OFS Cap ' ' Celula General Est 2023

Cell Structure and Function
Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago
Chapter At a Glance
• Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that
compartmentalize their functions
• The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the
nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes
• The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and
performs metabolic functions in the cell
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form
to another
• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes
structures and activities in the cell
• Extracellular components and connections between cells
help coordinate cellular activities
© Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview: The Fundamental Units of Life
• The cell theory

– Every living organism is made of one or more cells
– The smallest organisms are single cells, and cells are the
functional units of multicellular organisms
– All cells arise from preexisting cells
• The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can be alive
• Cell structure is correlated to cellular function
• All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells
tallest trees
Cell function limits cell size.

Size
100 m
10 m
Most cells range in size from
about 1 to 100 micrometers
visible with unaided
1m
in diameter
human eye
adult human
10 cm
1 cm chicken egg
1 mm
frog embryo Cells need to exchange

nutrients and wastes with the
light microscope
100 m
visible with
10 m most eukaryotic cells environment

mitochondrion
No part of the cell can be too

visible with conventional
1 m
electron microscope
100 nm
most prokaryotic cells far away from the external
virus
environment
electron microscope
visible with special
10 nm
proteins
1 nm
diameter of DNA
Units of measurement:
double helix
1 meter (m) = 39.37 inches
1 centimeter (cm) = 1/100 m
1 millimeter (mm) = 1/1,000 m
0.1 nm 1 micrometer (m) = 1/1,000,000 m
1 nanometer (nm) = 1/1,000,000,000 m
atoms
A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
• A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that partition the cell
into organelles
• Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles
© Pearson Education, Inc. https://www.thoughtco.com/animal-cells-vs-plant-cells-373375
Figure 6.8a
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

Nuclear
Rough Smooth envelope
Flagellum ER ER NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane
CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes
Microvilli
Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion Lysosome
Nuclear Rough
envelope endoplasmic
NUCLEUS reticulum Smooth
Nucleolus endoplasmic
reticulum
Chromatin
Ribosomes
Central vacuole
Golgi
apparatus Microfilaments
Intermediate CYTOSKELETON
filaments
Microtubules
Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma membrane Chloroplast
Cell wall Plasmodesmata

Wall of adjacent cell
Parent 1 μm
10 μm
cell
Cell wall
Animal Cells
Fungal Cells
Buds
Cell Vacuole
5 μm
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Yeast cells budding Nucleus
(colorized SEM)
Human cells from lining Mitochondrion
of uterus (colorized TEM) A single yeast cell
(colorized TEM)
Cell
1 μm
Flagella
5 μm
8 μm
Cell wall
Eukaryotes
Unicellular
Plant Cells
Chloroplast Nucleus
Mitochondrion Nucleolus
Nucleus
Vacuole
Nucleolus
Chlamydomonas Chloroplast
Cells from duckweed (colorized SEM)
(colorized TEM) Cell wall
Chlamydomonas
(colorized TEM)
Eukaryotic cells have
internal membranes
that compartmentalize
their functions
https://www.macmillanhighered.com/BrainHoney/Resource/6716/digital_first_content/trunk/test/morris2e/morris2e_ch27_2.html
Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes
that compartmentalize their functions
• The basic structural and functional unit of every
organism is
– one of two types of cells
• prokaryotic or eukaryotic
– Bacteria and Archaea
• prokaryotic cells
– Protists, fungi, animals, and plants
• eukaryotic cells
Comparing Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells
• Basic features of all cells
– Plasma membrane
– Cytoplasm consists of all the fluid and structures that lie inside the plasma
membrane but outside of the nucleus
• excluding the nucleoid region or nucleus
• The fluid portion of the cytoplasm (cytoplasmic fluid) contains water, salts, and
organic molecules
• Most of the cell’s metabolic activities occur in the cell cytoplasm
– Chromosomes (carry genes)
– DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
– Ribosomes (make proteins)
– RNA (ribonucleic acid) (to guide
construction of proteins)
What Are the Basic Attributes of Cells?
• There are two basic types of cells:
• Prokaryotic cells
– “before the nucleus”
– The simplest forms of life
• Eukaryotic cells
– “true nucleus”
– form the bodies of animals, plants, fungi, and protists
© Pearson Education, Inc. Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago

Prokaryotic cells
1. No nucleus
2. DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
3. No membrane-bound organelles
4. Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane
chromosome
(nucleoid region)
pili
(c) Cocci ribosomes
food granule
prokaryotic
flagellum
(b) Spirilla
capsule or
slime layer
cell wall
plasma membrane
plasmid (DNA) cytoplasm
(a) Generalized prokaryotic cell (bacillus)

Eukaryotic cells
• DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope
• Membrane-bound organelles
• Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus
• Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells
• plasma membrane
• is a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen,
nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell
– encloses the cell and allows interactions between the cell and its
environment
– is a double layer of phospholipids
– Components: lipid, protein, and carbohydrate molecules

Figure 6.6
(a) TEM of a plasma
Outside of cell membrane
Inside of cell
0.1 m
Carbohydrate side chains
Hydrophilic
region
Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic Phospholipid Proteins
region
(b) Structure of the plasma membrane
The Plasma Membrane
carbo-
extracellular fluid (outside)
hydrate
glycoprotein
A phospholipid bilayer
helps to isolate the
Proteins help the cell
cell's contents
communicate with
its environment
cholesterol
membrane
protein channel protein
cytoskeleton
cytoplasm (inside)
The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus
and carried out by the ribosomes
The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are
housed in the nucleus and carried out by the
ribosomes
• The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell
• Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make
proteins
The Nucleus: Information Central
• contains most of the cell’s genes and
is usually the most conspicuous
organelle nuclear
envelope nuclear
• is the control center of the eukaryotic nucleolus pores
ribosomes
cell
• contains three major parts
– Nuclear envelope
• is a double membrane
• lipid bilayer
– Chromatin chromatin
– Nucleolus
The Nucleus: Information Central
nuclear
• nuclear pores envelope nuclear
nucleolus pores
• allow water, ions, and small ribosomes
molecules to pass freely
• nuclear pore complex
• Passage of proteins, pieces of
ribosomes, and RNA
• The shape of the nucleus is
maintained by the nuclear lamina
• proteins
chromatin
(a) The nucleus
1 m
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore
Rough ER
Pore
complex
Surface of nuclear
envelope Ribosome
Close-up
0.25 m
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
1 m
Pore complexes (TEM)
Nuclear lamina (TEM)

• DNA is organized into discrete units called chromosomes
– Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA molecule associated
with proteins
– DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called chromatin
• Nucleolus
– is located within the nucleus
– is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
– proteins are synthesized in the cytoplasm
• copies of the protein blueprints on DNA must leave the nucleus through the
nuclear membrane
• DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA), which travels through the nuclear
pores to the cytoplasm, where it directs protein synthesis
•Chromatin: a mixture of DNA and
proteins that form the
chromosomes found in the cells
•Histones are highly alkaline
proteins found in eukaryotic cell
nuclei that package and order the
DNA into structural units called
nucleosomes Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago
Chromosomes
chromatin
chromosome
Ribosomes: Protein Factories
• Are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein
• Are the site of protein synthesis in the cell
• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations
– In the cytosol
– free ribosomes
– On the outside of the ER or
the nuclear envelope
– bound ribosomes
ribosome
mRNA
polyribosome
growing
protein
amino acid

The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs
metabolic functions in the cell
The endomembrane system regulates protein
traffic and performs metabolic functions in
the cell
• Components of the endomembrane system
– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Lysosomes
– Vacuoles
– Plasma membrane
• These components are either

continuous or connected via
transfer by vesicles
The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic
Factory
• is a series of interconnected membranes
• labyrinth of interconnected flattened sacs and channels within the
cytoplasm
• All the proteins and phospholipids of cell membranes are synthesized
in the ER
• There are two distinct regions of ER
– Smooth ER
• lacks ribosomes
– Rough ER
• surface is studded with ribosomes
Functions of Rough ER
– Secrete glycoproteins
– Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes
– Is a membrane factory for the cell
– produces proteins destined for other membranes or for secretion

Functions of Smooth ER
– Synthesizes lipids
• Hormone and cholesterol
– Metabolizes carbohydrates
– Detoxifies drugs and poisons
– Stores calcium ions
The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving
Center
• consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
• Functions of the Golgi apparatus Golgi
– Modifies products of the ER apparatus
•adding a carbohydrate group to

proteins cis face
(“receiving” side of
•Glycoproteins Golgi apparatus)
Cisternae
•breaks some proteins into smaller
peptides
– Manufactures certain macromolecules
• cellulose and pectin
– Sorts and packages materials into
transport vesicles
• It separates various proteins and
lipids received from the ER according
to their destinations trans face
(“shipping” side of
Golgi apparatus)
The Golgi Apparatus
Protein-carrying
vesicles from the ER
merge with the Golgi
apparatus
Golgi
apparatus
Vesicles carrying
modified protein leave
Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago the Golgi apparatus
Figure 6.15-1
Nucleus
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Plasma
membrane
Figure 6.15-2
Nucleus
Rough ER
Smooth ER
cis Golgi
Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi
Figure 6.15-3
Nucleus
Rough ER
Smooth ER
cis Golgi
Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi
(extracellular fluid)
5 Vesicles merge with the

plasma membrane and release
antibodies into the extracellular
fluid
(cytoplasm)
4 Completed glycoprotein
A Protein Is vesicles antibodies are packaged into
vesicles on the opposite side of
the Golgi apparatus
Manufactured Golgi apparatus
and Exported 3 Vesicles fuse with the Golgi

apparatus, and carbohydrates
are added as the protein passes
through the compartments
2 The protein is packaged

into vesicles and travels to
the Golgi apparatus
forming
vesicle
1 Antibody protein is
synthesized on ribosomes
and is transported into
channels of the rough ER
Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
• is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that
can digest macromolecules
– Lysosomal enzymes
• hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
• work best in the acidic environment inside the
lysosome
• Some types of cell can engulf another cell
by phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
(extracellular fluid) food
5 A lysosome fuses
• A lysosome fuses with the (cytoplasm) food with a food vacuole,
vacuoles and the enzymes
food vacuole and digests digest the food
the molecules
4 The enzymes
• Lysosomes also use lysosome
are packaged into
lysosomes, which
enzymes to recycle the bud from the Golgi
cell’s own organelles and apparatus
The Golgi
macromolecules 3
apparatus modifies
the enzymes as they
– autophagy pass through its
compartments
• A lysosome fuses with a
Golgi apparatus
food vacuole and
2 The enzymes are
digests food into basic packaged into vesicles
and travel to the Golgi
nutrients digestive
apparatus
enzymes
1 Digestive
enzymes are
synthesized on
ribosomes and
travel through
the rough ER
Figure 6.13
1 m Vesicle containing
Nucleus two damaged 1 m
organelles
Mitochondrion
fragment
Lysosome Peroxisome
fragment
Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome
Lysosome
Plasma membrane Peroxisome
Digestion
Food vacuole Mitochondrion Digestion

Vesicle
(a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy
Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
• A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles, derived from
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
• Food vacuoles
• phagocytosis
• Contractile vacuoles
• found in many freshwater protists
• pump excess water out of cells
• Central vacuoles
• found in many mature plant cells
• hold organic compounds and water
• water balance
• store hazardous wastes, nutrients, or pigments
• provide turgor pressure on the cytoplasm to keep cells rigid
© Pearson Education, Inc. https://youtu.be/91uPoyueRjA?si=KBYfZtV1yaNZ4HaI Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago
Contractile Vacuoles
contractile
vacuole
Water enters the collecting ducts

(a) Paramecium and fills the central reservoir
collecting
ducts
central
reservoir
pore
The reservoir contracts, expelling

(b) Contractile vacuole water through the pore Fig. 4-15
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Central
Nucleus vacuole
Cell wall
Chloroplast
5 m
Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to
another
Mitochondria and chloroplasts change
energy from one form to another
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a

metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the
sites of photosynthesis
• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles
The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria
and Chloroplasts
• Mitochondria and
chloroplasts have similarities
with bacteria
– Enveloped by a double
membrane
– Contain free ribosomes
and circular DNA
molecules
– Grow and reproduce
somewhat independently in
cells Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago
The Endosymbiont theory
– An early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed a nonphotosynthetic
prokaryotic cell, which formed an endosymbiont relationship with its host
– The host cell and endosymbiont merged into a single organism, a
eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion
– At least one of these cells may have taken up a photosynthetic prokaryote,
becoming the ancestor of cells that contain chloroplasts
Evidence for the endosymbiont hypothesis
1. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts are about the size of prokaryotic cells (1–5
micrometers in diameter)
2. Both have a double membrane; the outer possibly coming from the host cell and
the inner from the guest cell
3. Both have enzymes to synthesize ATP Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago
4. Both possess DNA and ribosomes
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells

• They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded
– cristae
• The inner membrane creates two compartments:
– intermembrane space
– mitochondrial matrix
• Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the
mitochondrial matrix
• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize
ATP
A Mitochondrion
outer
membrane
inner
membrane
intermembrane
space
matrix
cristae
0.2 micrometer
They function as the “powerhouses of the cell”

Mitochondria extract energy from food molecules
The extracted energy is stored in high-energy bonds of ATP
The energy extraction process involves anaerobic (“without oxygen”)
and aerobic (“with oxygen”) reactions Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
• contain the green pigment

chlorophyll, as well as
enzymes and other
molecules that function in
photosynthesis
• Chloroplasts are found in
leaves and other green
organs of plants and in
algae
• Chloroplast structure includes
– Thylakoids
– Stroma
• Plastids
A Chloroplast
outer
membrane
inner
membrane
stroma
thylakoid
channel
interconnecting
thylakoids
granum
(stack of thylakoids)
1 micrometer
– The thylakoid membranes contain the green pigment chlorophyll and other
pigments, which capture sunlight and make sugar from CO2 and water
– photosynthesis
A Plastid
plastid
starch
globules Plants use plastids for storage
❖ are found only in plants and
photosynthetic protists
❖ They are surrounded by a
double membrane
❖ are storage containers for
various molecules
❖ pigments or starch
Peroxisomes: Oxidation
• are specialized metabolic compartments bounded
by a single membrane
• produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water
• perform reactions with many different functions
• How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is
still unknown
Figure 6.19
1 m
Chloroplast
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures
and activities in the cell
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that
organizes structures and activities in the cell
• is a network of fibers extending throughout the
cytoplasm
• It organizes the cell’s structures and activities,
anchoring many organelles
• Three main types of fibers make up the
cytoskeleton
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate filaments
– Microtubules
Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and
Motility
Vesicle
ATP
Receptor for
• helps to support the cell and motor protein
maintain its shape

• interacts with motor proteins Motor protein Microtubule
(ATP powered) of cytoskeleton
to produce motility (a)
• Inside the cell, vesicles can Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 m

travel along “monorails”
• may help regulate
biochemical activities
(b)
Microtubules
• Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in
diameter and about 200 nm to 25 microns long
• Functions
– Shaping the cell
– Guiding movement of
organelles
– Separating
chromosomes during
cell division
Centrosomes and Centrioles
• In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near
the nucleus
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center”
• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each
with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring
Centrosome Microtubule
Centrioles
Direction of swimming
Cilia and Flagella

• Microtubules control the beating
of cilia and flagella
– locomotor appendages of some cells
• Cilia and flagella differ in their
beating patterns
(a) Motion of flagella
Direction of organism’s movement
Power stroke Recovery stroke
(b) Motion of cilia

protein central pair of
Cilia and Flagella
“arms” microtubules
section of cilium
0.1 micrometer
Paramecium cilium
plasma membrane
basal body
Cilia and flagella share a common structure

1.A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane
2.A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
3.A motor protein called dynein, which drives the bending movements of a cilium or flagellum
Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
• Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in
diameter, built as a twisted double chain of actin
subunits
• The structural role
– is to bear tension, resisting pulling forces within the
cell
• They form a 3-D network
– cortex
– help support the cell’s shape
• Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of
microvilli of intestinal cells
Muscle cell
• Microfilaments that function Actin

filament
0.5 m
in cellular motility Myosin

filament
– myosin
Myosin
head
(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction
– actin Cortex (outer cytoplasm):
• In muscle cells, thousands

gel with actin network
100 m
Inner cytoplasm: sol
with actin subunits
of actin filaments are
arranged parallel to one
another Extending
pseudopodium
• Thicker filaments (b) Amoeboid movement
composed of myosin
interdigitate with the
thinner actin fibers
Chloroplast 30 m
(c) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

• Localized contraction brought about by actin and myosin also drives
amoeboid movement
• Pseudopodia
– cellular extensions
– extend and contract through the reversible assembly and contraction of actin subunits
into microfilaments
• Cytoplasmic streaming
– is a circular flow of cytoplasm within cells
– This streaming speeds distribution of materials within the cell
• In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel transformations drive
cytoplasmic streaming
Intermediate Filaments
• Intermediate filaments range in diameter from 8–
12 nanometers, larger than microfilaments but
smaller than microtubules
• They support cell shape and fix organelles in
place
• Intermediate filaments are more permanent
cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes
Extracellular components and connections between cells help
coordinate cellular activities
Extracellular components and connections
between cells help coordinate cellular
activities
• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that
are external to the plasma membrane
• These extracellular structures include
– Cell walls of plants
– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
– Intercellular junctions
Cell Walls of Plants
– Cell walls are porous, allowing oxygen, CO2 and water carrying
dissolved molecules to flow easily through them
• The plasma membrane is located just beneath the cell wall
• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have cell walls

• Functions
– Protects the plant cell
– Maintains its shape
– Prevents excessive uptake of water
• Compose: cellulose fibers embedded in other
polysaccharides and protein
• Plant cell walls may have multiple layers
– Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible
– Middle lamella: thin layer between primary walls
of adjacent cells
• pectins
– Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added
between the plasma membrane and the primary
cell wall
• Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent
plant cells
Figure 6.28
Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall
Middle
lamella
1 m
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls
Plasmodesmata
The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal
Cells
•Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular
matrix (ECM)
– Functions: Support, adhesion, movement, regulation
•The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans,
and fibronectin
Collagen Polysaccharide
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
•ECM proteins molecule
Carbo-
bind to receptor Proteoglycan
complex hydrates
proteins in the Fibronectin Core

protein
plasma
Integrins
membrane
called integrins Proteoglycan
molecule
Plasma
membrane Proteoglycan complex
Micro- CYTOPLASM
filaments
Cell Junctions
• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ
systems often adhere, interact, and
communicate through direct physical contact
• Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact
• There are several types of intercellular junctions
– Plasmodesmata
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap junctions
Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells
• are channels that perforate plant cell walls
• Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes
(and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell
to cell
Cell walls
Interior
of cell
Interior
of cell
0.5 m Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap
Junctions in Animal Cells
• At tight junctions (uniones estrechas), membranes
of neighboring cells are pressed together,
preventing leakage of extracellular fluid
• Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells
together into strong sheets
• Gap junctions (uniones en hendiduras)
(communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic
channels between adjacent cells
Figure 6.32
Tight junctions prevent

fluid from moving Tight junction
across a layer of cells
TEM
0.5 m
Tight junction
Intermediate
filaments
Desmosome
TEM
1 m
Gap
junction
Ions or small
molecules
Space
TEM
between cells
Extracellular
Plasma membranes matrix
of adjacent cells Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago 0.1 m

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Cell Structure and Function

• The cell theory

Cell function limits cell size.

frog embryo Cells need to exchange

10 m most eukaryotic cells environment

No part of the cell can be too

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

Cell wall Plasmodesmata

© Pearson Education, Inc. Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago

(a) Generalized prokaryotic cell (bacillus)

© Pearson Education, Inc. Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago

(a) The nucleus

Pore complexes (TEM)

Nuclear lamina (TEM)

© Pearson Education, Inc. Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago

• These components are either

© Pearson Education, Inc. Editado: O. Figueroa-Santiago

•adding a carbohydrate group to

5 Vesicles merge with the

Manufactured Golgi apparatus

and Exported 3 Vesicles fuse with the Golgi

2 The protein is packaged

Food vacuole Mitochondrion Digestion

(a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy

Water enters the collecting ducts

The reservoir contracts, expelling

• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a

• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells

They function as the “powerhouses of the cell”

• contain the green pigment

• helps to support the cell and motor protein

maintain its shape

• Inside the cell, vesicles can Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 m

Cilia and Flagella

Direction of organism’s movement

Power stroke Recovery stroke

(b) Motion of cilia

Cilia and flagella share a common structure

• Microfilaments that function Actin

in cellular motility Myosin

• In muscle cells, thousands

• Thicker filaments (b) Amoeboid movement

© Pearson Education, Inc.

• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have cell walls

proteins in the Fibronectin Core

Tight junctions prevent

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