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    Physics for Environmental health

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    12 views21 pages

    Physics Notes

    Uploaded by

    mulandapauline70
    Physics for Environmental health

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    of 21
    W = Fd = mad 2.10Energy In the process of doing work, some quantity oF effort is b some qu effort is being transferred fom plac the position of an object. The ‘transferred , c “transferred quantity’ ealled energy. Energy is anything that can do work al also store of work, The SI unis of every are those of wake Nor 5x 2x49 = 9405 to place until it finally causes There are several forms of energy: Mechanical Energy the energy due to motion and position. There ae two types of mechani energy Ki (K.E) and Potential Energy (P.E). vee “ + Heat Energy- is the mechanical energy of atoms and molecules as they vibrate about their equiibriics postion ‘matter, Heat energy increases with temperature rise, as the motion of the atoms and molecules become (ie. vibrates faster). + Light and Electromagnetic Energy- isthe energy produce by electromagnetic pushes and pulls on ma solar, wind, tides (in oceans) energy is caused by the transfer of energy through electromagnetic forcss in the form of light from the sun, + Chemical Energy- Atoms and molecules in matter are part of pot them together, energy is transferred inthe process, called chemical energy. Burning wood is sa exarp releasing chemical energy. + Nuclear Energy- the nucleons in atom are held together by ‘energy is released or absorbed, called nuclear energy. For example the sun transfers mu light and heat, held together by electromagnetic forces and when they arc pulled ‘muclear Force and when these particles ebange positon, lear energy to usin the forms of nergy is unythiag that can be made Wo do work, heaee eonnested with motion so thatthe base equations for encusy a si~2 ‘connected with motion. 2.10.1 Kinetic Energy “The energy possessed by a body by virtue ofits motion is called Kinetic Energy (K.E.), ‘© Work cam be dane on or by the system to change its K. “© Work has to be done on a system to increase its KE. + Change in K.E. ofa system has the capacity to do work. ‘The equation for calculating kinetic energy can be derived easly. Consider a mass m aced upon bya constant force F. The work done, IV is given by (2.28) W=Fd If the mass starts from rest and move the distance d in time #, thea d= tat’ and v=at 2 1 snd from Newton's second law Hence ¢= 7 and d a 2a ‘The work done is then given as : lv lvls, = Fd = Fxe t= Fxo = om’ Woke 2a -2Fi/m 2 or We zm a is exprnestne work don nem fas an vel, The uy m0 ges he Kins cee of ema KE=tm? 230) Ea} Ifthe force F was applied to the mass, that was moving initially with & speed Vp, then the more general results is KE=hmv - hmv? @3n sic energy and defines the statement of work-eneray ‘That is the work 1? done on the objec is equal to the change ini Kn theorem. 20 210.2 Potential Energy The encrgy possessed by a body by virtue ofits posi 1 ofits position in the gravitational or eletrc or magnetic or clastic felis Pov xr) Work enon crbybcepiontocmgeia Ree eumicedicaiedte + work is done against gravitational eld to raise an object + work has to be done to compress a spring. eines + work as tobe done to move charges in an electri eld The gravitational potential energy isthe product of an ob of an objects weight (fore) and height above some reference point (distance Helondspiniiony sulbierkintuncasaekee PE=Fd =mgd 032) ‘where gis the acceleration due to gravity. Usually the distance is replaced by the height hso tha the potential energy is given ws PE=mgh 33) 2.103 Energy conservation ‘One of the prineiple laws of physies is the law of conservation of energy. “Energy cannot be created nor destroyed” The total energy of an abject E, which describes the law of conservation, is given by E=KE+PE 234) ‘The total energy of the universe is constant. It doesn't get used up. The total amount of energy inthe universe today isthe same as ‘it was yesterday and will be the same tomorrow. sample: A ball is thrown straight up into the ar. Suppose thatthe ball has a mass of 0.25 kg and you give it an intial velocity of 5 m/s up. Use the energy equations to answer the following questions, 1. What i the ball’s kinetic energy atthe instant that it leaves your hand? 2, What is its PLE, at that same instant? * 3. How high will the ball rise? 44. Atthe height of 1,0 m what i the total energy ofthe ball? '5, At L.0 m how much of the energy is kinetic and how much is potential? 66. What is the speed of the ball at 1.0 m? Solution: The tick to answe these questions is to use the very powerful notion of conservation, IT we know haw much energy the ‘all has inthe first place we know how much energy it will have anywhere in its flight. The instant that it leaves your hand all of its mechanical energy is in the form of K.E, When itis at its highest point at a speed of zero all of that has been ‘converted into the PE. 1. KE@ dm? =4x0.25x5? = 3.1255 2. If'we consider its starting height as zero it bas ‘zero P-E at the start because P.E = mghand h=0. 3, Atthe top of its rise the ball has no K.E. because its velocity is zero at tht instant <9 all the energy must be potential. All have to dis find distance because we know everthing else: PLE = mgd = 0.25%9.81xd or d= in the form of kinetic and 4. The ball always has to have 3.125 3 of energy and at the height of 1.0 m, some of | rnergy is in the form of kinetic see poten, We ean find the PLE at any height and then subtract tht fom the total 10 get ‘Total Energy = PE, +K.E=3.125 = 245)+KE KE=0.6751 | Finally for number 6 since we now know the K.E. we can solve for velocity t find the speed. ‘L1LPower Power s the rte of doing work or work done per uit time W _ Facos6 _ rycosd = Fv oF this a scalar quacity and its SI units are joules per second or 5" but vrastca team engine Fames Wat an Englishman (1 W = 18) 235) fen the name Watt (W) after the inventor of the first 2 The rate of doing work is equal t the rate of us HY since a force transfers one unit of energy when i dies one unit af work AA horsepower is equal to 746 Watt Example: 4 cart is pulled along at angle of 30° along the flove to a distance of 20 mn m 30 8 wath a force nf 750. Find the Powe in Watt and horsepower. Sotaion:roweris P= WY FCOse , 750%2000530 435. or0 54 yp 1 t wo Kenya power and lighting company (KPLC) provides us with electrical energy and as the name implies, iis referred as a porwe Which is a misnomer, iis really an energy company. They convert mechanical energy in hydropower plants, chem cal coal, oil or gas fied power plants; nuclear energy from the nuclei of uraninm atoms in nuclear power plas or solar energy in photovoltaic power plants into electrical energy. We then ullize this eletrcal energy as light, heat, oF soame sort of clectromagnctic energy. In your electric bill, you are being charged for the total energy you consume, The units wed ar: kilow hhours (kWh), where 1 kWh = 1000 W x 3600 s = 3.6 MJ. This unit is power times time so itis a unit of energy oF a unit that you how much work you could have done with the energy. 2 0 Properties of Matte Introduction All objects are made up of matier. Matter is anything that has mass and occupy space (46 has volume) T (phases) of matter sold, liquid and gas. This was the pucturs i the eatly 20° century but a of tra sow cof states of mater include uid e7ystals, plamas and microcluster Nevertheless, the three state veheme doves aden uily change ss volun shape and size and it does no + Liquid: a liquid docs not maintain fixed shape and i takes the shape of the container, Like wold ws et compressible (i.e, change volume), a a pei Gray Te dny oa htcs dfd e map ui volane o maibencly pall 1 a 7m Lis characteristic property of a substance. The SI units of density isthe kgm" or ‘gem (1 gem’ = 1000 kgm”) and is a sealar quantity. The equation (3.1) applies to incompressible fusd, 12 one with fined ‘Volume regardless ofits shape and density, A closely related quantity is specific gravity. Specific gravity or relative denvty of « substance is defined as the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water at 4°C. Since it is a ratio, bas eo uret The density of water at 4°C is 1.00 g/cm’ or 10” kg/m’ and is the largest density of water. Example: A sphere of metal is of radius r= 0.12 m and mass 125 kg. It is real gold ifthe density of gold is 193 x 10° «== M _ 125 125 Solution: p = — =, = 17.310" kg/m’, Hence not real GOLD! Vo 4a? 4xx0.12? ae = 33° Pressure In general, pressure is defined as force per unit normal area: 62) A ‘The SI unit for pressure is N/m? but given the name Pascal, where | Pa= 1 Nim’. Itis a sealar quantity. Fora solid object siting on a surface, the force pressing on the surface is the weight of the object. Indifferent orientations it might have different area in contact with the surface and therefore exerts different pressure as illustrated in Fig. 3.1 Wee 1008 P= 1090007 Fig, 3. Different pressure indifferent orientation ofthe same object, 3.3 Solid Matter, Jn its shape when external forces are applied on it, Because of this rigidity property, catid materials are used in building or constructions of all complex structures that have fixed shapes such as houses, bridges, salle, airerafts ete, Engineers study the mechanical properties of materials, e.g. stel, concrete, ifon, aluminium, plastics, glass ete, which are used to build structures or machines, It is iportant for biologists or medical sciemtists to know something bout properties of material such as wood or bone or tooth that serve as rigid components of plants and animals A solid is 23 The molecules in a solid are pucked so closely together that they exert st attractive frees make the molecules ofa slid have fixed poston, ive a wld its rigidity property A eryrtal is crystal solid in which the ordered arangement ofthe moleutes persists tophout as shown in Fip..2 wo ert the ‘extemal shape of the solid. A noncrystallne solid, on the other ha Joy ranged 0 res os amt ‘molecule are different from the forces on another. These materials are sometimes called amorphous solids. _ attractive forces on each other. These strong Fig. 3.2 Molecules arranged in a simple cubic lattice Mechanical properties of matter deal with the behaviour of matter when external forces are applied on them. A solid is pot absolutely rigid; its size and shape are slightly deformed when large external forces are applied on them. For example a wooden ‘beam will bend when weight is hung on it and a bone will twist and perhaps fracture when subjected to torque (turning force). ‘These changes are not noticeable to the naked eye but ean be measured by instruments designed totes solid materials ‘Solid materials have got many different mechanical properties such as elasticity, plasticity, britleness, hardness, toughness ee However, we shall consider only the elastic property of solid matter, which gives an idea on the stength of a material. Elasticity is concerned with how bodies deform under the action of pairs of applied forces without causing net motion. Under such situations, the applied deform the object by either changing its size (elongate or shorten) or shape. Elasticity is the property of a substance to recover its size and shape, when the deforming forces are removed (¢.g. spring or rubber band). This property is found to some extend (however small) in all materials. The opposite of elasticity is plasticity (oF plastic), which is defined as the property of a material to retain its new shape when the external forces are removed (eg. squeeze blob of clay in your hand). ‘Stress and Strain ‘There are numerous ways that an elastic body can change shape aed. Hence itis important to have systematic way to describe both the way the fore is applied and the resulting change in shape, The deformations of materials are determined by the force per unit area and not by ‘total force. The force applied is normally described in terms of stress while the deformation is described in terms of strain. or size depending on how the forces are applied; push, pull. neist “The strain isthe relarive change in dimensions ofa body resulting from the exiernal forces defined by Change in given Dimension aa Original Dimension 1 ¢ and dimensionless since it ea ratio of two similar physical quantities, There strain = Strain is denoted b are several types of strain ‘depending on the way the force is applied. ‘The stress on the other hand is defined as Force _F. a) Stress == ‘Area A ‘stress is denoted by rand has units of Nm®. Tt is vector quantity and just like strain there are several types. There are two in whi i i dicular the surface and parallel to the surface as ifferent ways in which a force can be applied on the face of an object: perpen air: ways in wich fs an ce te vedios may be reed ino perpen pel umponet ‘The perpendicular component of force products anormal stress while the parallel component produces shear sires, a 4 Fi.3.3 Independent stresses may be applied eith to the surface or (b) parallel across: me Young's Modulus. The casos ses a visualize is when a foe i i when a force it applied an jet as tar ste o as shown In Fig. 3.4, The stress acting is called tensile stre tale as sow ting called fee stress we the 1 length. if fined rum and ¥ ain is called tens Young's: Modulus = SS. ay Starin a a Fig. 34 A specimen subjected to tensile stress. Consider a force acting perpendicularly to the cross-sectional of the object as shown in Fig.3.4. The tensile siraim¢ w det the ratio of change in length AL to the original length L,: poor ZL, 66) ‘The stress is the rato ofthe tension tothe cross-sectional Force F Stress = = a7 an ‘Using equations (3.6) and (3.7) in (3.5), we have yee (3)(4) -h es) @ \A)\A) AL, ‘Hence Young's modulus has the same units as the stress, ie. Nev, ‘Shear Modulus ‘When a tangential force is applied across the surface of an object (say a book) supported by a fixed parallel surface then a shear stress is exerted on the object as shown in Fig. 3.5. The magnitude of this stress is given by equation (3.7) again But the area ss the surface area parallel to the applied force. Fig. 3.5 A shear deformation “The measure of the deformation ean be determined from Fig. 3.5. The amount by which a point ofthe sheared object is moved Intzly increases with perpendicular distance fom the fxed surface onthe opposite se, Thus we define te tran asthe rato of the lateral displacement x othe perpendicular distance y, The shear tan is thus xy andthe stress-strain relationship -2.{£)(2)-% os se (7)(5) a where isthe shear modulus and has unt Nov also, The sar modulus is large for stiff materi. From Fig.3.5, if he object is sheared through a small angle 8, then from trigonometry we have tnd G10) 25 And using the approsimation that for snvall angle Lan (= f= 0/ y, then the shear sieonn can be appree 7 anpe.ic. cod Hence equation (1.9) becomes. uo ” £ an otk Motus When fret are applied uifrly all aver the srfoce ofan jet in such away ta hse are peperd cla i he wfc en this ype of ses called prenar, When these sen acs onan ela bly, abvere a skerete a woe The mean of trun In hs cue i defined ane af the change i volume AV othe erga volume Ve modal tht descr hore ‘material's volume changes is called bulk modulus, defined by o_(F)(av)_ FY, pa Za(E\ (Ah). Pr “ (H(z) “AaY om The ratio of force to area isthe pressre Phence equation 2.13) can be writen as PY, po Gs) ‘When pressure is applied to an object from all directions on its surface, it results to a volume decrease hence BY i reg number hence equation (3.14) is modified by introducing a negative number to keep f positive as @.15) [Note that substances with large bulk moduli are difficult to compress but they need not be stiff. Usually it convenient to use the inverse of bulk modulus called compressibility. In summary different materials have different moduli. The behaviour of « material when different stresses arc applied can be described pictorially using a stress-strain graph. A typical stress-strain graph fora sireiched metal wite is shown in Fig. 3 Fig.3.6 A Stress-Struin diagram for a metal. Inthe graph of Fig. 3 ‘© OA represents the proportional limit where Hooke's law applies. ‘Hooke’s law states thatthe strain fs proportional to the applied stress. ‘+ AB represents the elastic limit where the material will stl retun tots original shape when the stress is removed, However Hooke's law does not apply here. “+ BC represents the plastie region where the material wil not regan its orginal shape when the stress is removed. In ther ‘words the material retains its original shape and size. “= Point Cis the breaking point where the object snaps or fail or cuts of ‘The strength of a material is defined as that strets which causes the material to break. The breaking stress in some materials i at ve strength) than under tension (tensile strength) or under shear (shear strength). the differem under compression (compress stompin ofs material ie exceeded wil al However, a material can fui a susses much Iss than this if he sess it applied and ‘removed repeatedly fora large number of times, a phenomenon known as fatigue 3.5 Biological Materials 26 Living organisms proce a vanety of complex heterogeneous substances, ‘The mechanical proper ies of bomes can specimens. Tests have revealed that differen under tension, Y 9.4 x 10" Nmv*, compressive stress is ‘human bone is almost twice as large fo larger (twice) strain than tensile stresses Many materials are used in the repair fractures. The prime consideration in these applicat A composite material (a polymer mixed compression, as it must be, since large compressive stresses are exper 1° 16.0 x 10" Non’, tensile strength is 1 solid and semisolid aterials such as bone, woth, born, shell, nail ete Most of ther an N be tested in similar ways as eninceriny materials. The difficulty w bow it animals have got different tensile and ceunpressive pros X10" Nin and maxinusn stain 8 0.014 ul 16.7 10" Nov? and maximum strain is 60185. This sherws hat th Or tensile stress as for compressive siress. In other words, ecmp 6g for human fernur wader compression 6 ¥ Young’ «meds ve iene ac of the hums body, e.g, artificial timbs (external) or plates (internal) used for rep as is that the material be strong enough and be bio- camps ith quartz) is used in the filling of a tooth with a cavity. This material iced in biting, Its compressive sirengih is about 25 x 19" Pa which compares favourably with that of a tooth enamel of 1.5 x 10° to 1.8 x 10° Pa as well its appearance (it looks [ke tone enamel) The basic point in designing any clem clement is then designed so as to withs! rent to withstand stress is to properly assess what the stresses it will be sub stand these stresses without being unnecessarily big. The weight bearing structures which ‘occur in nature are of good design, e.g. human and animal bodies, trees etc ‘The bones are of hollow tubular shape filled with fibrous marrow. They are designed and arranged differently éep nature of the stresses they will encounter. For example, in the top of the femur (leg), the bone is arranged in thin sheets separ bby marrow and arranged such that they give the greatest strength when the bone is experiencing the forces which subjected to, No matter how well-designed the bones are they Will fracture when the strength of the bone material is exceeded especially when twisted perpendicular to the direction designed for. Other natural fibrous matcrals include wood, texules (wor ‘and cotton) and the various synthetic fibres. The elastic properties of these fibres are obviously important in that they deter: the properties of the textiles made from them. The elastic properties of a bone and timber are different in different drestions ‘The strength of some body tissues, such arteries, lungs, muscles and skin, are characterised by stretchability property other than tho strength used in bones, These aro also fibrous materials. The walls of the arteries aro clastic making the blood flow in them smoothly. As the heart pumps, the pressure in the arteries increases and the artery walls stretch. When the aortic valve shuts and the pressure in the arteries drops, the wal age, inhibits this process. The elasticity ss relax maintaining the blood flow. The hardening of the artery walls, which occurs wich ‘of the lung tissues plays a very significant part in respiration, Muscular effor is required in inspiration to extend the lungs but expiration is mainly due to the relaxing of the stretched tissues. The skin and muscles are other fibrous tissues and the skin's elasticity decreases noticeably with age 3.6 Fluid Matter. Liquids and gases di ‘object of mass m determines its subsequent mot ‘account for the compressibility o deformation ofthe fui fo not have fixed shape, can flow and collectively called fluids. In mechanics, the net force. F acting on a jon oF state of equilibrium, The same arguments apply to fluids but we need to “The lack of fixed shape of a fluid is accounted for by using the density instead of mass and pressure is used instead of foree. 3.6.1 | Pressure In Fluids When you deal with the pressure of forces are always directed at right angles to a surface. Static liquid docs n reason why fluids change their shape anc it must be approached as an average pressure The pressure exerted by a static fluid dspends and can be derived from Fig. 3.7. iquid at rest (static), the medium is treated as a continuous distribution of mater and the 01 sustain a tangential force (shearing stress) and is the id their ability to flow (layers slide over one another). When you deal with gas pressure, from molecular collisions with the walls ofthe container, ‘upon the depth ofthe fluid, the density of the fui, and the aeveteration of gravity 27 Aika Bid cesinacoeneay [PE (a) Aa eet na comune fa fat (0) Free boy tage Fig. 3.7 Pressure of static fluid element Fig, 3.7(a) shows a container of id with an arbitrary Mui element (shaded) of height b and horizotal wea & T= diagram ofthe fuid element is shown in Fig. 3.7(0), where we have pornen - ‘© Downward force on top face =PA + Upwards force on bottom face = PsA ‘because the bottom face supports the weight of the fluid above i ‘The pressure Ps must be larger than Py ). At equilibrium, upwards forces balance downwards force arbitrary fluid column as shown in Fig. 3.7(b) PA=BA+mg 6.16) But m= pY= phd since volume Y= h4 Hence P,A=PA+ pAhg or P,=PR+peh on ‘be calculated by adding the incremental prs That least for liquids and also the pressure incr=m P:- Pos Hence if P, is known at a higher level, then P; at «lower (deeper) level ean [Note thatthe density pis assumed to be uniform over the vertical distance igh is affected only by the vertical distance hand not any horizontal distance within the fluid. The pressure differens= called the gauge pressure: @.18) P,-P poh Example; Assuming that te effet of blood flow ina body is nealiehs, oto the amount by whi Pray a the foot exceeds the blood pressure P, inthe aortas atthe heart ‘when the body is (a) resting horizontally (b) standing Solutlor an sen the boy is hriantal thee litle or no vera spmraion snes the fet and the Beart. =O. P,-P,=ph=0 . () when an adult is upeght the vere separation Bervern Ne ee andthe heat is about 1.35 m and p = 1060 kgm” for blood, hence: . . 4) x (135m) = 1.40% 10" Pa P,P = pg = (1060 kam”) x(9.8ms ‘Alternatively, the static pressure for an isolated fluid element in Fig. 3.700) can be obtained as follows: Volume V = hid and weight, 1 = me mg _ ple. pal sence Pressure, P = 20 i PY, PANE gh aca A AO “ P=pgh 19) wet tt rm eqn 19 tht ie sat press dos at dened on Re PS total mas surface ar oth Ai 3.6.2 Measurement of laid pressure 28 6z vamesaud ame ayy sunsvausf12}2wouves 9qnr-ud0 [Te 7K) SION ad spooaxa sunssaxd sourenans gy ysuy itowe) ausaxd 28008 au 1 Pr ad oF uonuodosd 51 q*(@zz'e) wowenbe of + (aro) y= U-"d wre) yd + edad eq wani8 } Fg s0 qv amssaud om) 200211 + ace usd +an"d tonto are q poe vve aunsssid UL + sq vans sv vw amssaud aun en 0 puag 72m 94090 (HBISH 089) ‘xq wo soo pre aga oun Jo 2p yn wo sdoup ova] anoven! ot ‘vq aunssaud ‘ee Big ur wmoys se Arazou Gus Pal pas {uy 20u0194)1p 241 EY! 08 OPIS JOH} rad $f pa U0 UM sags 0 apy pp todo Bun possi sea am smear 268 -swoned uoy suope(aap yews Aenees 29 ap2=1 30) WoqDAHED 28 9 a suagasoune params 2 suena Jaen. 20 + Fas wnnoea Aone pe wages FEIN AL + (_5uH) 86% (12)

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