SEAGRASSES and

MANGROVES
We need to think of “blue carbon” and other
services provided by healthy marine ecosystems.
Mangroves, seagrasses and coastal marshes are
great sinks for atmospheric carbon. – Enric Sala

BLUE CARBON
•Blue carbon is the carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems.
•Coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass meadows sequester and store
more carbon per unit area than terrestrial forests and are now being recognised for their role
in mitigating climate change.
•These ecosystems also provide essential benefits for climate change adaptation, including coastal
protection and food security for many coastal communities.
•However, if the ecosystems are degraded or damaged, their carbon sink capacity is lost or adversely
affected, and the carbon stored is released, resulting in emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) that
contribute to climate change.
•Dedicated conservation efforts can ensure that coastal ecosystems continue to play their role as
long-term carbon sinks.
https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/blue-carbon

1
SEAGRASSES
https://www.projectseagrass.org/getsocial/funfactfriday/

https://www.projectseagrass.org/getsocial/funfactfriday/

2
 - SEAGRASSES
- aquatic angiosperms
(flowering plants) with a high
degree of uniformity in
vegetative appearance

- well developed underground

rhizomes

- strap-shaped leaves (except

for Halophila)

- Seagrasses are aquatic angiosperms (flowering plants) with a high degree of uniformity in vegetative
appearance.
- They are the only flowering plants that live entirely and exclusively in seawater.
- Almost all genera have well developed underground rhizomes and strap-shaped leaves, but there is
much variation in their modes of growth, branching system, and anatomical structure (Den Hartog,
1967)

3
4
_____________ are aquatic angiosperms (flowering
plants) with a high degree of uniformity in vegetative
appearance. They are the only flowering plants that live
entirely and exclusively in seawater.

 Algae

✔
 Seagrasses

 Mangroves
http://www.mesa.edu.au/seagrass/seagrass02.asp

 All of the options

https://www.shanegross.com/image/I0000aBXIJDkoHdY

5
 - Ecological Importance
- among the most valuable
ecosystems in terms of the
value-added services they
provide
- nutrient recycling
- sediment stabilization
- detritus production and export
- excellent habitat for the
growth, survival, and
reproduction of many aquatic
animals
https://www.projectseagrass.org/getsocial/funfactfriday/

Although seagrasses are present across only 0.15% of the ocean surface, they account for about 1% of
the net primary production and 12% of the net ecosystem production of the global ocean (Duarte
and Cebrian 1996).

As one of the most productive communities on earth (Hillman et al. 1989; Duarte & Chiscano 1999),
seagrasses are the habitat for large populations of invertebrates and fishes and provide the richest
nurseries and feeding grounds.

Seagrasses are extraordinarily rich habitats (Heck et al. 2003). Like terrestrial grasslands, sea grass
meadows support a diverse collection of other organisms.

Macroalgae live among the sea grasses, and both may have epiphytes attached to them.

Organisms living on the substrate find shelter as well as food within the meadow. Infaunal organisms
live hidden within sediments stabilized by the seagrass roots and rhizomes. Biodiversity generally
appears to be higher in seagrasses compared to nearby environments (Orth et al. 1984; Bell and
Pollard 1989; Orth 1992), although the magnitude of this difference depends on the species
composition and biomass of the seagrass (Heck et al. 2003).

Seagrass communities are important in both temperate and tropical marine food webs, providing for a
diversity of marine animals. Some animals feed directly on the seagrass roots and blades while others
scrape off epiphytes from the blades. Large predators also visit seagrass beds in search of prey.

6
Once seagrasses are established, they greatly influence sedimentation in their area. Their blades
cause fine particles to settle to the bottom while their root and rhizome systems stabilize the
substrate.

6
7
Although ______________ are present across only
0.15% of the ocean surface, they account for about
1% of the net primary production and 12% of the
net ecosystem production of the global ocean.

 Algae

✔ Seagrasses


 Mangroves

 All of the options

8
The following are ecological importance of
seagrasses except

 nutrient recycling

 sediment stabilization

 detritus production and export

✔
 None of the options

9
 - Geographical distribution

Geographical distribution of seagrasses along the world’s coastlines (red outline)

10
  13 species of seagrass are found in the Philippines (27%
of total species reported worldwide)

Global distribution of seagrass species richness. Numbers 1-6 indicate geographic bioregions (Short et
al., 2007): 1. Temperate North Atlantic, 2. Tropical Atlantic, 3. Mediterranean, 4. Temperate North
Pacific, 5. Tropical Indo-Pacific, 6. Temperate Southern Oceans. Source: Short et al. (2011).

More than 55 species of seagrass exist in the world with over half of these found off the Australian
coast. Thirteen species of seagrass are found in the Philippines

27% of total species reported worldwide is found in the Philippines! Second only to Australia (23
species)

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How many seagrass species are found in the
Philippines?

 10

 11

 12

✔ 13


12
 - Species Profile
TURTLE GRASS
(Thalassia testudinum)
- ribbon-like growing to 35.5 cm long
and 1.3 cm wide
- rhizomes may grow as deep as 25 cm
below
- requires at least 7 cm of sediment
depth to colonize and about 50 cm to
achieve lush growth

TURTLE GRASS (Thalassia testudinum) blades are ribbon-like growing to 35.5 cm long and 1.3 cm
wide. Blades have 9 - 15 parallel veins and are densely colonized by epiphytes. These long, broad
blades distinguish the turtle grass from other species of seagrasses. Every rhizome node has 2 - 5
blades. The rhizomes may grow as deep as 25 cm below the substrate surface. Turtle grass is usually
found from the low tide level to depths of about 10m on sand and rubble-covered substrates. Turtle
grass grows in extensive meadows throughout its range. It.
derives its name from the green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) that graze on large fields of this seagrass
Thalassia testudinum. Phases of anthesis. (A–G) Male: (A) bud initiating stretching of the pedicel; (B)
stretched bud at onset of anthesis with tepals barely opening ; (C) flower in anthesis; (D) detail of
anthesis showing mucilagous mass with embedded (white) pollen grains; (E) post-anthesis; (F) post-
anthesis; (G) bite mark of herbivorous fish leaving spathe and neatly cut pedicel. (H–J) Female: (H) bud;
(I) post-anthesis; (J) bud with spathe removed to show ovary. All, except (G) and (J), are in situ. Scale
bar = 1 cm (van Tussenbroek, 2008)

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 MANATEE GRASS
(Syringodium filiforme)
- blades are cylindrical and
can grow to 50 cm

- found in tropical coastal

waters with salinities of 20
– 36 ppt (as well as turtle https://www.projectnoah.org/spottings/10202308/fullscreen

grass)

MANATEE GRASS (Syringodium filiforme), as well as turtle grass, is found in tropical coastal waters
with salinities of 20 - 36 parts per thousand. Its blades are cylindrical and can grow to 50 cm in some
locations. Two to four blades are found on each rhizome node. Its roots hardly go below the substrate
surface. It may grow alone in small patches or with other seagrass species. It is commonly referred to
as manatee grass because it is a favorite food of the manatee.

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 SHOAL GRASS
(Halodule wrightii)
- colonizes disturbed areas
where turtle and manatee
seagrasses cannot grow
- commonly found in
estuarine waters where
salinity is 10 – 25 ppt
- also forms densely in high-
salinity areas exposed to
waves and in tidal flats

SHOAL GRASS (Halodule wrightii) colonizes disturbed areas where turtle and manatee seagrasses cannot
grow. It is commonly found in estuarine waters where salinity is 10 - 25 parts per thousand, but it also
forms densely in high-salinity areas exposed to waves and in tidal flats. The flat, narrow blades are
clustered from a single rhizome node. They have notched tips and grow to 10 - 15 cm in length and only 2 -
3 mm in width.

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 PADDLE GRASS
(Halophila decipiens)
- identified by its finely-
serrated leaf margin and a
paddle-shaped green blade
- grow 10 - 25 mm long and
3 - 6 mm wide
- rhizomes grow through soft
substrates

PADDLE GRASS (Halophila decipiens) may be indentified by its finely-serrated leaf margin and a paddle-
shaped green blade terminating in a rounded tip. Two opposite blades extend directly from the rhizome
node and grow 10 - 25 mm long and 3 - 6 mm wide. The rhizomes grow through soft substrates and form
areas of paddle grass in shallow waters.

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It is commonly referred to as manatee grass
because it is a favorite food of the manatee

 Thalassia testudinum

✔ Syringodium filiforme


 Halodule wrightii

 Halophila decipiens

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Derived its name from the green sea turtles
(Chelonia mydas) that graze on large fields of this
seagrass.

✔ Thalassia testudinum


 Syringodium filiforme

 Halodule wrightii

 Halophila decipiens

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 Zonation
environmental factors that affect
seagrass distribution:
- Salinity
- Light
- Air exposure

Salinity, light, and air exposure are environmental factors that affect seagrass distribution.

Shoal grass tolerates exposure and high salinities better than other seagrasses, thus, it is found in the
shallowest waters.

Turtle grass may be found next at depths nearly as shallow as shoal grass.

Deeper than 12 m, manatee grass forms large meadows, replacing turtle grass.

Star grass (Halophila engelmanni) and paddle grass may grow deeper than 40 m as long as there is enough
sunlight for photosynthesis.

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The following affects seagrass growth and
distribution except:

 Salinity

 Light

 turbidity

✔ nutrients in the water column



20
2 major types of seagrass meadows in the Philippines
1. Syringodium-Cymodocea-Halodule association
- thrive primarily on sand-dominated substrates

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 2. Enhalus-Thalassia association
- grow primarily on muddy substrate

Does not mean they grow exclusively in these associations or in specific substrates only

22
One of the major types of seagrass meadows in the
Philippines

 Syringodium-Thalassia-Halodule

association

 Enhalus-Halophila association

 Syringodium-Cymodocea-Halophila

association

✔Enhalus-Thalassia association


23
 Adaptations
SALTWATER
- evolved adaptations to survive in the marine environment
- different levels of salinity tolerance, resulting in zonation patterns

WAVE ENERGY
- evolved strong horizontal stems called rhizomes
- roots
- flexible, ribbon-shaped grass blades bend with any water movement
- air spaces provide floatation and respiration mechanisms

SALTWATER. Seagrasses descended from terrestrial plants but they have evolved adaptations to survive
in the marine environment. This adaptation to saltwater is most important given that land plants cannot
tolerate even small amounts of salt. Different species of seagrasses have different levels of salinity
tolerance, resulting in zonation patterns.

WAVE ENERGY. To survive the wave action in their habitat, seagrasses evolved strong horizontal
stems called rhizomes. Blades grow directly from the rhizome or branches radiating from the rhizome.
Roots attached to the rhizome also help in anchoring and taking up nutrients.

Flexible, ribbon-shaped grass blades bend with any water movement. Air spaces are also present
throughout the blades, rhizomes, and roots to provide flotation and respiration mechanisms.

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 Inhabitants
- Bacteria and
Fungi
- Algae (benthic
and epiphytic)
- Invertebrates
- Fishes
- Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/13/11/544/htm

Bacteria and Fungi

Dead seagrass blades are decomposed by bacteria and fungi. Microfauna and meiofauna settle on the dead
seagrass blades and feed on the bacteria, fungi, and the dissolved organic matter resulting from decomposition. This
organic material also sustain phytoplankton and zooplankton which are consumed by other organisms further up
the food web.

Algae
BENTHIC ALGAE are found within seagrass beds attached to sediments, exposed rocks, and the seagrasses
themselves. Calcareaous algae live among the seagrasses and produce calcium carbonate which eventually becomes part
of the surrounding sediments. Drift algae form large free masses along the bottom which drift along the water current.
Also common in the seagrass habitats are red and brown algae.
EPIPHYTIC ALGAE flourish in seagrasses because of the increased surface area for attachment. In fact, over 100
species of epiphytic algae have been documented on turtle grass alone. More epiphytes cover the tips of seagrass blades
than the base in order to capture more sunlight. However, epiphytes reduce the growth of seagrass due to shading.
Along with seagrass blades, epiphytes eventually contribute to the detritus.

Invertebrates
A diverse group of invertebrates inhabit the seagrass habitat which provides them with a rich source of food, primarily
in the form of epiphytes. Some epibenthic organisms, which reside on the surface of the bottom sediments, feed on
both epiphytes living on the seagrass blades and the blades themselves. Other epibenthic species and different
gastropods feed on infaunal organisms living within the sediments. At night, sea urchins move in from nearby reefs
to feed on detritus, epiphytes, and seagrass blades. Ingesting sand grains and algae are sea cucumbers which move
across the surface of the sediments. Pink shrimp and juvenile spiny lobsters find shelter among the seagrass blades.
Turtle and shoal grass habitats are host to epiphytic organisms dominated by gastropods. Among these are anemones,
bryozoans, and sponges that live attached to seagrass blades. This enormous diversity of epiphytes is made possible

25
by the dramatic increase in surface area provided by the seagrasses.
Small patches of stony corals are common in shallow seagrass communities. At greater depths, sponges growing
among seagrasses or attached to coral skeletons become more common. Less obvious are the thriving infauna
communities which include bivalves living within the sediments of seagrass beds.

Fishes
Seagrass beds are nursery areas and feeding grounds for many fish species. They are also home to many resident
species. Year-round residents are usually small in size and hide among the blades. Seasonal residents spend part of their
life in seagrass beds, mainly as a nursery area for spawning and/or juvenile development. When coral reefs are
adjacent to seagrass beds, reef fishes would also forage among the seagrasses during the night and return to the reefs for
shelter at day. Offshore migrants such as sharks and stingrays visit seagrasses in search of prey.

Reptiles
The green sea turtle mainly feeds on turtle grass. Crocodiles are also known to feed in seagrass areas, although it is
unknown to what extent they utilize seagrasses.

Birds
Many birds use seagrass beds, especially wading birds which search for food. The three common feeding modes of
birds are waders, swimmers, and plungers.

Mammals
Manatees frequent shallow seagrass meadows feeding on aquatic vegetation including seagrasses. Bottlenose
dolphins also feed over seagrass beds, even in waters less than 1 m deep. They mostly feed on fish, squid, and
invertebrates.

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 Threats
- dredging and filling
- Propeller scarring
- eutrophication

Conservation
- Water quality regulations
- Boating restriction zones
- Legislations
- Education

DREDGING AND FILLING activities seriously damage seagrass habitats. Dredging is done to deepen
channels and canals as well as collecting sediments for landfilling in construction projects. This destroys
seagrasses and impacts other habitats nearby. Dredging suspends sediments in the water, increasing
turbidity. This reduces light penetration into the water and reduces seagrass growth and survival.

PROPELLER SCARRING is mostly caused by large numbers of small boats, although large boats cause
much more damage when they run aground. The damage occurs when the boats enter shallow waters
causing the propellers to come in contact with the seagrasses and slashing the bottom substrate. Recovery
may take years, but if the damage is repeated, the seagrass beds may never completely recover. Scarred
seagrass beds are also vulnerable to wave action and erosion. This resuspends sediments into the water,
further inhibiting seagrass growth.

EUTROPHICATION is an increase in chemical nutrients - compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus

- in an ecosystem. A moderate increase in nutrients might increase seagrass growth but dramatic increases
are usually harmful. High nutrient inputs results in excessive growth of epiphytes and phytoplankton
blooms, reducing the amount of sunlight reaching the seagrasses.

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MANGROVES

https://www.iucn.org/news/marine-and-polar/201907/celebrating-mangroves-super-ecosystem-tropics

27
 - MANGROVES
- may either refer to the
constituent plants of
tropical intertidal forest
communities or to the whole
community itself.

- ‘coastal woodlands’,
‘mangals’, ‘tidal forests’,
‘oceanic rain forests’ or
‘mangrove forests’

Sometimes, the community of mangrove plants is referred to as ‘mangal’ and the plant species making up
the forest as ‘mangroves’.

28
Which of the following terms does not refer to
mangroves?

 mangal

 oceanic rainforest

 coastal woodlands

✔ oasis of the ocean



29
Mangroves provide more than 10% of essential dissolved organic carbon that is supplied to the global
ocean from land and are considered as the backbone of the tropical ocean coastlines.

Mangrove forests are among the world’s most productive ecosystems. They enrich coastal waters,
yield commercial forest products, protect coastlines, and support coastal fisheries.

Mangroves exist under conditions of high salinity, extreme tides, strong winds, high temperatures and
muddy, oxygen-starved soils. There may be no other group of plants with such well developed
adaptations to extreme conditions

30
_____________ refer to the constituent plants of
tropical intertidal forest communities or to the
whole community itself and are adapted to
estuarine or even saline environments.

 Algae

 Seagrasses

✔ Mangroves


 All of the options

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 - Geographical distribution

 Mangroves are limited between 30ºN and 30ºS latitudes (with some
exceptions)

Mangroves are distributed around the tropics. They are found in 112 countries and territories, covering an
estimated area of 181,077 km2, 41% of which are in South and Southeast Asia.

The largest single area of mangroves in the world is found in the Bangladesh part of the Sunderbans,
which covers an area of almost 600,000 ha including waterways.

Mangroves are limited between 30ºN and 30ºS latitudes (with some exceptions to the north in Bermuda
and Japan and to the south in Australia and New Zealand).

32
 Distribution determined by:
- Latitude
- Temperature (air temp.
>20ºC; water temp. ≥24ºC)
- Availability of water

Approximately 84 species of
plants, belonging to 39 genera
and 26 families, are recognized
throughout the world

Generally, the essential mangrove prerequisites are temperature, mud substrate, protection, salt water,
tidal range, ocean currents, and shallow shores. The unique ability of mangroves to grow in salt water
reduces competition from other plants.

33
34
35
 Mangrove zonation

Tidal zone (high, mid and low) and estuarine zone (up-, mid- and downstream) location of mangroves
(Duke, 2006).

36
Type the WORD. Wrong spelling will be disqualified

37
The mangrove that generally dominate the
seaward area.

 Rhyzophora

✔ Avicennia
 ✔
 Ceriops

 All of the options

38
The mangrove that grows behind Avicennia and
Sonneratia in the lower intertidal zone.

✔ Rhyzophora


 Bruguiera

 Ceriops

 All of the options

39
Occupies the most landward zone and sometimes
merges with Brugiera zone.

 Rhyzophora

 Avicennia

✔ Ceriops


 All of the options

40
 Primavera, et al., 2012

Avicennia – generally dominate the seaward area

Sonneratia – growing seaward with Avicennia
Rhyzophora – behind Avicennia and Sonneratia
Bruguiera – progressing landward
Ceriops – occupies the most landward zone; sometimes merges with Brugiera zone
Nypa – along rivers or estuaries

41
Species Profile
Trees
Avicennia spp.

Rhizophora spp.

Sonneratia spp.

42
Shrubs
Aegiceras spp.

Lumnitzera spp.

43
Palm Ferns
Nypa fruticans Acrostichum spp.

44
Types of Mangrove Forests
1) R-type or riverine forest type
– this forest is found on a flood plain along a tidal river and
is flooded by most high tides

45
2) F-type or fringe forest type
– this forest is directly exposed to the open sea and thus
attacked by sea waves

46
3) B-type or basin forest type
– this forest is a partially impounded depression, flooded by few
high tides during the dry season and by high tides during the
wet season

47
This type of mangrove forest is found on a flood
plain along a tidal river and is flooded by most high
tides

 B-type or basin forest type

 F-type or fringe forest type

✔ R-type or riverine forest type



 None of the options

48
This type of mangrove forest is directly exposed to
the open sea and thus attacked by sea waves

 B-type or basin forest type

✔ F-type or fringe forest type



 R-type or riverine forest type

 None of the options

49
This type of mangrove forest is a partially
impounded depression, flooded by few high tides
during the dry season and by high tides during the
wet season

✔ B-type or basin forest type



 F-type or fringe forest type

 R-type or riverine forest type

 None of the options

50
Mangrove adaptations
1) high salinity
salt secretion by salt glands in
leaves (Aegialitis, Aegiceras,
Avicennia) or cork warts in leaves
(Rhizophora)
salt excretion in roots (Avicennia,
Bruguiera, Ceriops)
salt accumulation in barks of stems
and roots or older leaves
(Excoecaria, Rhizophora, Salt on the leaves of Avicennia sp.
Xylocarpus)

51
 2) Water conservation
 thick-walled epidermis (almost all
species)
 thick waxy cuticle
layer of variously shaped hairs
(Avicennia, Hibiscus) or scales
(Heritiera, Camptostemon)
stomata beneath the level of epidermis
(Bruguiera, Ceriops, Lumnitzera);
substomatal chambers (Avicennia,
Ceriops, Rhizophora) Succulent leaves of Lumnitzera littorea
succulence (Lumnitzera, Ceriops)

Stomata are cell structures in the epidermis of tree leaves and needles that are involved in the
exchange of carbon dioxide and water between plants and the atmosphere.

52
 3) water-saturated, oxygen-starved soils

3) water-saturated, oxygen-starved soils (Fig. 3.1.8)

• pneumatophores – pencil-like structures or conical projections arising from the cable root system and
extending into the air (Avicennia spp., Sonneratia spp.)
• knee-roots – modified sections of the cable root system which first grow upward above the soil then
downward back to the soil (Bruguiera spp., Ceriops spp.);
• prop roots or stilt roots – branched roots that grow from the trunk into the soil (Rhizophora spp.);
• buttress roots – flattened, blade-like or ribbon-like roots that grow from the trunk to the soil (Heritiera
littoralis, Xylocarpus granatum);
• aerial roots – unbranched roots growing downward from the trunk or lower branches but do not reach
the soil (Rhizophora spp., Avicennia spp.)
• lenticels – bulging cells on branches and roots used for gas exchange (Camptostemon philippinensis)

53
3) water-saturated, oxygen-starved soils (Fig. 3.1.8)
• pneumatophores – pencil-like structures or conical projections arising from the cable root system and
extending into the air (Avicennia spp., Sonneratia spp.)
• knee-roots – modified sections of the cable root system which first grow upward above the soil then
downward back to the soil (Bruguiera spp., Ceriops spp.);
• prop roots or stilt roots – branched roots that grow from the trunk into the soil (Rhizophora spp.);
• buttress roots – flattened, blade-like or ribbon-like roots that grow from the trunk to the soil (Heritiera
littoralis, Xylocarpus granatum);
• aerial roots – unbranched roots growing downward from the trunk or lower branches but do not reach
the soil (Rhizophora spp., Avicennia spp.)
• lenticels – bulging cells on branches and roots used for gas exchange (Camptostemon philippinensis)

54
3) water-saturated, oxygen-starved soils (Fig. 3.1.8)
• pneumatophores – pencil-like structures or conical projections arising from the cable root system and
extending into the air (Avicennia spp., Sonneratia spp.)
• knee-roots – modified sections of the cable root system which first grow upward above the soil then
downward back to the soil (Bruguiera spp., Ceriops spp.);
• prop roots or stilt roots – branched roots that grow from the trunk into the soil (Rhizophora spp.);
• buttress roots – flattened, blade-like or ribbon-like roots that grow from the trunk to the soil (Heritiera
littoralis, Xylocarpus granatum);
• aerial roots – unbranched roots growing downward from the trunk or lower branches but do not reach
the soil (Rhizophora spp., Avicennia spp.)
• lenticels – bulging cells on branches and roots used for gas exchange (Camptostemon philippinensis)

55
Bulging cells on branches and roots used for gas
exchange in Camptostemon philippinensis.

 pneumatophores

✔ lenticels


 buttress roots

 prop roots or stilt roots

56
Pencil-like structures or conical projections arising
from the cable root system and extending into the
air as observed in Avicennia spp. and Sonneratia
spp.

✔ pneumatophores


 lenticels

 buttress roots

 prop roots or stilt roots

57
4) unstable, semi-fluid soil
 lateral cable root system
(Avicennia, Sonneratia)

Part of root system of Avicennia marina

(Purnobasuki and Suzuki, 2005)

58
 5) Reproductive enhancements
 vivipary (Rhizophoraceae)

 cryptovivipary (Aegialitis,
Aegiceras, Avicennia, Nypa)

 buoyancy

5) reproductive enhancements
• vivipary - seed develops into a seedling, and comes out of the fruit while still attached to the parent tree
(Rhizophoraceae)
• cryptovivipary - seed develops into a seedling inside the fruit while still attached to the parent tree
(Aegialitis, Aegiceras, Avicennia, Nypa)
[Significance: rapid rooting, development of buoyancy, prolonged nourishment from the parent]
• buoyancy - propagules of all mangrove trees float on water

59
5) reproductive enhancements
• vivipary - seed develops into a seedling, and comes out of the fruit while still attached to the parent tree
(Rhizophoraceae)
• cryptovivipary - seed develops into a seedling inside the fruit while still attached to the parent tree
(Aegialitis, Aegiceras, Avicennia, Nypa)
[Significance: rapid rooting, development of buoyancy, prolonged nourishment from the parent]
• buoyancy - propagules of all mangrove trees float on water

60
Mangrove adaptation that enables mangroves to
conserve water.

✔ stomata beneath the level of epidermis



 lateral cable root system

 buoyancy

 All of the options

61
A type of reproductive enhancements in mangroves
where seed develops into a seedling, and comes
out of the fruit while still attached to the parent
tree.

 cryptovivipary

✔ vivipary


 ovovivipary

 cryovivipary

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A type of reproductive enhancements in mangroves
where seed develops into a seedling inside the fruit
while still attached to the parent tree .

✔ cryptovivipary


 vivipary

 ovovivipary

 cryovivipary

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 Importance of mangroves
1) Local communities
2) National interests
3) Global interests

Causes of mangrove destruction

1) Human Action
2) Natural Causes

Importance of mangroves
1) Local communities
• shelter
• construction timber
• firewood
• food
• income – fishing, shrimp and crab culture, wood gathering, cottage industries
• medicine – Rhizophora: bark extract is anti diarrhea; Acanthus: bark extract treats skin allergies; Excoecaria:
smoke from burning wood treats leprosy, etc.
• dye – Ceriops tagal: dying fish nets, coloring tuba
• food for animals
• protection from storm damage and river bank erosion

2) National interests
• timber production
• charcoal production
• fishing industry
• mangrove-friendly aquaculture
• recreation
• tourism
• education
• coastal and estuary protection

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3) Global interests
• conservation
• education/research
• effect of climate change
• preservation of biodiversity

Causes of mangrove destruction

1) Human action
• housing
• tourism
• agriculture (converted to paddy fields – China, Philippines, Vietnam)
• aquaculture (converted to ponds – Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand)
• paper production (Kalimantan, Indonesia)
• mining (Ranong, Thailand)
• port construction
• industrial and road development
• oil pollution
• conversion to salt pans
2) Natural causes
• sea level rise
• drought
• typhoons and other tropical storms
• soil erosion

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Conservation
1) Preserve the remaining mangrove forests
2) Replant mangrove degraded areas
3) Revert abandoned or unproductive ponds back to
mangroves
4) Promote sustainable felling of mangrove trees (e.g.,
Matang mangrove)
5) Promote ecotourism in mangroves
6) Promote mangrove-friendly aquaculture
7) Promote interest on mangrove research

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https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2020/05/28/why-north-carolinas-seagrass-is-a-diamond-in-the-rough

References:
1) Calumpong, HP and Meńez, EG. 1997. Field Guide to Common Mangroves, Seagrasses and Algae of the Philippines.
2) Lebata-Ramos, ML. Mangroves
3) Hurtado, A. Seagrasses
4) Photos grabbed online (used for educational purposes only, no copyright infringement intended)

Disclaimer: This handout contains copyrighted materials, the use of which may have no explicit
or expressed permission from the copyright owner. This material is made available solely for
educational and informational purposes and may not be reproduced or circulated without prior
consent.

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