International law refers to a set of rules and
principles that govern the interactions
between countries on a global level. It's like
a big rulebook that everyone kind of agrees
to play by (although not always). This
includes things like treaties, conventions,
and agreements made between nations.
The primary goal of international law is to
promote peace, cooperation, and stability
among countries. It covers a wide range of
topics like human rights, trade, diplomacy,
environmental protection, and even armed
conflicts.
National law is essentially a set of rules and
regulations that are established by the
central government of a country to govern
its citizens. It serves as the legal framework
within which individuals and organizations
must operate, dictating their rights and
responsibilities. The purpose of national law
is to maintain social order, protect individual
liberties, ensure justice, and foster
economic development within a nation.
The doctrine of adoption in international law
refers to the legal principle where a state
assumes the rights and obligations of an
existing treaty by becoming a party to it. In
other words, when a state decides to join a
treaty that has already been adopted by
other states, it accepts the same rights and
obligations as those original states agreed
upon. This doctrine ensures that all states
are subject to the same legal framework
and are bound by the terms of the treaty,
promoting consistency and universality in
international relations.
The doctrine of incorporation in
international law refers to the process by
which provisions of international treaties
become part of a country's domestic law. By
doing so, the country ensures that it
complies with its international obligations
and can hold individuals and entities
accountable under both domestic and
international law.
The doctrine of transformation in
international law refers to the process by
which international treaties or agreements
are given legal effect within the domestic
legal systems of states. It enables states to
incorporate the provisions and principles of
international law into their domestic laws,
ensuring that individuals and entities within
their jurisdiction are bound by and protected
by international legal norms.
These agreements aim to establish
common guidelines, principles, and laws
that can govern various aspects of global
relations, such as human rights,
environment, trade, and warfare. By bringing
together diverse countries and cultures,
international conventions promote
cooperation and provide a platform for
discussions on pressing global issues. They
foster unity, ensure compliance with
universally accepted norms, and ultimately
contribute to the maintenance of peace and
stability worldwide.
International customs refer to the diverse
range of traditions, practices, and behaviors
that have emerged and evolved within
different countries and cultures around the
world. They represent the collective wisdom
and heritage of a nation, reflecting its values,
beliefs, and ways of life. These customs
encompass various aspects of daily
routines, greetings, social interactions,
cuisine, fashion, and more, each serving as
a unique expression of cultural identity. By
appreciating and respecting international
customs, individuals can foster mutual
understanding, promote tolerance, and
forge meaningful connections across
borders, ultimately contributing to a more
harmonious and inclusive global community.
Regional custom refers to the traditions and
practices that are specific to a particular
geographic area or region. These customs
are often deeply rooted in the history,
culture, and social norms of a specific
community. Regional customs can range
from dialects, clothing styles, cuisine,
festivals, and even traditional art forms.
These customs are often passed down
from generation to generation, serving as a
way to preserve and celebrate the unique
identity of a specific region. For example, in
India, different states have their own unique
customs and traditions that are distinct to
their region. From the vibrant festivals of
Holi in North India to the stunning dances of
Odisha in the east, these customs add
richness and diversity to the country.
On the other hand, special custom refers to
the practices and rituals that are specific to
an individual or a particular group of people.
Special customs are unique to a person's
beliefs, preferences, or personal
experiences. These customs can be seen in
various aspects of life, such as wedding
ceremonies, religious practices, and even
daily habits. Special customs vary greatly
across individuals and can often serve as a
way for people to express their personal
identity or beliefs. For example, some
individuals may have a special custom of
starting their day with a morning meditation
to promote mindfulness and well-being,
while others may have a special custom of
wearing a certain piece of jewelry for good
luck. These customs reflect the diversity
and individuality of people and their values.
Jus cogens refers to peremptory norms of
international law that are universally
recognized and considered non-derogable.
These norms have attained a higher status
than other rules of international law due to
their fundamental importance and are
binding on all states. This concept emerged
in the 20th century as a response to the
atrocities committed during World War II,
serving as a means to ensure respect for
essential human rights and maintain
international peace and security. Jus
cogens norms include prohibitions against
genocide, torture, slavery, aggression, and
crimes against humanity. These norms are
considered to be inherent in the
international legal order and can only be
modified by a subsequent norm of general
international law with the same hierarchical
status.
Obligation erga omnes, on the other hand,
refers to obligations that are owed towards
the international community as a whole. It
implies that certain duties are not only owed
to another state or states but are owed to
the international community at large. These
obligations arise from the general principles
of international law and are binding on all
states, regardless of whether they are
parties to a particular treaty or not.
Examples include the duty to prevent and
punish acts of genocide, the prohibition of
aggression, and the protection of human
rights.
Jus cogens and obligation erga omnes are
closely related concepts as they both
represent the highest level of legal
obligations within the international legal
order. Jus cogens norms are considered
customary international law, meaning they
are widely accepted by the international
community, while obligations erga omnes
arise from treaties or customary law. Both
concepts aim to ensure the protection of
fundamental values and rights that are
considered essential for the well-being and
dignity of individuals, as well as the
maintenance of international peace and
security. Violations of these norms and
obligations give rise to the responsibility of
states and may lead to collective action by
the international community to address
such breaches.
executive agreements, which are generally
bilateral in nature, concordats are
considered to be multilateral agreements,
involving the Vatican and the state in
question. Concordats can play a significant
role in shaping the relationship between the
Catholic Church and the state, and are seen
as a means to secure the legal and religious
privileges of the Church within a specific
jurisdiction.

An executive agreement is a legally binding

agreement between the heads of two or
more countries, which does not require
ratification by the respective legislatures.
Unlike formal treaties, executive
agreements are not subject to the same
level of scrutiny and approval by the
legislature. These agreements are typically
used for issues that do not directly affect
domestic law, such as foreign policy, trade
relations, and military cooperation. While
executive agreements have less formal
legal standing than treaties, they are
considered binding and enforceable under
international law.

On the other hand, a concordat is a type of

agreement between, primarily, the Vatican
and a particular state, aimed at defining the
rights and privileges of the Catholic Church
within that state. Concordats often address
matters such as the recognition of the
Church's legal status, the appointment of
clergy, and the relationship between the
state and the Church in areas such as
education and social services. Unlike