originale”, in: Grafik der 70er Jahre
[exh. cat. Bonn-Bad Godesberg,
Galerie im Minsterium]. Bonn:
Bundesministerium für Städtebau und
Wohnungswesen, 1972. Translated
into Spanish for the catalog of the
exhibition Max Bill: obras de arte
multiplicadas como originales (1938-94)
[exh. cat. Palma, Museu Fundación
Juan March, February 25-May 20,
2015; Cuenca, Museo de arte abstracto
español, July 24- September 18, 2015].
Madrid: Fundación Juan March, 2015.
GENEVA 1972
Texts in: Max Bill [exh. cat. Geneva,
Musée Rath, April 6-30, 1972], Max
Bill and Valentina Anker (eds.). Geneva:
Musée Rath, 1972.
TORONTO-MONTREAL 1972
“wie ich auf die einflächner kam”,
in: Max Bill. Surfaces [exh. cat. Toronto
and Montreal, Malborough-Godard
Gallery, October-November 1972].
Toronto and Montreal: Marlborough-
Godard Gallery, 1972.
BUFFALO-LOS ANGELES-SAN
FRANCISCO 1974
Texts in: Max bill [exh. cat. Buffalo,
Albright-Knox Art Gallery, September
28-November 17, 1974; Los Angeles,
Los Angeles County Museum of Art,
December 17-February 16, 1975; San
Francisco, San Francisco Museum
of Art, April 4-20, 1975], Lawrence
Alloway and James N. Wood (eds.).
Buffalo: Albright-Knox Art Gallery,
1974.
WINTERTHUR-YVERDON 1975
“konkrete kunst”, in: 7 Winterthur
Konkrete [exh. cat. Winterthur,
Kunstmuseum, March 16-April 27,
1975; Yverdon, City Hall, August
31-September 29, 1975]. Winterthur:
Kunstmuseum, 1975.
ZURICH 1975
“bericht zu alexander calder”, in:
Calder [exh. cat. Zurich, Kunsthaus
Zürich, August 23-November 1975].
Zurich: Kunsthaus Zürich, 1975.
BERLIN 1977
“idee-konzept-werk: über ein thema”,
in: Idee-Konzept-Werk [exh. cat.
Berlin, Akademie der Künste, May
15-June 26, 1977]. Berlin: Abakon-
Verlag-Gesellschaft, 1977. Reprinted
in English: “idea-desing-work: notes
on a subject”, in: Max Bill: unendliche
Schleife 1935-95 und die Einflächner /
Max Bill. Endless Ribbon 1935-95 and
the Single-sided Surfaces. Wabern,
Bern: Benteli, 2000.
ZURICH 1977
“margit staber befragt max bill”, in:
Max Bill: Neue Werke [exh. cat. Zurich,
Marlborough-Galerie, June 14-August
19, 1972]. Zurich: Marlborough-Galerie,
1972. Reprinted in German in: Eduard
Hüttinger, Max Bill. Zurich: ACB
Verlag, 1977, pp. 189-94. Published in
English as “margit staber interviews
max bill”, in: Eduard Hüttinger, Max
Bill. New York: Rizzoli, 1978, pp. 189-
94. Published in Spanish as “margit
weinberg-staber entrevista a max bill”,
in: Max Bill [exh. cat. Madrid, Museo
de Arte Contemporáneo de Madrid,
February 1980]. Madrid: Ministerio
de Cultura, pp. 10-12. Published in
Catalan as “margit weinberg-staber,
entrevista max bill”, in: Max Bill [exh.
cat. Barcelona, Fundació Joan Miró,
March 12-April 20, 1980]. Barcelona:
La Polígrafa, pp. 9-14.
ZURICH 1977
“meine 30er jahre”, in: Um 1930 in
Zurich: neues Denken, neues Wohnen,
neues Bauen [exh. cat. Zurich,
Kunstgewerbemuseum-Museum
für Gestaltung, 1977], Margit
Staber and Otti Gmür (eds.). Zurich:
Kunstgewerbemuseum-Museum für
Gestaltung, 1977.
CADAQUÉS 1979
Textos in: Max Bill: esculturas, pinturas
and obra gráfica [exh. cat. Cadaqués,
Galería Cadaqués, August 4-, 1979].
Cadaqués: Galería Cadaqués, 1979.
WINTERTHUR 1981
“bauhaus und abstraction-création”,
in: Dreissiger Jahre schweiz:
konstruktive Kunst 1915-45 [exh. cat.
Winterthur, Kunstmuseum, September
13-November 8, 1981]. Winterthur:
Kunstmuseum Winterthur, 1981.
ZURICH 1981
“funktionelle grafik und typografie”,
in: Werbestil 1930-40, die alltägliche
Bildersprache eines Jahrzehnts
[exh. cat. Zurich, Kunstgewerbemuseum-
Museum für Gestaltung, 1981]. Zurich:
Kunstgewerbemuseum-Museum für
Gestaltung, 1981.
BERLIN 1986
“1986 georges vantongerloo 100
jahre”, in: 1986 Georges Vantongerloo
100 Jahre [exh. cat. Berlin, Akademie
der Künste, May 4-July 15, 1986].
Milan: Electa; Berlin: Frölich und
Kaufmann, 1986.
ZURICH 1986
“der landi-stuhl von coray”,
in: Hans Coray [exh. cat. Zurich,
Kunstgewerbemuseum-Museum für
Gestaltung, August 20-October 5,
1986]. Zurich: Kunstgewerbemuseum-
Museum für Gestaltung, 1986.
FRANKFURT 1987
“die funktion der künste”, in: Max Bill:
Skulpturen, Gemälde, Graphik, 1928-87
[exh. cat. Frankfurt, Schirn Kunsthalle,
1987]. Zurich: ABC, 1987.
ZURICH 1990
“mein bericht zu robert maillart”, in:
Robert Maillart Brückenschläge
[exh. cat. Zurich, Kunstgewerbemuseum-
Museum für Gestaltung, November
14, 1990-January 20, 1991]. Zurich:
Kunstgewerbemuseum-Museum für
Gestaltung, 1990.
LONDON 1996
Texts in: Max Bill and Georges
Vantongerloo: A Working Friendship.
50 Years of Sculpture, Painting and
Drawing [exh. cat. London, Annely
Juda Fine Art, June 26-September 14,
1996]. London: Annely Juda Fine Art,
1996.
STUTTGART 2005
“warum bauen architekten auch
möbell?” (1977), in: Max Bill: Maler,
Bildhauer, Architekt, Designer [exh. cat.
Stuttgart, Kunstmuseum, September
10, 2005-January 8, 2006, and other
venues in Europe and South America].
Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005,
pp. 98-101
texts on
max bill
books
RASCH 1930
Heinz and Bodo Rasch, “Bill-Zurich”,
in: Gefesselter Blick. Stuttgart: Dr.
Zaugg & Co. [1930] (reprint, Baden:
Lars Müller Publishers, 1996).
MALDONADO 1955
Tomás Maldonado, Max Bill. Buenos
Aires: Nueva Visión, 1955.
STABER 1971
Margit Staber, Max Bill. St. Gallen:
Erker-Verlag, 1971.
HÜTTINGER 1977
Eduard Hüttinger, Max Bill. Zurich: ABC
Verlag, 1977 [ed. in English, New York:
Rizzoli, 1978].
QUINTAVALLE 1977
Arturo Carlo Quintavalle, Max Bill.
Parma: Università Comune Provincia di
Parma, 1977.
ANKER 1979
Valentina Anker, Max Bill ou la
Fundación Juan March
recherche d’un art logique: essai d’une
analyse structurale de l’oeuvre d’art.
Lausanne: L’Age d’homme, 1979.
SPIESS 1986
Werner Spiess, Kontinuität. Granit-
Monolith von Max Bill. Dortmund:
Busche Verlagsgesellschaft m.b.H.,
1986.
STABER 1988
Margit W. Staber, Max Bill: Leben
und Sprache. Zurich: Stiftung für
konstruktive und konkrete Kunst, 1988.
FREI 1991
Hans Frei, Konkrete Architektur?: Über
Max Bill als Architekt. Baden: Lars
Müller, 1991.
VON MOOS 1996
Stanislaus von Moos, Minimal Tradition:
Max Bill und die einfache Architektur
(1942-96) / Minimal Tradition: Max Bill e
l’architecture simple (1942-96). Baden:
Lars Müller, 1996.
RÜEGG 1997
Arthur Rüegg (ed.), Das Atelierhaus
Max Bill (1932-33): ein Wohn- und
Atelierhaus in Zürich-Höngg von Max
Bill und Robert Winkler. Sulgen: Niggli
Verlag, 1997.
BILL, BOSSHARD, BIGENS 1999
Max Bill, Hans Rudolf Bosshard and
Christoph Bigens, Max Bill: Typografie,
Reklame, Buchgestaltung. Zurich:
Niggli, 1999.
BILL and BILL 2001
Max Bill and Jakob Bill, max bill:
unendliche schleife (1935-95) und die
einflächner / endless ribbon (1935-95)
and the single-side surfaces. Bern:
Benteli, 2001.
GIMMI 2004
Karin Gimmi (ed.), 2G. Revista
internacional de arquitectura,
nos. 29-30 (2004).
BILL 2008
Jakob Bill (ed.), Max Bill: funktion und
funktionalismus. schriften, 1945-88.
Bern: Benteli, 2008.
BILL 2009
Jakob Bill (ed.), Bill-Bill-Bill: Drei
Generationen der Künstlerfamilie Bill.
Zurich: Benteli, 2009.
BONET 2010
Juan Manuel Bonet, Max Bill,
Mavignier. Wollner. 60 Years of
Constructive Art in Brazil. São Paulo:
Dan Galeria, 2010.
MÜLLER 2015
Lars Müller (ed.), Max Bill’s View of
Things. Die gute Form: An Exhibition
1949. Zurich: Lars Müller, 2015.
articles
SCHMIDT 1938
Georg Schmidt, “Variations on a single
theme in the fine arts”, in: XXème
Siècle, nº 4 (1938).
BENSE 1940
Max Bense, “Le principe et le cas dans
l’œuvre de Max Bill”, in: XXème Siècle,
nº 40 (1940).
Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 1946
“Suisse cité Bocksriet à Schaffhouse”,
in: Architecture d’Aujourd’hui, XVI, nº 4
(January 1946), pp. 87-88.
KAISER 1947
Hans Kaiser, “Continuità di Max Bill”, in:
Domus, nº 223-225 (October-December
1947), pp. 30-33.
SCHMIDT 1948
Georg Schmidt, “Max Bills kontinuitat”,
in: Werk, XXXVI, nº 3 (1948), pp. 76-80.
Domus 1952
“Furniture designed by Max Bill for mass
production”, in: Domus, nº 276-277
(1952), pp. 45-46.
ROGERS 1953
Ernesto Rogers, “Max Bill”, in:
Magazine of Art, XLVI, nº 5 (1953),
pp. 226-30.
HILL 1953
Anthony Hill, “Max Bill, the Search
of the Unity of the Plastic Arts in
Contemporary Life”, in: Typographica,
nº 7 (1953), pp. 21-28.
Werk 1954
“Hochschule für Gestaltung, Ulm:
Architekt Max Bill, Zurich und Ulm”,
in: Werk, XLI, nº 8 (1954), pp. 326-27.
Werk 1955
“Small Pavilion for the City of
Ulm, Landesausstellung Baden-
Württemberg, Stuttgart, July-October
1955; Architect: Max Bill”, in: Werk,
XLII, (1955), pp. 287-88.
Architecttura: Cronache e Storia 1956
“La nuova Bauhaus di Max Bill a
Ulm sul Danubio”, in: Architecttura:
Cronache e Storia, I, nº 5 (January-
February 1956), pp. 737-38.
GROHMANN 1957
Will Grohmann, “Max Bill und die
Synthese”, in: Werk, XLIV, nº 44
(July 1957), pp. 247-49.
GREGOTTI 1959
Vittorio Gregotti, “Complessità di Max
Bill”, in: Casabella, nº 228 (1959),
pp. 32-39.
GOMRINGER 1960
Eugen Gomringer, “Max Bill: Vielfalt
und Einheit der Gestalteten Welt”,
315
in: Werk, XLVII, nº 8 (1960), pp. 289-
91. Published in English as “Max
Bill, Variety and Unity of the Shaped
Environment”, in: Architect’s Year
Book, nº 10 (1962).
STABER 1962
Margit Staber, “Max Bill und
die Umweltgeslaltung: über die
Wechselwirkung von Theorie und
Praxis”, in: Zodiac, nº 9 (1962),
pp. 60-95.
STABER 1962
Margit Staber, “La scuola di Ulm”,
in: Casabella, nº 259 (1962), pp. 2-27.
BENSE 1963
Max Bense, “Max Bill 1963”, in: Art
International, II, nº 3 (1963), pp. 30-35.
BACCHI 1964
Anna Bacchi and Giorgio Bacchi, “Max
Bill: Artist and Architect”, in: Arts &
Architecture, nº 81 (November 1964),
pp. 20-23.
CIRICI 1965
Alexandre Cirici, “Una conversa amb
Max Bill”, in: Serra d’Or, VII, nº 3
(March 1965), pp. 177-79.
FARNER 1966
Konrad Farner, “Max Bill oder die
Gerade in der Spirale”, in: Tendenzen,
nº 39 (1966).
STABER 1966
Margit Staber, “Max Bill”, in: Art
International, X, nº 5 (1966).
STABER 1967
Margit Staber, “Max Bill,
Umweltgestaltung nach
morfologischen Methoden”, in: Kunst-
Narchrichten, nº 4 (1967).
CLAY 1968
Jean Clay, “Max Bill”, in: Réalités,
nº 274 (November 1968).
GROHMANN 1969
Will Grohmann, “Thèmes et variations
dans l’œuvre de Max Bill”, in: XXème
Siècle, nº 32 (1969).
FULLAONDO 1973
Juan Fullaondo, “Max Bill:
escultura, pintura, diseño, tipografía,
arquitectura”, in: Nueva Forma, nº 92
(special issue dedicated to Max Bill)
(September 1973), pp. 3-80.
STABER 1973
Margit Staber, “Quando Pitagora
dipinge”, in: Bolaffiarte, nº 27 (1973).
ALBERA 1974
François Albera, “Max Bill” (interview),
in: Art Press, nº 12 (1974).
FRAMPTON 1974
Kenneth Frampton, “Apropos Ulm:
Curriculum and Critical Theory”, in:
Oppositions, nº 3 (May 1974), pp. 17-36.
316
FRAMPTON 1974
Kenneth Frampton, “Max Bill: A
Review of the Albright-Knox Exhibition
Catalog”, in: Oppositions, nº 4 (October
1974), pp. 154-57.
HUGHES 1974
Robert Hughes, “Superb Puritan”, in:
Time (November 18, 1974).
REICHHARDT 1974
Jasia Reichhardt, “Max Bill: Two of his
Themes”, in: Art International, XVIII,
nº 10 (1974).
WILLING 1974
Nancy Tobin Willing, “Sculptor, Painter,
Mathematician… Switzerland’s Max
Bill”, in: The Courier Express Magazine
(September 29, 1974).
WOOD 1974
Jim Wood, “Bill in Buffalo”, in: The Art
Gallery (October 1974).
FORGEY 1975
Benjamin Forgey, “America Gets to
Know the Art of Max Bill”, in: The
Washington Star/Calendar (November 9,
1975).
NEUBURG 1975
Hans Neuburg, “Max Bill, Künstler und
Politiker”, in: Das Neue Israel (October
1975).
STILES 1975
Knute Stiles, “Max Bill: Elective
Infinities”, in: Art in America (May-June
1975).
JOLY 1976
Pierre Joly, “Max Bill”, in: Oeil, nº 254
(September 1976), pp. 42-45.
KELLER 1976
Dominik Keller, “Max Bill”, in: Du (June
1976).
ROUILLER 1977
Jacques Rouiller, “Max Bill, rendre
visible l’invisible”, in: Radio/tv, nº 13
(March 31, 1977).
BONET 1980
Juan Manuel Bonet, “Max Bill:
‘En la Bauhaus la pintura era casi
clandestina’”, in: El País, January 31,
1980.
JEHLE-SCHULTE STRATHAUS 1984
Ulrike Jehle-Schulte Strathaus,
“Squares, Artists and Monuments:
Two Fountains by Jean Tinguely and a
Sculpture by Max Bill”, in: Werk, LXXI/
XXXVIII, nº 4 (April 1984), pp. 38-43.
PEPPIAT 1987
Michael Peppiat, “Max Bill:
Perpetuating the Bauhaus Ideal”, in:
Architectural Digest, nº 44 (August
1987), p. 48.
KELLY 1989
Lore Kelly, “Prinzip der Ordnung: Max
Bill und sein Haus im Zumikon”, in: DB
Fundación Juan March
– Deutsche Bauzeitung, nº 123 (January
1989), pp. 94-96.
THOMAS 1993
Angela Thomas, “Max Bill: the Early
Years, an Interview”, in: Journal of
Decorative and Propaganda Arts,
nº 19 (1993), pp. 99-119.
MULLER 1994
Dorothea Muller, “Max Bill, 1908-94”,
in: Architect’s Journal, CC,
nº 24 (December 21, 1994), p. 14.
GREGOTTI 1995
Vittorio Gregotti, “Max Bill, un grande
artista moderno / Max Bill, A Great
Artist of the Modern”, in: Casabella,
DCXXI, nº 59 (March 1995),
pp. 2-3 and 6.
HAGEN and HODGSON 1995
Petra Hagen and Hodgson, “Max Bill
(1908-94)”, in: Deutsche Bauzeitung,
CXXIX, nº 1 (January 1995), p. 10.
MANFREDINI 1995
Alberto Manfredini, “L’eredità di Max
Bill”, in: Parametro, nº 206 (January-
February 1995), pp. 2-3.
RAHM 1995
Philippe Rahm, “Max Bill”, in:
Architecture d’Aujoud’hui, nº 297
(February 1995), p. 21.
VON MOOS 1995
Stanislaus von Moos, “De era Max Bill
(1908-94) / The Max Bill Era
(1908-94)”, in: Archis, nº 3
(March 1995), pp. 4-6.
VON MOOS 1995
Stanislaus von Moos, “Un ricordo de
Max Bill / A memory of Max Bill”, in:
Domus, nº 770 (April 1995),
pp. 116-18.
VON MOOS 1995
Stanislaus von Moos, “Beauty as
Function: on Max Bill”, in: Rassegna,
LXII, nº 17 (1995), pp. 68-72.
GIMMI 1996
Karin Gimmi, “Max Bill geht ans Herz:
der Schweier Beitrag zur Triennale di
Milano von 1936”, in: Architese, III,
nº 26 (May-June 1996), pp. 48-53.
WOODWARD 1997
Christopher Woodward, “Bau,
Baukunst, Architektur. The Work of
Max Bill”, in: OASE, nº 45-46 (1997),
pp. 40-61.
ÁLVAREZ 1998
Fernando Álvarez, “El sillón
BKF, modernidad, ergonomía y
antropología”, in: Experimenta:
Ediciones de diseño, nos. 19-20
(April 1998), pp. 38-40.
EMERY 1999
Marc Emery, “La ‘Hochshule für
Gestaltung’ (École Superieure
de Design), Ulm, 1955, Max
Bill architecte”, in: Architecture
d’Aujoud’hui, nº 321 (March 1999),
pp. 110-15.
FLEISCHMANN 1999
Gerd Fleischmann, “Max Bill: l’arte
della stampa”, in: Domus, nº 811
(January 1999), pp. 106-13.
CRISPIANI INRÍQUEZ 2001
Alejandro Crispiani Inríquez, “Un
mundo continuo [Max Bill]”, in: ARQ,
nº 49 (December 2001), pp. 57-59.
FLEISCHMANN 2001
Gerd Fleischmann, “A Poster by Max
Bill of the Love of Geometry”, in:
Design Issues, XVII, nº 2 (March 2001),
pp. 53-63.
HEATHCOTE 2002
Edwin Heathcote, “Max Bill: Simplicity
and Ordinariness”, in: Architectural
Design, LXXII, nº 4 (July 2002),
pp. 17-21.
MOOS 2004
Stanislaus von Moos, “Max Bill. A la
búsqueda de la ‘cabaña primitiva’”/
“Max Bill. In search of the ‘Primitive
Hut’”, in: Karin Gimmi (ed.), 2G. Revista
internacional de arquitectura,
nos. 29-30 (2004), pp. 6-20.
FINESSI 2006
Beppe Finessi, “Max Bill: una
retrospectiva”, in: Abitare, nº 458
(February 2006), pp. 99-100.
SOLT 2007
Judit Solt, “Virtuelle Kuben und
echtes Leben: Max-Bill, Platz in
Zurich Neu-Oerlikon; Architecten,
Haerle Hubacher, atelier ww”, in: DB:
Deutsche Bauzeitung, CXLI, nº 8 (2007),
pp. 26-32.
BIGNENS 2008
Christoph Bigens, “Maximal und
Minimal: Two exhibitions in Winterthur
Celebrating Max Bill’s Centenary”,
in: Werk, XCV/LXII, nº 4 (April 2008),
pp. 61-62.
De GRACIA 2008
Francisco de Gracia, “Belleza lógica:
Max Bill, 1908-94”, in: Arquitectura
Viva, n. º 120 (2008), pp. 78-79.
HUBERTUS 2008
Adam Hubertus, “100th Anniversary of
Max Bill’s Birthday. Two Retrospectives
in Winterthur”, in: Bauwelt, XCIX, nº 10
(March 7, 2008), pp. 2-3.
BIGAS, BRAVO and CONTE-POMPI
2009
Montserrat Bigas, Luis Bravo and
Gustavo Conte-Pomi, “Projecting the
Infinitive: Miralles, Max Bill, Klee”,
in: EGA: Revista de expresión gráfica
arquitectónica, nº 14 (2009), pp. 146-57
and pp. 289-93 (English).
GARCÍA 2009
María Amalia García, “Arte Concreto
entre Argentina, Brasil y Suiza. Max Bill
y sus conexiones latinoamericanas”,
in: Crítica Cultural, IV, nº 1 (June 2009),
pp. 203-17.
RANNEM 2009
Øyvin Rannem, “Striden om
typografiens sjel. Max Bill versus Jan
Tshichold”, in: Formakademisk, II, nº 1
(August 2009), pp. 83-98.
GARCÍA 2010
Maria Amalia García, “Tensiones entre
tradición e innovación: las críticas de
Max Bill a la arquitectura moderna
brasileña”, in: Concinnitas, I, nº 16
(June 2010), pp. 149-63.
MEAD 2011
Andrew Mead, “Colour, line, geometry,
logic: Max Bill at Annely Juda”,
in: Architect’s Journal (June 2011)
(available online).
PEZOLET 2012
Nicola Pezolet, “Bauhaus Ideas: Jorn,
Max Bill and Reconstruction Culture”,
in: October, nº 141 (summer 2012),
pp. 86-110.
CASTILLO 2013
Alberto M. Castillo, “La búsqueda de la
belleza en Max Bill”, in: Revista Europea
de Investigación in Arquitectura, nº 1
(2013), pp. 85-99.
exhibition
catalogs
LEVERKUSEN 1959
Max Bill [exh. cat. Leverkusen,
Städtisches Museum Leverkusen,
Schloß Morsbroich, June 19-July 26,
1959]. Opladen: Middelhauve, 1959.
ST. GALLEN 1967
Max Bill [exh. cat. St. Gallen, Galerie
Erker, April 8-May 27, 1967]. St. Gallen:
Galerie Erker, 1967.
HANNOVER 1968
Max Bill [exh. cat. Kestner-Gesellschaft,
June 14, July 14, 1968]. Hannover:
Kestner-Gesellschaft, 1968.
PARIS 1969
Max Bill: oeuvres 1928-69 [exh.
cat. Paris, Centre National d’Art
Contemporain, October 30-December
10, 1696]. Paris: Centre National d’Art
Contemporain, 1969.
ZURICH 1972
Max Bill: Neue Werke [exh. cat.
Zurich, Marlborough Galerie AG,
June 14-August 19, 1972]. Zurich:
Marlborough Galerie, 1972.
LONDON-ZURICH 1974
Max Bill [exh. cat. London,
Marlborough Fine Art, February
14-March 15, 1974; Zurich,
Marlborough Galerie AG, June 7-July
6, 1974], Margit Weinberg-Staber (ed.).
London: Malborough Fine Art, 1974.
LUGANO 1980
Max Bill: Villa Malpensata Rassegna
internazionale delle arti e della cultura
[exh. cat. Lugano, Villa Malpensata,
March 19-May 11, 1980]. Lugano:
Comune di Lugano, 1980.
MADRID-BARCELONA 1980
Max Bill [exh. cat. Madrid, Museo
Español de Arte Contemporáneo,
February 1980; Barcelona, Fundació
Joan Miró and Centre d’Estudis
d’Art Contemporani, March 12-April
20, 1980], Gloria Moure and Margit
Weinberg-Staber (eds.). Madrid:
Dirección General del Patrimonio
Artístico, Archivos y Museos, 1980;
Barcelona: La Polígrafa, 1980.
Fundación Juan March
COLOGNE 1984
Max bill. Bilder und Plastiken [exh.
cat. Colonia, Galerie Teufel, November
18, 1984-January 19, 1985]. Cologne:
Galerie Teufel, 1984.
ZURICH 1988
Max Bill: Leben und Sprache
[exh. cat. Zurich, Stiftung für
Konstructive und Konkrete Kunst,
December 16, 1988-February 26,
1989], Max Bill and Margit Weinberg-
Staber (eds.). Zurich: Stiftung für
Konstructive und Konkrete Kunst, 1988.
PARIS 1990
Max Bill [exh. cat. Paris, Galerie Denise
René, May-June 1990], Angela Thomas
(ed.). Paris: Galerie Denise René, 1990.
LOCARNO 1991
Max Bill [exh. cat. Locarno, Pinacoteca
Communale Casa Rusca, September-
November 1991], Luciano Caramel and
Angela Thomas (eds.). Locarno: Fidia
Edizione d’arte, 1991.
STUDEN 1993
Max Bill [exh. cat. Studen: Fondation
Saner, October 17-December 31,
1993]. Studen, Fondation Saner 1993.
STUTTGART 1995
Max Bill. Die Drafischer Reihen [exh.
cat. Essling, Landratsamt, May 23-June
18, 1995]. Stuttgart: G. Hatje, 1995.
STUTTGART 2005
Max Bill: Maler, Bildhauer, Architekt,
Designer [exh. cat. Stuttgart,
Kunstmuseum, September 10, 2005-
January 8, 2006 and other venues in
Europe and South America], Thomas
Bruchsteiner and Otto Letze (eds.).
Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2005.
MILAN 2006
Max Bill, pittore, scultore, architetto,
designer [exh. cat. Milan, Palacio
Real, March 29-June 25, 2006]. Milan:
Electa, 2006.
WINTENTHUR 2008
Max Bill: Aspekte seines Werkes [exh.
cat. Winterthur, Kunstmuseum and
Gewerbemuseum, January 20-May 18,
2008]. Sulgen: Niggli, 2008.
ZURICH 2008
Max Bill: No Beginning, No End
[exh. cat. Zurich, Marta Herford,
February 2-March 30, 2008]. Zurich:
Scheidegger & Spiess, 2008.
videos
OPPENHEIM 1968
Roy Oppenheim, Max Bill zum 60
geburtstag. Zurich TV, 1968.
KIPPHOFF 1968-69
Pitra Kipphoff, Max Bill. Nord-
Westdeutschen Fernsehen, 1968-69.
RADANOWICZ 1968-69
Georg Radanowicz, 22 Fragen an Max
Bill, 1968-69.
ROY 1976
Jean-Louis Roy, Max Bill. Télévision
suisse romande, 1976 [French, German
and English].
SCHEIDEGGER 1987
Ernst Scheidegger, Kontinuität.
Granitmonolith von Max Bill.
Video VHS, 50 min. Zurich: Verlag
Scheidegger & Spiess, 1987.
SCHEIDEGGER 1998
Ernst Scheidegger, Max Bill. Video
VHS, 100 min. Zurich: Verlag
Scheidegger & Spiess, 1998.
317
list of works
on display

318

Fundación Juan March

1. Frauenkopf [female head], 1925.
bronze. 12.3 x 6.7 x 5.3 cm. chantal and
jakob bill collection, p. 67.
2. tray with two goblets, 1925. silver
goblets: h. 9.7 cm; tray: 16.4 x 8.6 cm.
inscription on tray: “paris, october 1925”
estate of elsa frey-rutishauser, p. 69.
3. tall vase, 1925-26. copper and brass.
40 x 14 x 14 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 68.
4. pitcher with lid, 1926. hammered
copper. 32.5 x 20.5 x 16.5 cm.
bischofberger collection, switzerland,
p. 68.
5. self-portrait, 1926. oil on canvas.
40 x 30 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 71.
6. [naples], 1926. ink and watercolor on
paper. 17 x 22 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 72.
7. amüsante erinnerungen [amusing
recollections], 1927. watercolor on
paper. 16 x 15 cm. chantal and jakob
bill collection, p. 72.
8. untitled, 1927. mixed media on paper.
18 x 14 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 72.
9. kokettes mädchen [coquettish girl],
1928. oil on cardboard. 38 x 24 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, p. 71.
10. räumliche komposition nr. 9 [spatial
composition no. 9], 1928. oil on
plywood. 68 x 44 cm. chantal and jakob
bill collection, p. 75.
11. schewebende organismen 1929 nr.
14 [floating organisms 1929 nº 14], 1929.
watercolor on paper. 48 x 30 cm. chantal
and jakob bill collection, p. 73.
12. gefangene riesenkatze, bewacht
[caged giant cat, guarded], 1929. oil on
canvas. 50 x 65 cm. chantal and jakob
bill collection, p. 74.
13. zwiegespräch [dialog], 1929. etching
on japanese paper. 35 x 25 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 76.
14. albert ehrismann lächeln auf
dem asphalt, gedichte [smile on the
asphalt, poems]. zurich/leipzig: orell
füsli, 1930. designed by max bill. book.
photomechanical print on paper.
18.6 x 11 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 77.
15. ohne titel, zwei köpfe [untitled, two
heads], 1930. oil on plywood.
48 x 58 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 78.
16. relief mit weisser kugel [relief with
white sphere], 1931. iron and painted
wood. 120 x 60 cm. chantal and jakob
bill collection, on deposit at aargauer
kunsthaus, aarau, p. 79.
17. brochure for wohnausstellung
neubühl [housing exhibition at neubühl],
berichthaus, zurich, september 19–27,
1931. photomechanical print on paper.
21.4 x 9.9 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 80.
18. poster for the wohnausstellung
neubühl [housing exhibition at neubühl],
berichthaus, zurich, september 19–27,
1931. relief print on paper. 128 x 90.5 cm.
merrill c. berman collection, p. 81.
19. poster for the exhibition negerkunst,
prähistorische felsbilder südafrikas
[negro art: prehistoric rock art from
south africa], kunstgewerbemuseum
zürich, august 2–30, 1931. linocut and
letterpress on paper. 128 x 90.5 cm.
merrill c. berman collection, p. 83.
20. poster for the matinee performance
of tanzstudio wulff [wulff dance studio],
stadttheater, basel, april 24, 1932.
photomecanical print on paper.
128 x 90.5 cm. merrill c. berman
collection, p. 84.
21. poster for the concert at the main
auditorium of the tonhalle, zurich,
october 30, 1932. linocut on paper.
128 x 90.5 cm. merrill c. berman
collection, p. 85.
22. poster for wohnbedarf, zurich, 1932.
linocut on paper. 128 x 90.5 cm. merrill
c. berman collection, p. 87.
23. tag for wohnbedarf, 1932.
photomecanical print on paper.
10.5 x 14.8 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 86.
24. 24. zett-haus advertisements, neue
zürcher zeitung newspaper, december
1931–september 1932. photomecanical
print on paper.
24.1. december 18, 1931.
24.2. january 15, 1932
24.3. february 11, 1932
24.4. september 16, 1932
24.5. september 18, 1932
24.6. september 25, 1932
full page advertisements: 49 x 33 cm
24.7. march 9, 1932
14 x 14.5 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, pp. 88-91.
25. information magazine, 1932-34.
photomechanical print on paper.
21 x 14.8 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, pp. 92-93.
26. ignazio silone. fontamara. zurich:
oprecht, 1933. designed by max bill.
Fundación Juan March
book. photomechanical print on paper.
20.6 x 13.7 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 94.
27. eduard keller. ascona bau-buch
[ascona building book], zurich: oprecht,
1934. designed by max bill
photomechanical print on paper.
29.4 x 21 cm. library of the col·legi
d’arquitectes de catalunya [architects
association of catalonia], barcelona,
p. 94.
28. zweiteilige konstruktion [two-part
construction], 1934. oil on pavatex.
50 x 60 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 96.
29. variationen [variations], 1934. oil on
pavatex. 60 x 50 cm. chantal and jakob
bill collection, p. 97.
30. schwarze plastik [black sculpture],
1934-35 (1992 version). black granite.
88 x 35 x 35 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 95.
31. vladimir vogel. tripartita [tripartite],
1936. designed by max bill. musical
score. photomechanical print on paper.
29.7 x 21 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 98.
32. poster for the schweizerisches
freiheitskomitee – kundgebung der
kampf um die freiheit [swiss freedom
committee conference – struggle for
freedom rally], stadthalle, february
5, 1936. photomechanical print on
paper. 127 x 90 cm. merrill c. berman
collection, p. 100.
33. poster for the exhibition
zeitprobleme in der schweizer malerei
und plastik [contemporary problems in
swiss painting and sculpture], kunsthaus
zürich, june 13–july 22, 1936. linocut and
photomechanical print on paper.
100 x 70 cm. merrill c. berman
collection, p. 101.
34. kongress-und konzertgebäude in
zürich [conference center and concert
hall in zurich], 1936. mixed media on
paper mounted on cardboard. 72 x 84 cm.
max, binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 99.
35. le corbusier & p. jeanneret 1910–29,
œuvre complète [complete works], vol.
1, zurich: les éditions d’architecture,
1937 [11th ed. 1984]. designed by max
bill. book. photomechanical print on
paper. 23.5 x 29 cm. neus moyano and
fernando marzá collection, p. 98.
36. konstruktion auf der formel a2 + b2 = c2
[construction from the formula a2 + b2 = c2],
1937. ink on cardboard. 35 x 52 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, p. 102.
37. vier konstruktionen über das gleiche
thema [four constructions on a single
theme], 1935-38. 3 reliefs on brass
painted white on glass, 2 paintings under
glass. 102 x 122 cm. kunsthaus zürich,
p. 105.
38. quinze variations sur un même
thème [fifteen variations on a single
theme]. paris: éditions des chroniques
du jour, 1935-38. 16 lithographs.
32 x 30.3 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection. *max bill: obras de arte
multiplicadas como originales (1938-94)
[max bill: multiplied artworks as
original artworks (1938-94)], pp. 18-27,
pp. 18-27.
39. quinze variations sur un même
thème [fifteen variations on a single
theme]. paris: éditions des chroniques
du jour, 1935-38. bound portfolio with
16 lithographs and notes by max bill in
german, english and french. 32 x 30.3 cm.
archivo lafuente, p. 104.
40. schweizer pavillon weltausstellung
new york [swiss pavilion, new york
world’s fair], 1938. mixed media on paper
mounted on cardboard. 72 x 84 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, p. 108.
41. konstruktion mit zwei gruppen
[construction with two groups], 1938.
gouache on cardboard. 30 x 50 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, p. 103.
42. konstruktion mit 30 gleichen
elementen [construction with 30 identical
elements], 1938. photograph mounted
on cardboard. 72 x 84 cm. chantal and
jakob bill collection, p. 109.
43. aline valangin. tessiner novellen
[tessin novelas]. zurich: girsberger,
1939. designed by max bill. book.
photomechanical print on paper.
20 x 12 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 106.
44. le corbusier & p. jeanneret 1934–38.
œuvre complète [complete works],
vol. 3. zurich: girsberger, 1939 [9th ed.
1975]. designed by max bill. book.
photomechanical print on paper.
23.5 x 29 cm. neus moyano and
fernando marzá collection, p. 107.
45. alfred roth. die neue architektur.
la nouvelle architecture. the new
architecture. zurich: girsberger,
1940. designed by max bill. book.
photomechanical print on paper.
24.2 x 29.5 cm. archivo lafuente, p. 107.
46. konstruktion mit weissem dreieck
[construction with white triangle], 1941.
tempera on cardboard. 102 x 73 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, p. 110.
319
47. konstruktion mit 12 teiligem zentrum
[construction with 12-part center], 1941.
tempera on cardboard. 102 x 73 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, p. 111.
48. horizontal-vertikal rhythmus
[horizontal–vertical rhythm], 1941.
gouache on cardboard. 102 x 72.5 cm.
hernando pérez collection, malaga,
p. 113.
49. x = x. zurich: allianz verlag,
1942. designed by max bill. book.
photomechanical print on paper.
21.7 x 15.3 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 112.
50. konstruktion aus zwei kreisringen
[construction from two circular rings],
1942. oil on canvas. 39 x 105 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, p. 114.
51. progression mit vier quadraten
[progression with four squares], 1942.
tempera on canvas. 120 x 30 cm.
kunstmuseum winterthur. gift of frawa
ag hartmann, p. 116.
52. konstruktion mit 10 vierecken
[construction with 10 squares], 1940-43.
oil on canvas. 89.7 x 75 cm.
kunstmuseum bern, p. 119.
53. sechs stufen progression [six-step
progression], 1942-43. oil on canvas.
60.7 x 40.6 cm. museu coleção berardo,
p. 115.
54. horizontal-vertikal-diagonal rhythmus
[horizontal-vertical-diagonal rhythm],
1943. oil on canvas. 50 x 75.5 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, on
deposit at aargauer kunsthaus, aarau,
p. 117.
55. rhythmus in vier quadraten [rhythm
in four squares], 1943. oil on canvas.
30 x 120 cm. kunsthaus zürich,
pp. 120-21.
56. allianz verlag brochure, 1943.
photomechanical print on paper.
58.2 x 10.4 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, pp. 122-23.
57. catalog for the exhibition moderne
malerei [modern painting], part of the
festival musik-sommer, gstaad, july
30–august 15, 1943. design by max
bill. photomechanical print on paper.
21 x 14.8 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 127.
58. poster for the music festival musik-
sommer, gstaad. july 16–august 15,
1943. linocut on paper. 104 x 62 cm.
merrill c. berman collection, p. 125.
59. jewelry, 1936-44. photographs
mounted on cardboard. 72 x 84 cm.
max, binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 130.
320
60. konstruktion aus sieben kreisringen
[construction of seven circular rings],
1942-44. schist and gilt bronze.
7.2 h. x 38 cm (ø). chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 132.
61. patria typewriter, 1944. metal.
12 x 35 x 34 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 131.
62. quadrat aus neun vierecken [square
from nine rectangles], 1944. acrylic on
canvas. 36.2 x 36.2 cm. harvard art
museums/fogg museum, gift of mr.
and mrs. stanley marcus, p. 118.
63. poster for the exhibition die farbe
[color], kunstgewerbemuseum zürich,
january 23–march 5, 1944. lithograph on
paper. 128 x 90.5 cm. merrill c. berman
collection, p. 124.
64. poster for the exhibition konkrete
kunst [concrete art], kunsthalle basel,
march 18–april 16, 1944. linocut on
paper. 128 x 90.5 cm. merrill c. berman
collection, p. 128.
65. konstruktion aus schwarz, lila,
orange, und weiss [construction from
black, lavender, orange and white],
1944-45. oil on canvas. 84.5 x 71.5 cm.
kunstmuseum winterthur. purchased in
1980, p. 129.
66. wiederaufbau [reconstruction].
erlenbach-zurich: verlag für architektur
ag, 1945. book. photomechanical print
on paper. 20.9 x 15.5 cm. library of the
col·legi d’arquitectes de catalunya
[architects association of catalonia],
barcelona, p. 127.
67. poster for the exhibition usa baut
[usa builds], kunstgewerbemuseum
zürich, september 9–october 7, 1945.
offset lithograph on paper. 128 x 90.5 cm.
merrill c. berman collection, p. 135.
68. magische chromographie [magical
chromography], 1944-46. oil on canvas.
72 x 108 cm. kunstmuseum winterthur.
purchased with funds donated by
frawa ag, 1969, p. 133.
69. rotes quadrat [red square], 1946
(1984 - 2nd version). oil on canvas.
62 x 62 cm; 88 cm (diagonal). chantal
and jakob bill collection, p. 134.
70. bunte akzente [colorful accents],
1946. oil on canvas. 50 x 50 cm. chantal
and jakob bill collection, p. 137.
71. zwei grüne akzente [two green
accents], 1946. oil on canvas. 42 x 42 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, p. 136.
72. catalog of the exhibition allianz.
vereinigung moderner schweizer künstler
[allianz. association of modern swiss
Fundación Juan March
artists], kunsthaus zürich, october 18–
november 23, 1947. design by max bill.
photomechanical print on paper.
21 x 15 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 140.
73. poster for the exhibition allianz.
vereinigung moderner schweizer künstler
[allianz. association of modern swiss
artists], kunsthaus zürich, october 18–
november 23, 1947. photomechanical
print on paper. 100 x 70 cm. merrill c.
berman collection, p. 141.
74. unbegrenzt und begrenzt [unlimited
and limited], 1947. oil on canvas.
110 x 103 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 143.
75. gelbes feld [yellow field], 1948. oil
on canvas. 81 x 81 cm. kunstmuseum
winterthur. purchased with funds
donated by frawa ag, 1969, p. 139.
76. brochure for the exhibition
die gute form [good design], 1949.
photomechanical print on paper.
29.5 x 10.5 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 144.
77. robert maillart. erlenbach-zurich:
verlag für architektur, 1949. book.
photomechanical print on paper.
22 x 22 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 145.
78. moderne schweizer architektur 1925-
45 [modern swiss architecture 1925–45].
basel: karl werner ag. verlag, 1949.
design by max bill. photomechanical
print on paper.
31 x 23 cm. library of the col·legi
d’arquitectes de catalunya [architects
association of catalonia], barcelona,
p. 146.
79. catalog for the exhibition antoine
pevsner, georges vantongerloo, max
bill, kunsthaus zürich, october 15–
november 13, 1949. design by max bill.
photomechanical print on paper.
21 x 15 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 146.
80. poster for the exhibition pevsner,
vantorgerloo bill, kunsthaus zürich,
october 15–november 13, 1949.
lithograph on paper. 100 x 70 cm. merrill
c. berman collection, p. 147.
81. posters for the juni-festwochen
zürich [june festival in zurich]:
schauspielhaus [theater], tonhalle
[auditorium], stadttheater [municipal
theater], 1949. lithographs on paper.
128 x 90.5 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 148.
82. posters for the juni-festwochen
zürich [june festival in zurich]:
schauspielhaus [theater], tonhalle
[auditorium], stadttheater [municipal
theater], 1949. lithographs on paper.
128 x 90.5 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, pp. 148-49.
83. posters for the juni-festwochen
zürich [june festival in zurich]:
schauspielhaus [theater], tonhalle
[auditorium], stadttheater [municipal
theater], 1949. lithographs on paper.
128 x 90.5 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 149.
84. tripod chair with trumpet feet,
t-frame, 1949. birch and laminated
wood. 74 x 45 x 53 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 152.
85. catalog for the exhibition futurismo
& pittura metafisica [futurism &
metaphysical painting], kunsthaus zürich,
november-december 1950. design by
max bill. photomechanical print on
paper. 21 x 15 cm. max, binia + jakob
bill stiftung, p. 150.
86. poster for the exhibition futurismo
& pittura metafisica [futurism &
metaphysical painting], kunsthaus
zürich, november-december 1950.
lithograph on paper. 100 x 70 cm. merrill
c. berman collection, p. 151.
87. square-round table, 1950. wood and
linoleum. 73 x 90 x 90 cm; 78 cm (ø).
max, binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 154.
88. cross-frame chair, 1951. maple
plywood, lacquered beech frame.
78 x 48 x 52 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 153.
89. cross-frame chair, 1951. stamoid
upholstery. 78 x 48 x 52 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 153.
90. simultankonstruktion zweier
progressiver systeme [simultaneous
construction of two progressive
systems], 1945-51. oil on canvas.
145 x 201 cm. private collection.
courtesy of annely juda fine art, p. 159.
91. novelectric sun lamp, 1951.
enameled metal. 57.2 x 14.6 cm. chantal
and jakob bill collection, p. 155.
92. wassily kandinsky. paris: maeght,
1951. book. photomechanical print on
paper. 23 x 20 cm. library of the col·legi
d’arquitectes de catalunya [architects’
association of catalonia], barcelona,
p. 168.
93. “22”, 1953. marble and granite.
57 x 50 x 2.7 cm; 14 x 14 x 50 cm
(base). macba collection. fundación
macba, barcelona. on deposit from the
bombelli family, p. 196.
94. unendliche fläche in form einer
säule [endless surface in the form of a
column], 1953. gilt brass with wooden
base. 216 x 12 x 12 cm; 32 x 32 x 32 cm
(base). kunstmuseum liechtenstein
vaduz. purchased with funds from the
lampadia stiftung, vaduz, p. 157.
95. ulmer-hocker [ulm stool], 1954. solid
beech and fir wood. 45 x 40 x 30 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, p. 155.
96. transmutation [transmutation], 1955.
oil on canvas. 97 x 32.5 cm. chantal and
jakob bill collection, p. 160.
97. 1 = weiss bis 8 = schwarz [1 =
white to 8 = black], 1956. oil on canvas.
100 x 100 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 161.
98. catalog for the exhibition im
kleinformat; max bill, museum der stadt
ulm [in small format; max bill, museum
der stadt ulm], 1956. photomechanical
print on paper. 10.5 x 14.8 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 169.
99. junghans wall clock, 1956.
aluminum. 30 cm (ø); 4.5 cm (d.). max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 162.
100. wall clock, 1957. bronze. 24 cm
(ø); 4,5 cm (d.). chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 163.
101. junghans hand-wound kitchen clock,
1957. ceramic, glass, chrome-plated bezel
and plastic. 25.5 x 18.5 x 4 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 165.
102a and 102b. diagrams of
a junghans kitchen clock and a
clothes hanger, 1957. ink on paper.
45 x 62 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, pp. 164,166.
103. bill salubra, 1957. design by max
bill. wallpaper sample. 24 x 24 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 168.
104. poster for the exhibition max bill,
zürcher kunstgesellschaft, helmhaus
zürich, september 21–october 20, 1957.
heliogravure on paper. 128 x 91 cm.
max, binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 172.
105. fläche im raum aus einer kreisscheibe
[surface in space from a round disk],
1957. gilt brass. 27 x 50 x 16 cm.
hermann und margrit rupf-stiftung,
kunstmuseum bern, p. 170.
106. konstruktion [construction], 1937
(1958-59 version). granite. 120 x 120 cm;
91 x 60 cm (base). fundación bartolomé
march servera, p. 173.
107. drei gleichgrosse sechzehnecke
[three hexadecagons of equal size], 1959.
oil on canvas. 100 x 100 cm; 142 cm
(diagonal). chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 175.
108. catalog for the exhibition swiss
design, london, 1959. photomechanical
print on paper. 10.5 x 7.5 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 169.
109. coat hangers, 1959. plastic.
23 x 43.5 x 1.5 cm. max, binia + jakob
bill stiftung, p. 167.
110. sechseckfläche im raum im vollen
kreisumfang [hexagonal surface in space
in full circumference], 1953-60. gilt brass.
30.5 x 39.5 x 27.5 cm. kunstmuseum
winterthur. purchased in 1960, p. 171.
111. catalog for the exhibition konkrete
kunst [concrete art], helmhaus zürich,
1960. photomechanical print on paper.
30 x 10.7 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 169.
112. poster for the exhibition bianco
e nero [black and white], vi exposition
internationale de dessin et gravure [vi
international exhibition of design and
prints], locarno, april 14–june 16, 1960.
linocut on paper. 101.5 x 63.5 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 176.
113. poster for the exhibition
dokumentation über marcel duchamp
[documentation on marcel duchamp],
kunstgewerbemuseum zürich, june
30–august 28, 1960. linocut and
photolithograph on paper. 128 x 90.5 cm.
max, binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 179.
114. poster for the exhibition konkrete
kunst, 50 jahre entwicklung [concrete art,
50 years of evolution], helmhaus zürich,
june 9–august 14, 1960. linocut on
paper. 128 x 90 cm. max, binia + jakob
bill stiftung, p. 178.
115. poster for the exhibition max bill,
galerie du perron, geneva, september
16–october 15, 1961. linocut on paper.
100 x 70 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 177.
116. kompression [compression],
1961. oil on canvas. 180 x 60 cm.
walter + helga sonanini collection,
switzerland, p. 180.
117. 1 - 8 in vier gruppen [1 – 8 in four
groups], 1955-63. oil on canvas.
80.3 x 80.3 cm. patricia phelps de
cisneros collection. on deposit/loan for
use from the museo nacional centro de
arte reina sofía, madrid, 2013, p. 181.
118. feld in vier farben [field in
four colors], 1963. oil on canvas.
80 x 80 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection. *max bill: obras de arte
multiplicadas como originales (1938-
Fundación Juan March
94) [max bill: multiplied artworks as
originals artworks (1938–94)], p. 35.
119. auswechlungen ii [replacements ii],
1965. oil on canvas. 100 x 40 cm.
courtesy lorenzelli arte, milan, p. 182.
120. zwei zonen [two zones], 1965-66.
oil on canvas. 62 x 62 cm; 88 cm
(diagonal). courtesy lorenzelli arte,
milan, p. 183.
121. strahlung aus grün [radiation from
green], 1959-66. oil on canvas.
47 x 47 cm; 66 cm (diagonal). museum
ritter, waldenbuch, p. 184.
122. feld aus vier zonen [field of four
zones], 1966. oil on canvas.
120.2 x 60.6 cm. aargauer kunsthaus,
aarau. donated by friends of the aargau
art collection, p. 185.
123. strebende kräfte einer kugel
[aspiring forces of a sphere], 1966-
67. granite. 80 x 120 x 80 cm.
kunstmuseum liechtenstein vaduz.
purchased with funds from the
lampadia stiftung, vaduz, p. 190.
124. feld aus sechs sich
durchdringenden farben [field of six
interpenetrating colors], 1966-67. oil
on canvas. 150 x 150 cm. chantal and
jakob bill collection, p. 187.
125. carré tenu par quatre couleurs
[square from four colors], 1967-68.
oil on canvas. 100 x 100 cm. private
collection, rio de janeiro, brazil.
courtesy galerie denise rené, p. 189.
126. kern aus doppelungen [nucleus of
doublings], 1968. gilt brass. 50 x 60 x
50 cm. kunstmuseum bern, anne-marie
und victor loeb-stiftung, bern, p. 191.
127. catalog for the exhibition max bill,
kestner–gesellschaft, hannover, june
14–july 14, 1968. photomechanical print
on paper. 21 x 16.6 cm. library of the
col·legi d’arquitectes de catalunya
[architects association of catalonia],
barcelona, p. 192.
128. poster for the exhibition max
bill, kunsthaus zürich, november 24,
1968–january 5, 1969. siebdruck in
fünf farben [silkscreen in five colors].
silkscreen on paper. 128 x 90.5 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 193.
129. catalog for the exhibition max
bill, kunsthaus zürich, november 24,
1968–january 5, 1969. photomechanical
print on paper. 21.5 x 19.5 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 192.
130. poster for the exhibition konkrete
und phantastiche kunstrichtungen,
zürcher künstlet im helmhaus [trends
in concrete and fantastic art: zurich
artists at the helmhaus], november 29–
december 31, 1969. linocut on paper.
128 x 90.5 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 195.
131. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 in weiss [1 + 2 + 3 + 4
in white], 1969. oil on canvas. 120 x
120 cm. guillermo de osma collection,
madrid, p. 196.
132. elementare farbdurchdringung
[elementary color penetration], 1966-70.
oil on canvas. 40 x 80 cm. courtesy
lorenzelli arte, milan, p. 198.
133. vierfarbige struktur [four-color
structure], 1970. oil on canvas.
60 x 150 cm. museum für konkrete
kunst ingolstadt, p. 199.
134. kern und farbzonen [nucleus and
color zones], 1970. oil on canvas.
102 x 102 cm; 144 cm (diagonal).
fundación privada allegro, p. 197.
135. acht liniengruppen um weiss [eight
line groupings around white], 1969-70.
oil on canvas. 150 x 150 cm. centre
pompidou, paris. musée national
d’art moderne/centre de création
industrielle. purchased in 1971, p. 200.
136. zwei umschlossene quadrate [two
enclosed squares], 1971. oil on canvas.
200 x 100 cm. daimler art collection,
stuttgart/berlin, p. 201.
137. catalog of the exhibition max bill,
galerie denise rené, paris, june 22 – late
july, 1971. photomechanical print on
paper. 26 x 21 cm. max, binia + jakob
bill stiftung, p. 194.
138. poster for the exhibition
dynamische schweiz mit landesring
[dynamic switzerland with the circle of
independents], 1971. offset on paper.
127 x 90 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 203.
139. feste hälfte einer kugel [stable half
of a sphere], 1972. black granite.
20.5 x 27 x 29.7 cm. max, binia + jakob
bill stiftung, p. 204.
140. begrenzung geht durch das
zentrum [edge runs through the center],
1972. gilt brass. 85 x 42 x 38 cm.
walter + helga sonanini collection,
switzerland, p. 205.
141. rot und blau quantengleich [red
and blue in equal quantities], 1972. oil
on canvas. 100 x 100 cm. chantal and
jakob bill collection, p. 206.
142. einheit aus flächengleichen farben
[unity of colors with equal surface areas],
1972. oil on canvas. 120 x 120 cm;
321
170 cm (diagonal). chantal and jakob
bill collection, p. 207.
143. strahlung von rot in blau [radiation
from red into blue], 1972. oil on canvas.
33 x 33 cm; 46.6 cm (diagonal). von der
heydt-museum wuppertal, p. 208.
144. verdichtung zu caput mortuum
[compaction to caput mortuum], 1972.
oil on canvas. 100 x 100 cm; 141 cm
(diagonal). daimler art collection,
stuttgart/berlin, p. 209.
145. untitled, 1971-73. oil on canvas.
62.2 x 62,2 cm; 88 cm (diagonal).
chantal and jakob bill collection. *max
bill: obras de arte multiplicadas como
originales (1938-94) [max bill: multiplied
artworks as originals artworks (1938–
94)], p. 71.
146. radiazione dall rosso [radiation from
red], 1972-73. oil on canvas. 62 x 62 cm;
88 cm (diagonal). private collection,
p. 210.
147. transcoloration aus dunkelgrün
[transcoloration from dark green], 1972-74.
oil on canvas. 80 x 80 cm; 114 cm
(diagonal). private collection, p. 211.
148. unendliche schleife für drei
positionen [endless surface for three
positions], 1974-75. gilt brass.
12.5 x 35 x 14 cm. macba collection.
fundación macba, barcelona. on
deposit from the bombelli family,
p. 212.
149. unendliche fläche für drei positionen
[endless surface for three positions],
1974-75. gilt brass. 15.5 x 24 x 13 cm.
museo nacional centro de arte reina
sofía, madrid, p. 213.
150. wegnehmen und zufügen
[subtracting and adding], 1975. oil
on canvas. 100 x 100 cm; 142 cm
(diagonal). chantal and jakob bill
collection, p. 214.
322
151. farben um schwarz und weiss
[colors around black and white], 1977.
oil on canvas. 80 x 80 cm; 114 cm
(diagonal). courtesy of lorenzelli arte,
milan, p. 215.
152. 7 twins (9 reihe) [7 twins
(series of 9)], 1977. 7 prints of twin
compositions. silkscreen on paper.
42 x 59.6 cm. max, binia + jakob
bill stiftung. *max bill: obras de arte
multiplicadas como originales (1938-94)
[max bill: multiplied artworks as
originals artworks (1938–94)],
pp. 90-91.
153. gleiche farbquanten zu schwarz
/ weiss [equal color quantities with
black/white], 1977. oil on canvas.
80 x 80 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection. *max bill: obras de arte
multiplicadas como originales (1938-94)
[max bill: multiplied artworks as
originals artworks (1938–94)], p. 87.
154. schleife durch bewegung
verwandelt [loop transformed by
movement], 1977. gilt brass with
wooden basev. 62 x 28 x 32 cm.
walter + helga sonanini collection,
switzerland, p. 217.
155. halbkugel um zwei achsen
[hemisphere around two axes], 1977.
black granite. 39.5 x 39.5 x 34 cm.
private collection, p. 219.
156. wladimir vogel. dai tempi più
remoti. tre pezzi per pianoforte. eulenberg
general music series; gm no. 803,
adliswil, 1977. designed by max bill.
musical score. photomechanical
print on paper. 30.3 x 23.2 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 220.
157. poster for the exhibition max
bill: pittore, architetto, scultore [painter,
architect, sculptor], sala delle scudiere
in pilotta, parma. organized by the
università di parma, centro studi e
archivio della comunicazione, may–june
Fundación Juan March
1977. silkscreen on paper. 87 x 61.5 cm.
max, binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 220.
158. poster for the exhibition um
1930 in zürich, neues denken, neues
wohnen, neues bauen [circa 1930 in
zurich, new thinking, new housing,
new building], kunstgewerbemuseum
zürich, september 3–november 6, 1977.
offset on paper. 128 x 90.5 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 221.
159. rotation um sich ausdehnendes
weiss [rotation around expanding white],
1971-78, (1981 version). oil on canvas.
200 x 200 cm; 283 cm (diagonal). annely
juda fine art, london, p. 223.
160. weisses quadrat durch
farbprogression begrentz [white square
restricted by color progressions],
1978. oil on canvas. 80 x 80 cm;
113 cm (diagonal). chantal and jakob
bill collection. *max bill: obras de arte
multiplicadas como originales (1938-94)
[max bill: multiplied artworks as
originals artworks (1938–94)], p. 95.
161. konstruktion aus drei gleichen
platten [construction from three identical
slabs], 1979. stainless steel.
17 x 20 x 19 cm. macba collection.
fundación macba, barcelona.
on deposit from the bombelli family,
p. 222.
162. poster for the exhibition dada in
zürich [dada in zurich], kunsthaus zürich,
april 25 – june 8, 1980. offset on paper.
128 x 90 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 229.
163. 12 vierergruppen in weissem feld
[12 groups of four in a white field],
1982. oil on canvas. 100 x 100 cm.
walter + helga sonanini collection,
switzerland, p. 225.
164. blau-grün quadrat [blue-
green square], 1984. oil on canvas.
100 x 100 cm; 141 cm (diagonal).
chantal and jakob bill collection.
*max bill: obras de arte multiplicadas
como originales (1938-94) [max
bill: multiplied artworks as originals
artworks (1938–94)], p. 105.
165. rythmus in fünf farben [rhythm
in five colors], 1985. oil on canvas.
100 x 100 cm. chantal and jakob bill
collection. *max bill: obras de arte
multiplicadas como originales (1938-94)
[max bill: multiplied artworks as
originals artworks (1938–94)], p. 107.
166. durch drei zonen [through three
zones], 1985-86. oil on canvas.
75 x 180 cm; 180 x 75 cm; 75 x 180 cm.
chantal and jakob bill collection, pp. 226-28.
167. acht transcolorationen (12. rehie)
[eight transcolorations (series 12)],
1986. silkscreen on paper. 65 x 50 cm.
max, binia + jakob bill stiftung.
*max bill: obras de arte multiplicadas
como originales (1938-94) [max
bill: multiplied artworks as originals
artworks (1938–94)], pp. 112-15.
168. poster for the 25 jazz festival
montreux [25th montreux jazz festival], july
1991. silkscreen on paper. 100 x 70 cm.
max, binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 230.
169. poster for the exhibition die grosse
generation der schweiz [the great swiss
generation]: max bill – fritz glarner
– camille graeser – hans hinterreiter –
verena loewensberg – richard paul lohse,
haus für konstruktive und konkrete
kunst, zurich, march 15–april 24, 1992.
offset on paper. 130 x 90 cm. max,
binia + jakob bill stiftung, p. 230.
170. poster for the exhibition max bill:
bilder, plastiken [paintings, sculptures],
fondation saner, studen, october 17–
december 31, 1993. silkscreen on paper.
100 x 70 cm. max, binia + jakob bill
stiftung, p. 231.
Fundación Juan March
Fundación Juan March
Exhibition Catalogs
and Other Publications
The Fundación Juan March has
published more than 180
catalogues, most of them now sold
out, of the exhibitions it has
presented in its Madrid, Cuenca
and Palma exhibition spaces.
Starting in January 2014, these
catalogues are now available on
digital support on our webpage All
our Art Catalogues since 1973 at
www.march.es
1966
❦ MUSEO DE ARTE ABSTRACTO
ESPAÑOL. CUENCA [Catalogue-
Guide]. Text by Fernando Zóbel.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/English).
Published by the Museo de Arte
Abstracto Español, Cuenca
1969
❦ MUSEO DE ARTE ABSTRACTO
ESPAÑOL. CUENCA [Catalogue-
Guide]. Texts by Gustavo Torner,
Gerardo Rueda and Fernando Zóbel.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/English).
Published by the Museo de Arte
Abstracto Español, Cuenca (1st ed.)
1973
❦ ARTE’73. Exposición antológica de
artistas españoles. Multilingual ed.
(Spanish, English, French, Italian and
German)
1974
❦ MUSEO DE ARTE ABSTRACTO
ESPAÑOL. CUENCA [Catalogue-
Guide]. Texts by Gustavo Torner,
Gerardo Rueda and Fernando Zóbel.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/English).
Published by the Museo de Arte
Abstracto Español, Cuenca (2nd ed., rev.
and exp.)
1975
❦ OSKAR KOKOSCHKA. Óleos y
acuarelas. Dibujos, grabados, mosaicos.
Obra literaria. Text by Heinz Spielmann
❦ EXPOSICIÓN ANTOLÓGICA DE LA
CALCOGRAFÍA NACIONAL. Texts by
Enrique Lafuente Ferrari and Antonio
Gallego
LEGEND: ❦ Sold-out publications |
324
❦ I EXPOSICIÓN DE BECARIOS DE
ARTES PLÁSTICAS
1976
❦ JEAN DUBUFFET. Text by Jean
Dubuffet
❦ ALBERTO GIACOMETTI. Colección
de la Fundación Maeght. Texts by Jean
Genêt, Jean-Paul Sartre, Jacques Dupin
and Alberto Giacometti
❦ II EXPOSICIÓN DE BECARIOS DE
ARTES PLÁSTICAS
1977
❦ ARTE USA. Text by Harold
Rosenberg
❦ ARTE DE NUEVA GUINEA Y
PAPÚA. Colección A. Folch y E. Serra.
Texts by B. A. L. Cranstone and
Christian Kaufmann
❦ PICASSO. Texts by Rafael Alberti,
Gerardo Diego, Vicente Aleixandre,
Eugenio d’Ors, Juan Antonio Gaya
Nuño, Ricardo Gullón, José Camón
Aznar, Guillermo de Torre and Enrique
Lafuente Ferrari
❦ MARC CHAGALL. 18 pinturas y 40
grabados. Texts by André Malraux and
Louis Aragon (in French)
❦ ARTE ESPAÑOL
CONTEMPORÁNEO. COLECCIÓN DE
LA FUNDACIÓN JUAN MARCH. [This
catalogue accompanied the exhibition
of the same name that traveled to 67
Spanish venues between 1975 and 1996;
at many venues, independent catalogues
were published.]
❦ III EXPOSICIÓN DE BECARIOS DE
ARTES PLÁSTICAS
1978
❦ ARS MEDICA. Text by Carl Zigrosser
❦ FRANCIS BACON. Text by Antonio
Bonet Correa
❦ BAUHAUS. Texts by Hans M.
Wingler, Will Grohmann, Jürgen
Joedicke, Nikolaus Pevsner, Hans
Eckstein, Oskar Schlemmer, László
Moholy-Nagy, Otto Stelzer and Heinz
Winfried Sabais. Published by the
Institut für Auslandsbeziehungen,
Stuttgart, 1976
Exhibition at the Museu Fundación Juan March, Palma |
Fundación Juan March
❦ KANDINSKY: 1923–44. Texts by
Werner Haftmann, Gaëtan Picon and
Wassily Kandinsky
❦ ARTE ESPAÑOL
CONTEMPORÁNEO. COLECCIÓN DE
LA FUNDACIÓN JUAN MARCH
❦ IV EXPOSICIÓN DE BECARIOS DE
ARTES PLÁSTICAS
1979
❦ WILLEM DE KOONING. Obras
recientes. Text by Diane Waldman
❦ MAESTROS DEL SIGLO XX.
NATURALEZA MUERTA. Text by
Reinhold Hohl
❦ GEORGES BRAQUE. Óleos,
gouaches, relieves, dibujos y grabados.
Texts by Jean Paulhan, Jacques Prévert,
Christian Zervos, Georges Salles, André
Chastel, Pierre Reverdy and Georges
Braque
❦ GOYA. CAPRICHOS, DESASTRES,
TAUROMAQUIA, DISPARATES. Text
by Alfonso E. Pérez-Sánchez (1st ed.)
❦ V EXPOSICIÓN DE BECARIOS DE
ARTES PLÁSTICAS
1980
❦ JULIO GONZÁLEZ. Esculturas y
dibujos. Text by Germain Viatte
❦ ROBERT MOTHERWELL. Text by
Barbaralee Diamonstein and Robert
Motherwell
❦ HENRI MATISSE. Óleos, dibujos,
gouaches, découpées, esculturas y
libros. Text by Henri Matisse
❦ VI EXPOSICIÓN DE BECARIOS DE
ARTES PLÁSTICAS
1981
❦ MINIMAL ART. Text by Phyllis
Tuchman
❦ PAUL KLEE. Óleos, acuarelas,
dibujos y grabados. Text by Paul Klee
❦ MIRRORS AND WINDOWS.
AMERICAN PHOTOGRAPHY SINCE
1960. Text by John Szarkowski. English
ed. (Offprint: Spanish translation of text
by John Szarkowski). Published by The
Museum of Modern Art, New York,
1980
❦ MEDIO SIGLO DE ESCULTURA:
1900–45. Text by Jean-Louis Prat
❦ MUSEO DE ARTE ABSTRACTO
ESPAÑOL. CUENCA. FUNDACIÓN
JUAN MARCH [Catalogue-Guide].
Texts by Gustavo Torner, Gerardo
Rueda and Fernando Zóbel
Exhibition at the Museo de Arte Abstracto Español, Cuenca
FERNANDO PESSOA. EL ETERNO
VIAJERO. Texts by Teresa Rita Lopes,
María Fernanda de Abreu and Fernando
Pessoa
1982
❦ PIET MONDRIAN. Óleos, acuarelas y
dibujos. Texts by Herbert Henkels and
Piet Mondrian
❦ ROBERT Y SONIA DELAUNAY.
Texts by Juan Manuel Bonet, Jacques
Damase, Ramón Gómez de la Serna,
Isaac del Vando Villar, Vicente
Huidobro and Guillermo de Torre
❦ PINTURA ABSTRACTA ESPAÑOLA:
1960–70. Text by Rafael Santos
Torroella
❦ KURT SCHWITTERS. Texts by
Werner Schmalenbach, Ernst
Schwitters and Kurt Schwitters
❦ VII EXPOSICIÓN DE BECARIOS
DE ARTES PLÁSTICAS
1983
❦ ROY LICHTENSTEIN: 1970–80. Text
by Jack Cowart. English ed. Published
by Hudson Hill Press, New York, 1981
❦ FERNAND LÉGER. Text by Antonio
Bonet Correa and Fernand Léger
❦ PIERRE BONNARD. Text by Ángel
González García
❦ ALMADA NEGREIROS. Texts by
Margarida Acciaiuoli, Antonio Espina,
Ramón Gómez de la Serna, José
Augusto França, Jorge de Sena, Lima de
Freitas and Almada Negreiros.
Published by the Ministério da Cultura
de Portugal, Lisbon, 1983
❦ ARTE ABSTRACTO ESPAÑOL EN
LA COLECCIÓN DE LA FUNDACIÓN
JUAN MARCH. Text by Julián Gállego
❦ GRABADO ABSTRACTO ESPAÑOL.
COLECCIÓN DE LA FUNDACIÓN
JUAN MARCH. Text by Julián Gállego.
[This catalogue accompanied the
exhibition of the same name that
traveled to 44 Spanish venues between
1983 and 1999]
❦ HENRI CARTIER-BRESSON.
RETROSPECTIVA. Text by Ives
Bonnefoy. French ed.
1984
❦ EL ARTE DEL SIGLO XX EN UN
MUSEO HOLANDÉS: EINDHOVEN.
Texts by Jaap Bremer, Jan Debbaut, R.
H. Fuchs, Piet de Jonge and Margriet
Suren
❦ JOSEPH CORNELL. Text by
Fernando Huici
❦ FERNANDO ZÓBEL. Text by
Francisco Calvo Serraller. Madrid and
❦ JULIA MARGARET CAMERON:
1815–1879. Texts by Mike Weaver and
Julia Margaret Cameron. English ed.
(Offprint: Spanish translation of text by
Mike Weaver). Published by John
Hansard Gallery & The Herbert Press
Ltd., Southampton, 1984
❦ JULIUS BISSIER. Text by Werner
Schmalenbach
1985
❦ ROBERT RAUSCHENBERG. Text by
Lawrence Alloway
❦ VANGUARDIA RUSA: 1910–30.
Museo y Colección Ludwig. Text by
Evelyn Weiss
❦ DER DEUTSCHE HOLZSCHNITT
IM 20. Text by Gunther Thiem. German
ed. (Offprint: Spanish translation of
texts). Published by the Institut für
Auslandsbeziehungen, Stuttgart, 1984
❦ ESTRUCTURAS REPETITIVAS.
Text by Simón Marchán Fiz
1986
❦ MAX ERNST. Texts by Werner Spies
and Max Ernst
❦ ARTE, PAISAJE Y
ARQUITECTURA. El arte referido a la
arquitectura en la República Federal de
Alemania. Texts by Dieter Honisch and
Manfred Sack. German ed. (Offprint:
Spanish translation of introductory
texts). Published by the Institut für
Auslandsbeziehungen, Stuttgart, 1983
❦ ARTE ESPAÑOL EN NUEVA YORK:
1950–70. Colección Amos Cahan. Text
by Juan Manuel Bonet
❦ OBRAS MAESTRAS DEL MUSEO
DE WUPPERTAL. De Marées a Picasso.
Texts by Sabine Fehlemann and Hans
Günter Wachtmann
1987
❦ BEN NICHOLSON. Texts by Jeremy
Lewison and Ben Nicholson
❦ IRVING PENN. Text by John
Szarkowski. English ed. Published by
The Museum of Modern Art, New York,
1984 (repr. 1986)
❦ MARK ROTHKO. Texts by Michael
Compton and Mark Rothko
1988
❦ EL PASO DESPUÉS DE EL PASO EN
LA COLECCIÓN DE LA FUNDACIÓN
JUAN MARCH. Text by Juan Manuel
Bonet
❦ ZERO, A EUROPEAN MOVEMENT.
The Lenz Schönberg Collection. Texts
by Dieter Honisch and Hannah
Weitemeier. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
English)
❦ COLECCIÓN LEO CASTELLI. Texts
by Calvin Tomkins, Judith Goldman,
Gabriele Henkel, Leo Castelli, Jim
Palette, Barbara Rose and John Cage
❦ MUSEO DE ARTE ABSTRACTO
ESPAÑOL. CUENCA. FUNDACIÓN
JUAN MARCH [Catalogue-Guide].
Text by Juan Manuel Bonet (1st ed.)
1989
❦ RENÉ MAGRITTE. Texts by Camille
Goemans, Martine Jacquet, Catherine
de Croës, François Daulte, Paul Lebeer
and René Magritte
❦ EDWARD HOPPER. Text by Gail
Levin
❦ ARTE ESPAÑOL
CONTEMPORÁNEO. FONDOS DE LA
FUNDACIÓN JUAN MARCH. Text by
Miguel Fernández-Cid
1990
❦ ODILON REDON. Colección Ian
Woodner. Texts by Lawrence Gowing,
Odilon Redon and Nuria Rivero
❦ CUBISMO EN PRAGA. Obras de la
Galería Nacional. Texts by Jiˆrí Kotalík,
Ivan Neumann and Jiˆrí Šetlik
❦ ANDY WARHOL. COCHES. Texts by
Werner Spies, Cristoph Becker and
Andy Warhol
❦ COL·LECCIÓ MARCH. ART
ESPANYOL CONTEMPORANI.
PALMA. FUNDACIÓN JUAN MARCH
[Catalogue-Guide]. Text by Juan
Manuel Bonet. Multilingual ed.
(Spanish, Catalan and English)
1991
❦ PICASSO. RETRATOS DE
JACQUELINE. Texts by Hélène
Parmelin, María Teresa Ocaña, Nuria
Rivero, Werner Spies and Rosa Vives
❦ VIEIRA DA SILVA. Texts by
Fernando Pernes, Julián Gállego, Mª
João Fernandes, René Char (in French),
António Ramos Rosa (in Portuguese)
and Joham de Castro
❦ MONET EN GIVERNY. Colección
del Museo Marmottan de París. Texts
by Arnaud d’Hauterives, Gustave
Geffroy and Claude Monet
❦ MUSEO DE ARTE ABSTRACTO
ESPAÑOL. CUENCA. FUNDACIÓN
Fundación Juan March
JUAN MARCH [Catalogue-Guide].
Text by Juan Manuel Bonet (2nd ed.)
1992
❦ RICHARD DIEBENKORN. Text by
John Elderfield
❦ ALEXEJ VON JAWLENSKY. Text by
Angelica Jawlensky
❦ DAVID HOCKNEY. Text by Marco
Livingstone
❦ COL·LECCIÓ MARCH. ART
ESPANYOL CONTEMPORANI.
PALMA. FUNDACIÓN JUAN MARCH
[Catalogue-Guide]. Text by Juan
Manuel Bonet (German ed.)
1993
❦ MALEVICH. Colección del Museo
Estatal Ruso, San Petersburgo. Texts by
Evgenija N. Petrova, Elena V. Basner
and Kasimir Malevich
❦ PICASSO. EL SOMBRERO DE TRES
PICOS. Dibujos para los decorados y el
vestuario del ballet de Manuel de Falla.
Texts by Vicente García-Márquez,
Brigitte Léal and Laurence Berthon
❦ MUSEO BRÜCKE BERLÍN. ARTE
EXPRESIONISTA ALEMÁN. Text by
Magdalena M. Moeller
1994
❦ GOYA GRABADOR. Texts by Alfonso
E. Pérez-Sánchez and Julián Gállego
❦ ISAMU NOGUCHI. Texts by Shoji
Sadao, Bruce Altshuler and Isamu
Noguchi
❦ TESOROS DEL ARTE JAPONÉS.
Período Edo: 1615–1868. Colección del
Museo Fuji, Tokio. Texts by Tatsuo
Takakura, Shin-ichi Miura, Akira
Gokita, Seiji Nagata, Yoshiaki Yabe,
Hirokazu Arakawa and Yoshihiko
Sasama
❦ FERNANDO ZÓBEL. RÍO JÚCAR.
Texts
by Fernando Zóbel and Rafael Pérez-
Madero
1995
❦ KLIMT, KOKOSCHKA, SCHIELE.
UN SUEÑO VIENÉS: 1898–18. Texts by
Gerbert Frodl and Stephan Koja
❦ ROUAULT. Texts by Stephan Koja,
Jacques Maritain and Marcel Arland
❦ MOTHERWELL. Obra gráfica: 1975–
91. Colección Kenneth Tyler. Text by
Robert Motherwell
1996
❦ TOM WESSELMANN. Texts by
Marco Livingstone, Jo-Anne Birnie
Danzker, Tilman Osterwold and
Meinrad Maria Grewenig. Published by
Hatje Cantz, Ostfildern, 1996
❦ TOULOUSE-LAUTREC. De Albi y de
otras colecciones. Texts by Danièle
Devynck and Valeriano Bozal
❦ MILLARES. Pinturas y dibujos sobre
papel: 1963–71. Text by Manuel Millares
❦ MUSEU D’ART ESPANYOL
CONTEMPORANI. PALMA.
FUNDACION JUAN MARCH
[Catalogue-Guide]. Texts by Juan
Manuel Bonet and Javier Maderuelo.
Bilingual eds. (Spanish/Catalan and
English/German, 1st ed.)
❦ PICASSO. SUITE VOLLARD. Text by
Julián Gállego. Spanish ed., bilingual ed.
(Spanish/German) and trilingual ed.
(Spanish/German/English). [This
catalogue accompanied the exhibition
of the same name that, since 1996, has
traveled to seven Spanish and foreign
venues.]
1997
❦ MAX BECKMANN. Texts by Klaus
Gallwitz and Max Beckmann
❦ EMIL NOLDE. NATURALEZA Y
RELIGIÓN. Text by Manfred Reuther
❦ FRANK STELLA. Obra gráfica: 1982–
96. Colección Tyler Graphics. Texts by
Sidney Guberman, Dorine Mignot and
Frank Stella
❦ EL OBJETO DEL ARTE. Text by
Javier Maderuelo
❦ MUSEO DE ARTE ABSTRACTO
ESPAÑOL. CUENCA. FUNDACIÓN
JUAN MARCH [Catalogue-Guide].
Texts by Juan Manuel Bonet and Javier
Maderuelo. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
English, 1st ed.)
1998
❦ AMADEO DE SOUZA-CARDOSO.
Texts by Javier Maderuelo, Antonio
Cardoso and Joana Cunha Leal
❦ PAUL DELVAUX. Text by Gisèle
Ollinger-Zinque
❦ RICHARD LINDNER. Text by
Werner Spies
1999
❦ MARC CHAGALL. TRADICIONES
JUDÍAS. Texts by Sylvie Forestier,
Benjamin Harshav, Meret Meyer and
Marc Chagall
325
❦ KURT SCHWITTERS Y EL
ESPÍRITU DE LA UTOPÍA. Colección
Ernst Schwitters. Texts by Javier
Maderuelo, Markus Heinzelmann, Lola
and Bengt Schwitters
❦ LOVIS CORINTH. Texts by Thomas
Deecke, Sabine Fehlemann, Jürgen H.
Meyer and Antje Birthälmer
❦ MIQUEL BARCELÓ. Ceràmiques:
1995–98. Text by Enrique Juncosa.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/Catalan)
❦ FERNANDO ZÓBEL. Obra gráfica
completa. Text by Rafael Pérez-Madero.
Published by Departamento de Cultura,
Diputación Provincial de Cuenca,
Cuenca, 1999
2000
❦ VASARELY. Texts by Werner Spies
and Michèle-Catherine Vasarely
❦ EXPRESIONISMO ABSTRACTO.
OBRA SOBRE PAPEL. Colección de
The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Nueva York. Text by Lisa M. Messinger
SCHMIDT-ROTTLUFF. Colección
Brücke-Museum Berlin. Text by
Magdalena M. Moeller
❦ NOLDE. VISIONES. Acuarelas.
Colección de la Fundación Nolde-
Seebüll. Text by Manfred Reuther
❦ LUCIO MUÑOZ. ÍNTIMO. Text by
Rodrigo Muñoz Avia
❦ EUSEBIO SEMPERE. PAISAJES.
Text by Pablo Ramírez
2001
❦ DE CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH A
PICASSO. Obras maestras sobre papel
del Museo Von der Heydt, de
Wuppertal. Text by Sabine Fehlemann
❦ ADOLPH GOTTLIEB. Text by
Sanford Hirsch
❦ MATISSE. ESPÍRITU Y SENTIDO.
Obra sobre papel. Texts by Guillermo
Solana, Marie-Thérèse Pulvenis de
Séligny and Henri Matisse
❦ RÓDCHENKO. GEOMETRÍAS. Texts
by Alexandr Lavrentiev and Alexandr
Ródchenko
2002
❦ GEORGIA O’KEEFFE.
NATURALEZAS ÍNTIMAS. Texts by
Lisa M. Messinger and Georgia
O’Keeffe
❦ TURNER Y EL MAR. Acuarelas de
la Tate. Texts by José Jiménez, Ian
Warrell, Nicola Cole, Nicola Moorby
and Sarah Taft
LEGEND: ❦ Sold-out publications |
326
❦ MOMPÓ. Obra sobre papel. Texts by
Dolores Durán Úcar
❦ RIVERA. REFLEJOS. Texts by Jaime
Brihuega, Marisa Rivera, Elena Rivera,
Rafael Alberti and Luis Rosales
❦ SAURA. DAMAS. Texts by Francisco
Calvo Serraller and Antonio Saura
2003
❦ ESPÍRITU DE MODERNIDAD. DE
GOYA A GIACOMETTI. Obra sobre
papel de la Colección Kornfeld. Text by
Werner Spies
❦ KANDINSKY. ORIGEN DE LA
ABSTRACCIÓN. Texts by Valeriano
Bozal, Marion Ackermann and Wassily
Kandinsky
❦ CHILLIDA. ELOGIO DE LA
MANo. Text by Javier Maderuelo
❦ GERARDO RUEDA.
CONSTRUCCIONES. Text by Barbara
Rose
❦ ESTEBAN VICENTE. Collages. Texts
by José María Parreño and Elaine de
Kooning
❦ LUCIO MUÑOZ. ÍNTIMO. Texts by
Rodrigo Muñoz Avia and Lucio Muñoz
MUSEU D’ART ESPANYOL
CONTEMPORANI. PALMA.
FUNDACION JUAN MARCH
[Catalogue-Guide]. Texts by Juan
Manuel Bonet and Javier Maderuelo.
Bilingual eds. (Catalan/Spanish and
English/German, 2nd ed. rev. and exp.)
2004
❦ MAESTROS DE LA INVENCIÓN DE
LA COLECCIÓN E. DE ROTHSCHILD
DEL MUSEO DEL LOUVRE. Texts by
Pascal Torres Guardiola, Catherine
Loisel, Christel Winling, Geneviève
Bresc-Bautier, George A. Wanklyn and
Louis Antoine Prat
❦ FIGURAS DE LA FRANCIA
MODERNA. De Ingres a Toulouse-
Lautrec del Petit Palais de París. Texts
by Delfín Rodríguez, Isabelle Collet,
Amélie Simier, Maryline Assante di
Panzillo and José de los Llanos.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/French)
❦ LIUBOV POPOVA. Text by Anna
María Guasch
❦ ESTEBAN VICENTE. GESTO Y
COLOR. Text by Guillermo Solana
❦ LUIS GORDILLO. DUPLEX. Texts by
Miguel Cereceda and Jaime González
de Aledo. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
English)
Exhibition at the Museu Fundación Juan March, Palma |
Fundación Juan March
❦ NEW TECHNOLOGIES, NEW
ICONOGRAPHY, NEW
PHOTOGRAPHY. Photography of the
80’s and 90’s in the Collection of the
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina
Sofía. Texts by Catherine Coleman,
Pablo Llorca and María Toledo.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/English)
❦ KANDINSKY. Acuarelas. Städtische
Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Munich. Texts
by Helmut Friedel and Wassily
Kandinsky. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
German)
2005
❦ CONTEMPORANEA. Kunstmuseum
Wolfsburg. Texts by Gijs van Tuyl, Rudi
Fuchs, Holger Broeker, Alberto Ruiz de
Samaniego and Susanne Köhler.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/English)
❦ ANTONIO SAURA. DAMAS. Texts
by Francisco Calvo Serraller and
Antonio Saura. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
English)
❦ CELEBRATION OF ART: A Half
Century of the Fundación Juan March.
Texts by Juan Manuel Bonet, Juan
Pablo Fusi, Antonio Muñoz Molina,
Juan Navarro Baldeweg and Javier
Fuentes. Spanish and English eds.
❦ BECKMANN. Von der Heydt-
Museum, Wuppertal. Text by Sabine
Fehlemann. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
German)
❦ EGON SCHIELE: IN BODY AND
SOUL. Text by Miguel Sáenz. Bilingual
ed. (Spanish/English)
❦ LICHTENSTEIN: IN PROCESS.
Texts by Juan Antonio Ramírez and
Clare Bell. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
English)
❦ FACES AND MASKS: Photographs
from the Ordóñez-Falcón Collection.
Text by Francisco Caja. Bilingual ed.
(Spanish/English)
❦ MUSEO DE ARTE ABSTRACTO
ESPAÑOL. CUENCA. FUNDACIÓN
JUAN MARCH [Catalogue-Guide].
Texts by Juan Manuel Bonet and Javier
Maderuelo. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
English, 2nd ed.)
2006
❦ OTTO DIX. Text by Ulrike Lorenz.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/English)
❦ CREATIVE DESTRUCTION: Gustav
Klimt, the Beethoven Frieze and the
Controversy about the Freedom of Art.
Texts by Stephan Koja, Carl E.
Schorske, Alice Strobl, Franz A. J.
Szabo, Manfred Koller, Verena
Perhelfter and Rosa Sala Rose,
Hermann Bahr, Ludwig Hevesi and
Exhibition at the Museo de Arte Abstracto Español, Cuenca
Berta Zuckerkandl. Spanish, English
and German eds. Published by Prestel,
Munich/Fundación Juan March,
Madrid, 2006
❦ Supplementary publication:
Hermann Bahr. CONTRA KLIMT
(1903). Additional texts by Christian
Huemer, Verena Perlhefter, Rosa Sala
Rose and Dietrun Otten. Spanish semi-
facsimile ed., translation by Alejandro
Martín Navarro
❦ LA CIUDAD ABSTRACTA: 1966. El
nacimiento del Museo de Arte
Abstracto Español. Texts by Santos
Juliá, María Bolaños, Ángeles Villalba,
Juan Manuel Bonet, Gustavo Torner,
Antonio Lorenzo, Rafael Pérez Madero,
Pedro Miguel Ibáñez and Alfonso de la
Torre
GARY HILL: IMAGES OF LIGHT.
Works from the Collection of the
Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg. Text by
Holger Broeker. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
English)
GOYA. CAPRICHOS, DESASTRES,
TAUROMAQUIA, DISPARATES. Texts
by Alfonso E. Pérez-Sánchez (11th ed., 1st
ed. 1979). [This catalogue accompanied
the exhibition of the same name that,
since 1979, has traveled to 173 Spanish
and foreign venues. The catalogue has
been translated into more than seven
languages]
2007
ROY LICHTENSTEIN: BEGINNING
TO END. Texts by Jack Cowart, Juan
Antonio Ramírez, Ruth Fine, Cassandra
Lozano, James de Pasquale, Avis
Berman and Clare Bell. Spanish, French
and English eds.
Supplementary publication: Roy Fox
Lichtenstein. PAINTINGS, DRAWINGS
AND PASTELS, A THESIS. Original
text by Roy Fox Lichtenstein (1949).
Additional texts by Jack Cowart and
Clare Bell. Bilingual ed. (English
[facsimile]/Spanish), translation by
Paloma Farré
THE ABSTRACTION OF
LANDSCAPE: From Northern
Romanticism to Abstract
Expressionism. Texts by Werner
Hofmann, Hein-Th. Schulze
Altcappenberg, Barbara Dayer Gallati,
Robert Rosenblum, Miguel López-
Remiro, Mark Rothko, Cordula Meier,
Dietmar Elger, Bernhard Teuber, Olaf
Mörke and Víctor Andrés Ferretti.
Spanish and English eds.
Supplementary publication: Sean Scully.
BODIES OF LIGHT (1998). Bilingual
ed. (Spanish/English)
❦ EQUIPO CRÓNICA. CRÓNICAS
REALES. Texts by Michèle Dalmace,
Fernando Marías and Tomás Llorens.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/English)
BEFORE AND AFTER MINIMALISM:
A Century of Abstract Tendencies in the
Daimler Chrysler Collection. Virtual
guide: www.march.es/arte/palma/
anteriores/CatalogoMinimal/index.
asp. Spanish, Catalan, English and
German eds.
2008
MAXImin: Maximum Minimization in
Contemporary Art. Texts by Renate
Wiehager, John M. Armleder, Ilya
Bolotowsky, Daniel Buren, Hanne
Darboven, Adolf Hölzel, Norbert
Kricke, Heinz Mack and Friederich
Vordemberge-Gildewart. Spanish
and English eds.
TOTAL ENLIGHTENMENT:
Conceptual Art in Moscow 1960–90.
Texts by Boris Groys, Ekaterina
Bobrinskaya, Martina Weinhart,
Dorothea Zwirner, Manuel Fontán del
Junco, Andrei Monastyrski and Ilya
Kabakov. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
English). Published by Hatje Cantz,
Ostfildern/Fundación Juan March,
Madrid, 2008
❦ ANDREAS FEININGER: 1906–99.
Texts by Andreas Feininger, Thomas
Buchsteiner, Jean-François Chevrier,
Juan Manuel Bonet and John Loengard.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/English)
JOAN HERNÁNDEZ PIJUAN: THE
DISTANCE OF DRAWING. Texts by
Valentín Roma, Peter Dittmar and
Narcís Comadira. Bilingual ed.
(Spanish/English)
Supplementary publication: IRIS DE
PASCUA. JOAN HERNÁNDEZ
PIJUAN. Text by Elvira Maluquer.
Bilingual ed. (Spanish/English)
2009
TARSILA DO AMARAL. Texts by Aracy
Amaral, Juan Manuel Bonet, Jorge
Schwartz, Regina Teixeira de Barros,
Tarsila do Amaral, Mário de Andrade,
Oswald de Andrade, Manuel Bandeira,
Haroldo de Campos, Emiliano di
Cavalcanti, Ribeiro Couto, Carlos
Drummond de Andrade, António Ferro,
Jorge de Lima and Sérgio Milliet.
Spanish and English eds.
❦ Supplementary publication: Blaise
Cendrars. HOJAS DE RUTA (1924).
Spanish semi-facsimile ed., translation
and notes by José Antonio Millán Alba
Supplementary publication: Oswald de
Andrade. PAU BRASIL (1925). Spanish
semi-facsimile ed., translation by
Andrés Sánchez Robayna
CARLOS CRUZ-DIEZ: COLOR
HAPPENS. Texts by Osbel Suárez,
Carlos Cruz-Diez, Gloria Carnevali and
Ariel Jiménez. Spanish and English eds.
Supplementary publication: Carlos
Cruz-Diez. REFLECTION ON COLOR
(1989), rev. and exp. Spanish and
English eds.
❦ CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH: THE
ART OF DRAWING. Texts by Christina
Grummt, Helmut Börsch-Supan and
Werner Busch. Spanish and English eds.
MUSEU FUNDACIÓN JUAN MARCH,
PALMA [Catalogue-Guide]. Texts by
Miquel Seguí Aznar and Elvira
González Gozalo, Juan Manuel Bonet
and Javier Maderuelo. Catalan, Spanish,
English and German eds. (3rd ed. rev.
and exp.)
2010
WYNDHAM LEWIS (1882–57). Texts
by Paul Edwards, Richard Humphreys,
Yolanda Morató, Juan Bonilla, Manuel
Fontán del Junco, Andrzej Gasiorek and
Alan Munton. Spanish and
English eds.
Supplementary publication: William
Shakespeare and Thomas Middleton.
TIMON OF ATHENS (1623). With
illustrations by Wyndham Lewis and
additional text by Paul Edwards,
translation and notes by Ángel-Luis
Pujante and Salvador Oliva. Bilingual
ed. (Spanish/English)
Supplementary publication: Wyndham
Lewis. BLAST. Revista del gran vórtice
inglés (1914). Additional texts by Paul
Edwards and Kevin Power. Spanish
semi-facsimile ed., translation and
notes by Yolanda Morató
❦ PABLO PALAZUELO, PARIS, 13 RUE
SAINT-JACQUES (1948–68). Texts by
Alfonso de la Torre and Christine
Jouishomme. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
English)
THE AMERICAN LANDSCAPES OF
ASHER B. DURAND (1796–1886). Texts
by Linda S. Ferber, Barbara Deyer
Gallati, Barbara Novak, Marilyn S.
Kushner, Roberta J. M. Olson, Rebecca
Bedell, Kimberly Orcutt and Sarah Barr
Snook. Spanish and English eds.
Supplementary publication: Asher
B. Durand. LETTERS ON LANDSCAPE
PAINTING (1855). Spanish semi-
facsimile ed. and English facsimile ed.
PICASSO. Suite Vollard. Text by Julián
Gállego. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/English)
(Rev. ed, 1st ed. 1996)
UN COUP DE LIVRES (UNA TIRADA
DE LIBROS). Artists’ Books and Other
Publications from the Archive for Small
Fundación Juan March
Press & Communication. Text by Guy
Schraenen. Bilingual ed. (Spanish/
English)
2011
❦ COLD AMERICA: Geometric
Abstraction in Latin America (1934–73).
Texts by Osbel Suárez, César
Paternosto, María Amalia García,
Ferreira Gullar, Luis Pérez Oramas,
Gabriel Pérez-Barreiro and Michael
Nungesser. Spanish and English eds.
WILLI BAUMEISTER. PINTURAS Y
DIBUJOS. Texts by Willi Baumeister,
Felicitas Baumeister, Martin Schieder,
Dieter Schwarz, Elena Pontiggia and
Hadwig Goez. Spanish, German and
Italian eds.
ALEKSANDR DEINEKA (1899–69).
AN AVANT-GARDE FOR THE
PROLETARIAT. Texts by Manuel
Fontán del Junco, Christina Kiaer, Boris
Groys, Fredric Jameson, Ekaterina
Degot, Irina Leytes and Alessandro de
Magistris. Spanish and English eds.
Supplementary publication: Boris
Uralski. El electricista (1930). Cover
and illustrations by Aleksandr Deineka.
Spanish semi-facsimile ed., translation
by Iana Zabiaka
2012
❦ GIANDOMENICO TIEPOLO (1727–
1804): TEN FANTASY PORTRAITS.
Texts by Andrés Úbeda de los Cobos.
Spanish and English eds.
VLADIMIR LEBEDEV (1891–67). Texts
by Masha Koval, Nicoletta Misler,
Carlos Pérez, Françoise Lévèque and
Vladimir Lebedev. Bilingual ed.
(Spanish/English)
PHOTOMONTAGE BETWEEN THE
WARS (1918–39). Texts by Adrian
Sudhalter and Deborah L. Roldán.
Spanish and English eds.
❦ THE AVANT-GARDE APPLIED
(1890–50). Texts by Manuel Fontán del
Junco, Richard Hollis, Maurizio
Scudiero and Bruno Tonini. Spanish
and English eds.
Treasure Island: British Art from
Holbein to Hockney. Texts by Richard
Humphreys, Tim Blanning and Kevin
Jackson. Spanish and English eds.
2013
❦ ON DOMESTIC LIFE:
SEVENTEETH-CENTURY FLEMISH
AND DUTCH STILL LIFES. Texts by
Teresa Posada Kubissa
EDUARDO ARROYO: RETRATOS Y
RETRATOS. Texts by Eduardo Arroyo,
Manuel Fontán del Junco, Oliva María
Rubio, Fabienne di Rocco and Michel
Sager.
❦ PAUL KLEE: BAUHAUS MASTER.
Texts by Fabienne Eggelhöfer, Marianne
Keller Tschirren and Wolfgang Thöner.
Spanish and English eds. e-book version
available (www.march.es)
DAY DREAMS, NIGHT THOUGHTS.
FANTASY AND SURREALISM IN THE
GRAPHIC ARTS AND
PHOTOGRAPHY. Texts by Yasmin
Doosry, Juan José Lahuerta, Rainer
Schoch, Christine Kupper and Christiane
Lauterbach. Spanish and English eds.
2014
❦ Giuseppe Arcimboldo. Two Paintings
of Flora. Texts by Miguel Falomir, Lynn
Roberts and Paul Mitchell. Spanish and
English eds.
❦ JOSEF ALBERS: MINIMAL MEANS,
MAXIMUM EFFECT. Texts by Josef
Albers, Nicholas Fox Weber, Jeannette
Redensek, Laura Martínez de Guereñu,
María Toledo and Manuel Fontán del
Junco. Spanish and English eds.
JOSEF ALBERS: PROCESS AND
PRINTMAKING (1916–76). Text by
Brenda Danilowitz. Spanish and
English eds.
KURT SCHWITTERS. AVANT-
GARDE AND ADVERTISING. Texts by
Javier Maderuelo and Adrian Sudhalter.
Spanish and English eds.
FUTURIST DEPERO (1913–50). Texts
by Fortunato Depero, Manuel Fontán
del Junco, Maurizio Scudiero, Gianluca
Poldi, Llanos Gómez Menéndez,
Carolina Fernández Castrillo, Pablo
Echaurren, Alessandro Ghignoli,
Claudia Salaris, Giovanna Ginex, Belén
Sánchez Albarrán, Raffaele Bedarida,
Giovanni Lista, Fabio Belloni, Aida
Capa and Marta Suárez-Infiesta.
Spanish and English eds.
2015
MAX BILL: OBRAS DE ARTE
MULTIPLICADAS COMO
ORIGINALES (1938–94). Texts by Max
Bill and Jakob Bill.
MODERN TASTE: ART DECO IN
PARIS, 1910–35. Texts by Tim Benton,
José Miguel Marinas, Emmanuel Bréon,
Francisco Javier Pérez Rojas, Ghislaine
Wood, Tag Gronberg, Evelyne Possémé,
Hélène Andrieux, Agnès Callu and Carole
Aurouet. Spanish and English eds.
MAX BILL. Texts by Max Bill, Karin
Gimmi, Jakob Bill, Manuel Fontán del
Junco, Gillermo Zuaznabar, Neus
Moyano, Fernando Marzá and María
Amalia García. Spanish and English eds.
For more information: www.march.es
327
credits

Fundación Juan March, Madrid

October 16, 2015 – January 17, 2016

CONCEPT AND ORGANIZATION  undación Juan March

F
Manuel Fontán del Junco, Director of Museums and Exhibitions
María Toledo, Exhibitions Coordinator

max, binia + jakob bill stiftung

jakob bill, guest curator

EXHIBITION Exhibition design

jakob and chantal bill
Exhibitions Department, Fundación Juan March

Setup
 omex
M
Painting: Calpires

Coordination of insurance, transportation and installation

José Enrique Moreno, Exhibitions Department, Fundación Juan March

Insurance
 ccurART Kunstversicherungsmakler AG; AXA Art Versicherungs AG; Insurance Broker GmbH;
a
Kuhn & Bülow, Berlín; National Suisse; March JLT; Mediator Sociedade Corretora de Seguros, S.A.;
Ribé Salat; Willis Fine Art Jewellery & Specie; Zilkens Fine Art

Transportation
SIT Grupo Empresarial

Restoration
Lourdes Rico, Celia Martínez, María Victoria de las Heras, Willy Stebler

 raming
F
Decograf

Established in 1955 by the Spanish financier Juan March Ordinas, the Fundación Juan March is a family-run
institution that dedicates its resources and activities to the fields of science and the humanities.

The Foundation organizes art exhibitions, concerts, lecture series and seminars. It also has a library of music
and theater at its Madrid headquarters and owns and directs the Museo de Arte Abstracto Español in Cuenca and
the Museu Fundación Juan March in Palma de Mallorca.

Through the Juan March Institute for Study and Research, the Foundation created the Center for Advanced
Study in Social Sciences, now part of the Carlos III / Juan March Institute for Social Sciences (IC3JM)
of Carlos III University in Madrid.

F U N DAC I Ó N J UAN MAR C H

www.march.es

328

Fundación Juan March

CATALOG Image copyrights and credits

For images of all works and documents by Max Bill and photographs by Binia Bill:
© max, binia + jakob bill stiftung, CH – adligenswil/VEGAP, Madrid, 2015

Published by © Aargauer Kunsthaus, Aarau/Jörg Müller: cat. 122, p. 185

© Fundación Juan March, Madrid, 2015 © Annely Juda Fine Art, London; cat. 90, p. 159; cat. 159, p. 223
© Editorial de Arte y Ciencia, Madrid, 2015 © archiv max bill, c/o max, binia + jakob bill stiftung: fig. 9, p. 55; fig. 5, p. 246; pp. 30, 256, 260
© archiv max bill, c/o max, binia + jakob bill stiftung/Ringier/ATP: p. 25
© Archivo Fotográfico Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía: cat. 149, p. 213
Texts © Archivo Lafuente/Ediciones La Bahía, Cantabria: cat. 39, p. 104; cat. 45, p. 107
© max bill: max, binia + jakob bill stiftung © Arquitectura journal: figs. 6-9, pp. 238-39
© jakob bill © Bischofberger Collection, Switzerland: cat. 4, p. 68
© Manuel Fontán del Junco © Cabrero Family Collection: figs. 1-5, p. 237
© Fundación Juan March (Presentation) © Centre Pompidou, MNAM-CCI, Dist. RMN-Grand Palais/Droits réservés: cat. 135, p. 200
© María Amalia García © Collection of the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Argentina/Alfredo Hlito: fig. 6, p. 247
© Karin Gimmi © Col·legi d’Arquitectes de Catalunya: cat. 27, p. 94; cat. 66, p. 127; cat. 78, p. 146; cat. 92, p. 168;
© Fernando Marzá cat. 127, p. 192
© Neus Moyano © Daimler Art Collection, Stuttgart/Berlin/Andreas Freytag, Stuttgart: cat. 136, p. 201;
© Gillermo Zuaznabar cat. 144, p. 209
Editorial coordination © David Bonet: cat. 106, p. 173
María Toledo, Exhibitions Department, Fundación Juan March © Dölf Preisig: p. 26
with the collaboration of Marta Suárez-Infiesta and Elena Yélamos, Assistants, © Enric Miralles, c/o Fundació Enric Miralles: figs. 10-11, p. 240
Exhibitions Department, Fundación Juan March © Ernst Scheidegger/2015 Foundation Ernst Scheidegger-Archiv, Zurich: fig. 10, p. 56; pp. 12, 234, 259
© Eva-María Koch: fig. 5, p. 51
Translations © Fernando Marzá: fig. 17, p. 59
German/English: Russell Stockman (text by jakob bill, pp. 31-45), © Fernando Ramajo: for all the works from the max, binia + jakob bill stiftung,
texts nos. 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12 and 13 of the anthology, pp. 270-300) the chantal and jakob bill collection and the Walter + Helga Sonanini Collection.
Spanish/English: Andrea van Houtven (texts by Neus Moyano © Fotogasull: cat. 93, p. 156; cat. 148, p. 212; cat. 161, p. 222
and Gillermo Zuaznabar, pp. 47-61; Fernando Marzá, pp. 235-41; © Galería Guillermo de Osma: cat. 131, p. 196
and María Amalia García, pp. 243-50) © Gerhard Sauer, Heidelberg: cat. 121, p. 184
Amanda Nolen (a conversation with jakob bill, pp. 17-29) © Gillermo Zuaznabar: fig. 15, p. 58
Editing and proofreading © Ignacio del Río, Malaga: cat. 48, p. 113
Amanda Nolen © Ike and Hannes Rosenberg: figs. 1-2, pp. 48-49; fig. 3, p. 50
Imaging Department © President and Fellows of Harvard College: cat. 62, p. 118
Catalog design © Juan Fernando Ródenas/Gillermo Zuaznabar: figs. 11-14, pp. 56-57
Guillermo Nagore, Fundación Juan March © Kunsthaus Zürich: cat. 37, p. 104; cat. 55, pp. 120-21
© Kunstmuseum Bern: cat. 52, p. 119; cat. 105, p. 170; cat. 126, p. 191
Editorial production
© Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein Vaduz: cat. 94, p. 157; cat. 123, p. 190
Jordi Sanguino, Exhibitions Department, Fundación Juan March
© Kunstmuseum Winterthur/Hans Humm, Zurich: cat. 68, p. 133
Font © Kunstmuseum Winterthur/Schweizerisches Institut für Kunstwissenschaft, Zurich,
Linotype Univers Lutz Hartmann: cat. 51, p. 116; cat. 65, p. 129; cat. 75, p. 139; cat. 110, p. 171
Paper © MAC-USP, São Paulo Collection/Geraldo de Barros: fig. 8, p. 247
Creator Vol 135 gr. © MAC-USP, São Paulo Collection /Max Bill: p. 242
Cyclus Print 115 gr. © MASP Collection, São Paulo: figs. 1-3, p. 245
© Matteo Lorenzelli, Archivio Lorenzelli Arte, Milan: cat. 119, p. 182; cat. 120, p. 183; cat. 132,
p. 198; cat. 151, p. 215
© Medienzentrum, Antje Zeis-Loi/Von der Heydt-Museum Wuppertal: cat. 143, p. 208
© Merrill C. Berman Collection/Photos: Jim Frank and Joelle Jensen: cat. 18, p. 81; cat. 19, p. 83;
cat. 20, p. 84; cat. 21, p. 85; cat. 22, p. 87; cat. 32, p. 100; cat. 33, p. 101; cat. 63, p. 124;
cat. 58, p. 125; cat. 64, p. 128; cat. 67, p. 135; cat. 73, p. 141; cat. 80, p. 147; cat. 86, p. 151
Photomechanics and printing © Michael Friedel: p. 46
Estudios Gráficos Europeos S.A., Madrid © Museu Coleçao Berardo: cat. 53, p. 115
Binding © Neus Moyano Collection, Fernando Marzá: cat. 35, p. 98; cat. 44, p. 107
Ramos S.A., Madrid © Patricia Phelps de Cisneros Collection: cat. 117, p. 181
© René Spitz Collection/Hans G. Conrad: fig. 7, p. 54
English edition (hardcover) © Rolf Lauhus: fig. 16, p. 59
ISBN Fundación Juan March 978-84-7075-632-0 © Santiago Mijangos Hidalgo-Saavedra: cat. 134, p. 197
Legal Deposit M-29574-2015 © Tomás Maldonado: fig. 7, p. 247
© The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, The Adolpho Leirner Collection of Brazilian Constructive
Spanish edition (hardcover) Art, museum purchase funded by the Caroline Wiess Law Accessions Endowment Fund/
ISBN Fundación Juan March 978-84-7075-631-3 Waldemar Cordeiro: fig. 9, p. 247
Legal Deposit M-29573-2015 © Ulmer Museum, HfG-Archiv, Ulm: fig. 4, p. 50
© Ulmer Museum, HfG-Archiv, Ulm/Otl Aicher: fig. 8, p. 55
Front cover: 12 vierergruppen in weissem feld
© Ulmer Museum, HfG-Archiv, Ulm/Sigrid “Sisi” vond Schweinitz: fig. 6, p. 53
[12 groups of four on a white field], 1982 [cat. 163]
© Ulmer Museum, HfG-Archiv, Ulm/Thomas Kaiser: p. 260
Back cover: Max Bill. Photo: Binia Bill
Every effort has been made to identify and locate copyright holders for the works or images in this
p. 331: detail of a page from the Max Bill exhibition publication. However, in case of error or omission, please contact the Fundación Juan March at:
at the Galerie Denise René, Paris, 1971 [cat. 125] direxpo@march.es.

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