GEOMETRICAL DIMENSIONING AND

TOLERANCING

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 GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING
(GD&T)
1.1.Introduction
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) is a system for defining and
communicating engineering tolerances. A Communicating medium between
engineers for defining the drawing and for providing engineering tolerance. It uses
a symbolic language on engineering drawings and computer-generated three-
dimensional solid models that explicitly describe nominal geometry and its allowable
variation.

It tells the manufacturing staff and machines what degree of accuracy and
precision is needed on each controlled feature of the part. GD&T is used to define the
nominal (theoretically perfect) geometry of parts and assemblies, to define the allowable
variation in form and possible size of individual features, and to define the allowable
variation between features.

There are several

standards available
worldwide that describe the
symbols and define the rules
used in GD&T. One such
standard is American
Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) Y14.5.
This article is based on that
standard, but other
standards, such as those
from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), may vary slightly. The
Y14.5 standard has the advantage of providing a fairly complete set of standards for
GD&T in one document. The ISO standards, in comparison, typically only address a
single topic at a time. There are separate standards that provide the details for each of
the major symbols and topics below (e.g. position, flatness, profile, etc.).ASME Y14.5
talks about five categories of geometric dimensioning and Tolerance (GD&T) controls.

1.2Origin

The origin of GD&T is credited to Stanley Parker, who developed the concept of
"true position". While little is known about Parker's life, it is known that he worked at
the Royal Torpedo Factory in
Alexandria, West
Dunbartonshire, Scotland. His
work increased production of
naval weapons by new
contractors. In 1940, Parker
published Notes on Design and
Inspection of Mass Production
Engineering Work, the earliest
work on geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing.

In 1956, Parker published Drawings and Dimensions, which became the basic
reference in the field. By deepening your knowledge around how to create a well
structured GD&T, you will improve communication with your machine shop and ensure
everyone involved is speaking the same language.

How Does GD&T Work?—Overview

In the foregoing paragraphs, we alluded to the goal of GD&T: to guide all parties
toward reckoning part dimensions the same, including the origin, direction, and
destination for each measurement.

GD&T achieves this goal through four simple and obvious steps.

✓ Identify part surfaces to serve as origins and provide specific rules explaining
how these surfaces establish the starting point and direction for measurements.
✓ Convey the nominal (ideal) distances and orientations from origins to other
surfaces.
✓ Establish boundaries and/or tolerance zones for specific attributes of each surface
along with specific rules for conformance.
✓ Allow dynamic interaction between tolerances (simulating actual assembly
possibilities) where appropriate to maximize tolerances.

When Do We Use GD&T?

In the absence of GD&T specifications, a part’s ability to satisfy design requirements

depends largely on the following four “laws.”

1. Every industry has unwritten customary standards of product quality, and most
workers strive to achieve them. But these standards are mainly minimal
requirements, usually pertaining to cosmetic attributes. Further, workmanship
customs of precision aerospace machinists are probably not shared by
ironworkers.
 2. Common sense. Experienced manufacturers develop a fairly reliable sense for
what a part is supposed to do. Even without adequate specifications, a
manufacturer will try to make a bore very straight and smooth, for example, if he
suspects it’s for a hydraulic cylinder. Probability. Sales literature for modern
machining centers often specifies repeatability within 2 microns (.00008"). Thus,
the running gag in precision manufacturing is that part dimensions should never
vary more than that. While the performance of a process can usually be predicted
statistically, there are always “special causes” that introduce surprise variations.
Further, there’s no way to predict what processes might be used, how many, and
in what sequence to manufacture a part.
3. Title block, workmanship, or contractual (“boiler plate”) standards. Sometimes
these provide clarification, but often, they’re World War II vintage and
inadequate for modern high-precision designs. An example is the common title
block note, “All diameters to be concentric within .005.”

Dependence on these four “laws” carries obvious risks. Where a designer deems the
risks too high, specifications should be rigorously spelled out with GD&T.

1.3.Types

Geometrical Dimensioning and Tolerancing

Classification based on
Tolerance

Dimensional Tolerance Geometrical Tolerance

1. Form Tolerance
1. Unilateral Tolerance 2. Orientation Tolerance
2. Bilateral Tolerance 3. Location Tolerance
3. Limit System 4. Runout Tolerance
5. Profile Tolerance
2.1.Tolerance

“The allowable deviation from a standard, eg: the range of variation permitted in
maintaining a specified dimension in a machined piece.” The difference between the
Upper limit and the lower limit of a hole or a shaft is known as the Tolerance. We can
also be said as the maximum permissible deviation with the basic size is known as the
Tolerance.

2.2.Tolerances are like Bacteria: Small, but powerful

It’s important to keep tolerances on

engineering drawings in perspective, tolerances is
like bacteria, they’re not visible to the naked eye,
but we know they’re there. When you look at
machined parts, they look flat and straight, but if
you were to view the parts with calipers, you would
find that there are imperfections all over the parts.
These variations (imperfections) are allowed within
the tolerance limits (constraints) placed on the
parts. The engineer or designer should strive to keep tolerances as large as possible
while preserving the function of the part.

Small tolerances can increase cost in the manufacturing, inspection, and tooling
of parts. Tight tolerances are sometimes necessary, but it’s important to keep them in
perspective. One of the great advantages of using tolerances is that it allows for
interchangeable parts, thus permitting the replacement of individual parts. Tolerances
are used in production drawings to control the manufacturing process more accurately
and control the variation between parts.
Tolerance can be a unilateral system of tolerance or bilateral system of tolerance.

Example:
Tolerance= 30.030-30.000 = 0.030 (Unilateral System)
Tolerance = 30.015-29.985 = 0.030 (Bilateral System)
2.3.Dimensional tolerance

1.3.2.1.Unilateral tolerance
In this system the
dimensions of a part is allowed to
vary only on one side of the basic
size that is tolerance lies only on
one side of the basic size either
above or below it.

2.4.Bilateral tolerance

In this system the dimension

of the pot is allowed to vary on
both the sides of the basic size that
is the limits of tolerance lie on
either side of the basic size.

2.5.Limit System

2.5.1.Important Terms used in Limit System :

In mechanical engineering System of limits or Limit System is a concept of

controlling the sizes of machine elements while manufacturing of each component.
Because taking exact dimensions is an ideal condition but in
practical(Manufacturing/Measuring) methods, it is not possible.

Limit system enables how much amount of deviation is acceptable.

2.5.2.How do we apply the limit system in the design of the machine elements?

When one part is matting with another one, first of all, the fit between the two
parts must be determined. To determine the fit, we must take one component as the
constant member and the second component will have the deviations according to the
type of fit chosen.
By making a constant member we can classify them as hole basis system and
shaft basis system. these are the two bases of the limit system. In hole basis system Hole
values are constant and the deviations will be considered in the shaft dimensions. In
Shaft basis system the shaft dimensions are constant and the deviation will be
considered in the hole dimensions.

2.5.3.Important Terms Used in Limit System :

1. Nominal size
2. Basic size
3. Actual size
4. Limits of sizes
5. Tolerance
6. Allowance
7. Tolerance zone
8. Zero line
9. Upper deviation
10.Lower deviation
11.Actual deviation
12.Mean deviation
13.Fundamental deviation

These are the important terms used in the limit system. Let’s see what are
the definitions of all above-listed terms in the Limit System?

Before going getting to know about the definitions we need to understand

the following schematic diagram which will help us to understand the definitions in a
more clever manner.
 The term shaft is meant for any external dimension of the part whereas the hole
represents for the internal dimension of the part.

1.Nominal size

The exact size of the component which is mentioned in the drawing for the ideal
condition.( For the convenience purpose only).

Example: A 30mm shaft. Here 30mm is the Nominal size. where we use 30mm
hole for this shaft. but further, we apply limits accordingly with the type of fits

2.Basic Size

This basic size an nominal size often same. This basic size is the dimensions
where we apply tolerances.

Example: 30.000±0.015 where the 30.00 is the basic size.

3.Actual Size

This is the actual dimension of the part taken by a measuring instrument. This
actual dimension should not exceed the tolerance limits mentioned to the basic size.

Example: The size of the Shaft measured with the vernier calliper is 30.010 (This
is an actual dimension of the shaft)

4.Limits of Sizes

The extreme possible deviation is called as the limit of the size. there are two
extreme possible limits of sizes. they are the maximum limit(Upper Limit), The
Minimum Limit(Lower limit).
 Example: A shaft dimensioned is mentioned 30.000±0.015 then 30.015 is the
maximum limit(Upper Limit), 29.985 is the minimum Limit(Lower Limit)

5.Tolerance

The difference between the Upper limit and the lower limit of a hole or a shaft is known
as the Tolerance. We can also be said as the maximum permissible deviation with the
basic size is known as the Tolerance.

6.Allowance

The difference between the basic size of the hole and shaft is known as the
allowance(From the above figure we can define it as the difference between the lower
limit of the hole and Upper limit of the shaft ). It is positive when the shaft size is
smaller than the hole size. It is negative when the shaft size is larger than the hole size.

Example:

Hole = 29.990/29.980, Shaft = 30.000/29.970

Allowance = 29.980-30.000 = -0.020 (Interference of material occurred)

7.Tolerance Zone

The zone between the Upper limit and the lower limit is known as the tolerance zone.
8.Zero Line

The imaginary straight line corresponding to the basic size of the shaft or hole,
which is used to measure the deviations.

9. Upper Deviation

The difference between the basic size and the Maximum size is known as the
upper deviation.

Example: Shaft = 30.000±0.015

Upper Deviation = 30.015-30.000 = 0.015

10.Lower deviation

The difference between the basic size and the Minimum size is known as the
Lower deviation.

Example: Shaft = 30.000±0.015

Lower Deviation = 30.000-29.985 = 0.015

11.Actual deviation

The difference between the basic size and the actual size of the part after
manufactured.(Measured with an instrument) is known as the actual deviation.

Example: Shaft = 30.000±0.015

Vernier calliper measurement of the shaft (after manufactured )= 30.010

Actual Deviation = Basic size(30.000)- Component actual size(30.010) = 0.010

12.Mean deviation

(Upper Deviation +Lower Deviation)/2 = Mean deviation

13.Fundamental Deviation

The fundamental deviation is the form of allowance. In shafts, it is said to be an

upper deviation. In holes, it is said to be a lower deviation.

Example:
Hole = 29.990/29.980, Shaft = 30.000/29.970
Allowance = 29.980-30.000 = -0.020 (Interference of material occurred)
Fundamental Deviation of hole = 0.020
Fundamental deviation of shaft = 0
3.1.Geometric Tolerance :

Geometrical tolerancing—Tolerancing of form, orientation, location and run-

out.” In short, “geometrical product specifications” refer to the shape, size, and
positional relationship of a product, while “tolerance” means the allowable error.
“Geometric tolerance” is characterized by a definition that includes the allowable errors
for the form and position in addition to size.
4.1.Datum Reference Frame (DRF):

The DRF is probably the most important concept of GD&T. In order to

manufacture and/or inspect a part to a drawing , the three (3) plane concept is necessary.
Three (3) mutually perpendicular (exactly 90° to each other) and perfect planes need to
be created to measure from. In GD&T this is called Datum Reference Frame whereas in
mathematics it is the Cartesian coordinate system invented by Rene Descartes in France
(1596-1650).

Often one would express this concept as the need to establish the X,Y, and Z
coordinates. The DRF is created by so-called Datum Simulators which are the
manufacturing, processing, and inspection equipment such as surface plate, a collet, a
three jaw chuck, a gage pin, etc. The DRF simulators provide the origin of dimensional
relationships. They contact the features (named Datum Features) which of course are
not perfect hence measurements from simulators (which are nearly perfect) provides
accurate values and they stabilize the part so that when the manufacturer inspects the
part and the customer inspects the part they both get the same answer.

Also if the part is contacted during the initial manufacturing setup in the same
manner as when it is inspected, a “layout” for assuring machining stock is not required.
The final result (assuming the processing equipment is suitable for the tolerancing
specified) will be positive.

4.2.Symbol:

B C D E F
etc.,

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Other Reference
Datum Datum Datum

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Features & Datums:

The primary is the fi rst feature contacted (minimum contact at 3 points), the
secondary feature is the second feature contacted (minimum contact at 2 points), and the
tertiary is the third feature contacted (minimum contact at 1 point). Contacting the three
(3) datum features simultaneously establishes the three (3) mutually perpendicular
datum planes or the datum reference frame.

If the part has a circular feature that is identifi ed as the primary datum feature
then as discussed later a datum axis is obtained which allows two (2) mutually
perpendicular planes to intersect the axis which will be the primary and secondary
datum planes.
 Another feature is needed (tertiary) to be contacted in order orientate (fix the two
planes that intersect the datum axis) and to establish the datum reference frame. Datum
features have to be specified in an order of precedence to properly position a part on the
Datum Reference Frame. The desired order of precedence is obtained by entering the
appropriate datum feature letter from left to right in the Feature Control Frame (FCF)
(see Section 5 for explanation for FCF).

The first letter is the primary datum, the second letter is the secondary datum, and
the third letter is the tertiary datum. The letter identifies the datum feature that is to be
contacted however the letter in the FCF is the datum plane oraxis of the datum
simulators. See Fig. 5-3 for Datum Features & Planes.

4.3.Definition:

A datum is theoretical exact plane, axis or point location that GD&T or

dimensional tolerances are referenced to. You can think of them as an anchor for the
entire part; where the other features are referenced from. A datum feature is usually an
important functional feature that needs to be controlled during measurement as well.
 All GD&T symbols except for the form tolerances
(straightness, flatness, circularity and cylindricity) can use datums to help specify what
geometrical control is needed on the part. When it comes to GD&T, datum symbols are
your starting points where all other features are referenced from.

4.4.Drawing Indications of Datum Features

The datum
features on a
drawing are denoted
with a series of
capital letters. These
letters are in boxes
and tied to the
datum feature with a black triangle.
 This letter will also show up in any feature control frame that uses this datum
feature as a reference. A feature control frame can reference multiple datums at once
and each one can be referenced as many times as needed.

4.5.Notation is Important on Drawings

As stated before, datums can be located on points, axes,edges, and surfaces. It is

important though that they is called out correctly on the drawing to control the right
type of feature. Here is how different types of features are called out on engineering
drawings.

i. On a surface

The symbol must be placed on or with one single extension line out of the datum
surface.

This means that the datum is only on the surface of the part where it is shown. If
it is on one side of a rectangular object like a box, the datum surface is only the side
where the symbol is shown. However if the part is round like a cylinder, the datum
would be the entire surface of the cylinder.

ii. On an Axis

For Axis control, the

symbol must be placed on the
dimension of a diametric
tolerance as shown
above. This means that the
datum is actually the central
axis through the feature, and
not the feature surface itself.

This type is common with any GD&T symbol that can have axis control
like runout, perpendicularity or concentricity.
iii. On a point or hole’s axis

To establish a datum axis of a feature such as a hole, the symbol can be placed in a few
ways.
1. Placed directly on the hole – Example A in the above drawing
2. Placed on the leader pointing to the hole – Example B
3. Placed on the feature control frame itself – Example C
4. Shown on the side view by denoting the axis

4.7. Drawing Indications of Datum Features :

Datums
are indicated
using the
following
symbols (datum
symbols). Datum
symbols use
either a white or
black triangle.
The letters
indicating the
datums are always oriented to the direction the reader looks at the drawing.
4.6.Datum Features ≠ Datums

A datum feature is usually an important functional surface where all other

dimensions need to be in spec with reference to it. However, things get a little tricky
when clarifying what the datum actually is. A Datum is a perfect point, line, plane or
surface but only exists theoretically.
 However a Datum Feature is a tangible surface, point or axis on a part where
that theoretical datum is located. The reason they are not equal to each other is
because the part surface is never 100% perfect. It will always have some kind of
waviness, bumps and valleys.

4.10.The 3-2-1 Rule and Points of Contact:

The 3-2-1 rule defines the minimum number of points of contact required for a
part datum feature with its primary, secondary, and tertiary datum planes.

It only applies when all three planes are used.

The 3-2-1 rule says:

✓ The primary datum feature has at least 3 points of contact with its datum plane.
✓ The secondary datum feature has at least 2 points of contact with its datum plane.
✓ The tertiary datum feature has at least one point of contact with its datum plane.

The 3-2-1 rule only applies to planer datum features.

4.7.Datum Feature vs Datum Plane:

The datum features are the features (surfaces) on the part that will be contacted
by the datum simulators. The symbol is a capital letter (except I,O, and Q) in a box such
as A used in the 1994 ASME Y14.5 or -A- used on drawings made to the Y14.5 before
1994.

The
features are
selected for
datums based on
their relationship
to toleranced
features, i.e.,
function, however
they must be
accessible,
discernible, and
of sufficient size
to be useful. A
datum plane is a
datum simulator
such as a surface
plate. See Fig. 5-4
for a Datum
Feature vs a
Datum Plane.

4.8.From Theoretical to Real

In the example above, the Datum is the green line and the Datum Feature is the
imperfect black line that forms it. To form this theoretical plane in the real world,
measurement surfaces or points are used. For example, the face of a flat part may be
referenced by a datum on a drawing. In the above drawing, this surface may be
simulated by a near perfect granite slab.

So Remember:

Datums are theoretical and only simulated by Measurement Equipment (Gauge pins,
Granite slabs, angle plates, computer-generated planes, etc)

Datum Features are real, tangible features on a part where the measurement equipment
would physically touch or measure. They are usually important functional surface.
4.9.Datum Reference Frames and 6 Degrees of Freedom :

Every Datum exists within the context of some Datum Reference Frame. In
practice, we must
eliminate 6 degrees of
freedom before we can
fully locate and orient
a part within a Datum
Reference Frame.

Controlling 6
degrees of freedom
means controlling 3
linear distances from
Datum planes to
establish an X, Y, and
Z position and
controlling 3 rotary
positions to orient the
part at that position.

We refer to the translational degrees of freedom as X, Y, and Z and the rotational

degrees as u, v, and w.
 The Datum Feature Selection Process: Because Datum Features serve to constrain
degrees of freedom and establish coordinate systems relative to which the remaining
features of a part are to be oriented and located, they ought in general (but with some
exceptions) to be those features which actually constrain it relative to the mating part
during an assembly process. Namely at the end of that process, the objective is for the
coordinate systems of two mating parts to coincide in order to guarantee functional
relationships between their remaining features. In the examples that follow, this will be
the first order of business.
4.11. Inclined Datum Features:

One may specify a datum feature that is at an angle other than 90 degrees relative
to other datum features. These are called Inclined Datum Features.

An inclined datum feature is a datum feature that is at an angle other than 90º,
relative to the other datum features. On parts with datum features (surfaces) at angles
other than 90º, the datum reference frame will contain planes at the basic angle of the
part surface.

4.12. Multiple Datum

Reference Frames:

In certain cases, the

functional requirements of
a part call for the part to
contain more than one
datum reference frame. A
part may have as many
datum reference frames as
needed to define its
functional relationships.
The datum reference
frames may be at right
angles or at angles other
than 90º.
5.1.Material Conditions:

Features of size which includes datum features have size tolerances hence the size
condition or material (amount of metal) condition can vary from the maximum metal
condition (MMC) to the least metal condition (LMC). Consequently if the center planes
or axes of a feature of size are controlled by geometric tolerances a modifying symbol
can be specified in the feature control frame that applies the tolerance value at either the
maximum or the least material condition.

It also can be specified for a datum that is a feature of size. If a symbol is not
specified the tolerance value applies regardless of material condition which is named
regardless of feature size (RFS).

5.2.Maximum Material Condition (MMC):

The maximum
material condition is used
when designing two mating
parts. The maximum
material condition is a state
of the considered extracted
feature, where the feature
of size is at that limit of
size where the material of
the feature is at its
maximum everywhere, e.g.
minimum hole diameter
and maximum shaft
diameter.

Maximum Material
Condition or for short,
MMC, is a feature of size
symbol that describes the
condition of a feature or
part where the maximum
amount of material
(volume/size) exists within
its dimensional tolerance.
The only GD&T Symbols where Max Material Condition can be applied are:

➢ Straightness (axis)

➢ Parallelism

➢ Perpendicularity

➢ Angularity

➢ Position

When you have a feature that GD&T is called on:

➢ If it is a hole or internal feature: MMC = smallest hole size

➢ If it is a pin or external feature: MMC = largest size of the pin

Reason for Use:

If you want to ensure that two parts never interfere, or limit the amount of
interference between the parts when they are at their worst tolerances, MMC can be
called out. Take a shaft that must go through a hole with clearance between the two.If
you made sure that the MMC of the shaft was always smaller than the MMC of the
hole, you guarantee there will always be clearance between the parts.

If you made sure that the MMC of the shaft was always smaller than the
MMC of the hole, you guarantee there will always be clearance between the parts. This
is important for any tolerance stack to ensure that when the tolerances are at their least
desirable condition, the part still functions properly.
5.3.Least Material Condition (LMC):

This is the opposite of MMC consequently this is the condition when the actual
minimum mating size or envelope is at the minimum material condition which is
minimum size for an external feature such as a cylinder and the maximum size for an
internal feature such as a hole. The symbol is “L”.

If you want to ensure that two always have contact or a press fit Least Material
condition can be called out. It is most often the control of parts that are pressed together
to ensure that they always have a snug fit and no clearance.
 If you made sure that the LMC of the shaft was always larger than the LMC of
the hole, you ensure that there will always be a tight fit between the parts. This creates a
condition where you can use a functional gauge to ensure that the external feature is not
too small or that the internal feature is too loose.

5.4. Regardless Of Feature Size (RFS):

There is no symbol in the 1994 Y14.5 whereas it was s for the 1982 Y14.5. It is
applicable if the MMC or the LMC are not specified for individual features of size
tolerances or for datum features of size. The tolerance is limited to the specified value in
the FCF and if applied to a datum feature of size the actual axis or center plane have to
be established regardless of the feature size. It is always used for run out, concentricity,
and symmetry controls as will be discussed in those sections.

Since Regardless of feature size is the default condition it is used always and
ignored only when specified. It is applied for most part conditions. RFS is always kept
where balance is critical and where both sides of the tolerance must be maintained
independently of the GD&T callouts.

6.1.Feature Control Frame:

In GD&T, a feature control frame is required to describe the conditions and

tolerances of a geometric control on a part’s feature. The feature control frame consists
of four pieces of information.

➢ GD&T symbol or control symbol

➢ Tolerance zone type and dimensions

➢ Tolerance zone modifiers: features of size, projections…

➢ Datum references (if required by the GD&T symbol)

1. Leader Arrow – This arrow points to
the feature that the geometric control
is placed on.

2. Geometric Symbol – This is where

your geometric control is specified.

3. Diameter Symbol (if required) – If

the geometric control is a diametrical tolerance then the diameter symbol (Ø) will be
in front of the tolerance value.

4. Tolerance Value – If the tolerance is a diameter you will see the Ø symbol next to
the dimension signifying a diametric tolerance zone.

5. Feature of Size or Tolerance Modifiers (if required) – This is where you call out
max material condition or a projected tolerance in the feature control frame.

6. Primary Datum (if required) – If a datum is required, this is the main datum used for
the GD&T control.

Note: The order of the datum is important for measurement of the part. The primary
datum is usually held in three places to fix 3 degrees of freedom

7. Secondary Datum (if required) – If a secondary datum is required, it will be to the

right of the primary datum.

8. Tertiary Datum (if required) – If a third datum is required, it will be to the right of
the secondary datum.

6.2.Special Condition: Size Dimension

The diameter or size of the feature

that the geometric control is being called on.
(See example below). It is optional to place
the feature control frame next to the size
dimension of the feature called.

6.3.Special Condition: Datum Control

If the feature being referred to by the

feature control frame is also a datum, the datum
symbol will show up off of the frame.
7.1 GEOMETRIC TOLERANCE

7.1.2 FORM TOLERANCE

7.1.2.1. Straightness

Straightness actually has two very different functions in GD&T depending

on how it is called out. In its normal form or Surface Straightness, is a tolerance that
controls the form of a line somewhere on the surface or the feature. Axis Straightness is
a tolerance that controls how much curve is allowed in the part’s axis. This is usually
called out with an included call to maximum material condition.

Axis Straightness with Maximum Material

Surface Straightness Condition

The standard form of The form of straightness that

straightness is a 2-Dimensional
tolerance that is used to ensure that a
part is uniform across a surface or
feature. Straightness can apply to
either a flat feature such as the
surface of a block, or it can apply to
the surface of a cylinder along the
axial direction. It is defined as the
variance of the surface within a
specified line on that surface.
controls the central axis of a part is
sometimes referred to as Axial
Straightness. This tolerance callout
specifies how straight the axis of a
part is (usually a cylinder). By
definition, axis straightness is
actually a 3D tolerance that
constrains the center axis of the part
preventing it from bending or
twisting too far.

Maximum Material Condition further specifies this by controlling the size of the
feature in addition to the allowed “bend” of the axis. Although a control of the axis,
when MMC is called out, the entire part is used to determine if the tolerance has been
met with a Go-Gauge. (See Gauging Section)
Surface Straightness:

Two Parallel Lines on

either side of a surface line
where the surface must lie
(2D)

Axis:

A cylindrical boundary around the true central axis of the part, where the derived
midpoint axis of the part must fit into.

Axis Straightness with Maximum Material

Surface Straightness
Condition
7.1.2.2.Flatness

GD&T Flatness is very straight forward. It is a common symbol that references

how flat a surface is regardless of any other datums or features. It comes in useful if a
feature is to be defined on a drawing that needs to be uniformly flat without tightening
any other dimensions on the drawing.

The flatness tolerance references two parallel planes (parallel to the surface that
it is called out on) that define a zone where the entire reference surface must lie.
Flatness tolerance is always less than the dimensional tolerance associated with it.

Two Sets of Parallel Planes where the entire referenced surface must lie.

Flatness is
can be measured
using a height
gauge run across
the surface of the
part if only the
reference feature
is held parallel.
You are trying
making sure that
any point along
the surface does
not go above or below the tolerance zone. Modern CMM’s are best for measuring the
part as they can create virtual planes that the true surface profile can be compared to.

This is a 3D measurement
so points must be measured across
the length and width of the part to
ensure the entire surface is in
tolerance. Flatness cannot be
measured by simply placing the
part on a granite slab and running a
height gauge or microheight over it.

This would be measuring parallelism instead as you are fixing the bottom of the part as
a datum.
7.1.2.3.Circularity

The circularity symbol is used to describe how close an object should be to a true
circle. Sometimes called roundness, circularity is a 2-Dimensional tolerance that
controls the overall form of a circle ensuring it is not too oblong, square, or out of
round. Roundness is independent of any datum feature and only is always less than the
diameter dimensional tolerance of the part. Circularity essentially makes a cross-section
of a cylindrical or round feature and determines if the circle formed in that cross-section
is round.
 Two concentric circles, one inner and one outer, in which all the points within the
circular surface must fall into. The tolerance zone lies on a plane that is perpendicular to
the central axis of the circular feature.

Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Circularity is the 2D version of cylindricity. While cylindricity ensures all the

points on a cylinder fall into a tolerance, circularity only is concerned with individual
measurements around the surface in one circle. If you think of a stack of coins,
circularity would be a measurement around one coin while cylindricity would have to
measure the entire stack. (cylindricity is actually a combination of circularity
and straightness)

Example 1: Controlling circularity without GD&T Symbol

When Used:

Circularity is a very common measurement and is uses in all forms of

manufacturing. Any time a part needs to be perfectly round such as a rotating shaft, or a
bearing, circularity is usually called out. You will see this GD&T symbol very often on
mechanical engineering drawings

Example 2: Controlling both features with circularity allows the diameter

tolerances of the part to be opened up much larger.
7.1.2.3.Cylindricity

The Cylindricity symbol is used to describe how close an object conforms to

a true cylinder. Cylindricity is a 3-Dimensional tolerance that controls the overall form
of a cylindrical feature to ensure that it is round enough and straight enough along its
axis. Cylindricity is independent of any datum feature the tolerance needs to be less than
the diameter dimensional tolerance of the part. Cylindricity essentially forms a perfect
cylindrical boundary around the object that the entire 3-Dimensional part must lie in.

GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Two concentric cylinders that run the entire length of the feature – one inner and
one outer, in which all the points on the entire surface of the cylindrical feature must fall
into. The entire length of the called out feature would be controlled.
Gauging / Measurement:

Cylindricity is measured by constraining a part on its axis, and rotating it

around while a height gauge records the variation of the surface in several locations
along the length. The height gauge must have total variation less than the tolerance
amount.

Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Cylindricity is
a merger of circularity
and surface
straightness. It is the
3-Dimensional version
of circularity along an
entire cylinder length.

Controlling cylindricity without GD&T Symbol

While circularity only is concerned with individual measurements around the
surface in one circle, cylindricity takes into account how straight the axial portion of the
cylinder is. Thinking of stack of coins, cylindricity would measure to make sure that the
entire stack is straight up and that every coin is round. Circularity would only be
measurements of the roundness of the individual coins.

.
Controlling the circularity and the straightness of the bore
with cylindricity
When Used:

Cylindricity is a fairly common callout for shafts, pins and any critical
cylindrical element. When a part needs to be both round and straight along its axis, such
as a sliding shaft, or a dynamic locating pin, cylindricity is usually called out. You will
see this GD&T symbol very often in automotive drawings and mechanical systems.
7.1.3.Orinetation

7.1.3.1.Parallelism

Parallelism actually has two different functions in GD&T

depending which reference feature is called out. The normal form or Surface
Parallelism is a tolerance that controls parallelism between two surfaces or features. The
surface form is controlled similar to flatness with two parallel planes acting as its
tolerance zone. Axis Parallelism is a tolerance that controls how parallel a specific parts
central axis needs to be to a datum plane or axis. The axis form is controlled by a
cylinder around a theoretical perfectly parallel axis. Parallelism is most commonly
called out as surface parallelism.
GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Two parallel planes or lines which are oriented parallel to the datum feature
or surface. All points that are on the referenced feature must in the tolerance zone.

7.1.3.2.Perpendicularity

The normal form or Surface Perpendicularity is a tolerance that controls

Perpendicularity between two 90° surfaces, or features. Surface Perpendicularity is
controlled with two parallel planes acting as its tolerance zone. Axis
Perpendicularity is a tolerance that controls how perpendicular a specific axis needs to
be to a datum. Axis Perpendicularity is controlled by a cylinder around a theoretical
perfectly parallel axis.

Surface Perpendicularity: Axis Perpendicularity:

Surface:
Two parallel planes or lines
which are oriented
perpendicular to the datum
feature or surface. The planes
are held perpendicular to the
datum, but only ensure that the
entire feature falls into the
tolerance zone.

Ensuring
perpendicular/flat surfaces
without GD&T symbol

Controlling the perpendicularity

with GD&T symbol.
 With perpendicularity, you can open up the width dimension and control the
face’s angle containing the part very tightly. Your tolerance zone remains the same, but
your part is now easier to control and fabricate.

7.1.3.3.Angularity

Angularity is the
symbol that describes the specific
orientation of one feature to
another at a referenced angle. It
can reference a 2D line
referenced to another 2D
element, but more commonly it
relates the orientation of one
surface plane relative to another
datum plane in a 3-Dimensional
tolerance zone. The tolerance does not directly control the angle variation and should
not be confused with an angular dimension tolerance such as ± 5°. In fact, the angle, for
now, becomes a Basic Dimension, since it is controlled by your geometric tolerance.

When Used:

Angularity helps control any feature that is at an angle to another datum surface.
Anytime you have a critical feature which mates with other parts at an angle, angularity
can be used to help control the angle and flatness of the mating surfaces. Many stamped
parts that have bent features use angularity to ensure that the 3D surface formed by the
stamping operation that is formed always is controlled and encased in a tolerance zone
7.1.4.Location

7.1.4.1.Position

True Position is actually just

referred to as Position in the ASME
Standard. Many people refer to the symbol
as “True” Position, although this would be
slightly incorrect. The Position tolerance is
the GD&T symbol and tolerance of location.
The True Position is the exact coordinate, or
location defined by basic dimensions or
other means that represents the nominal
value. In other words, the
GD&T “Position” Tolerance is how far your
features location can vary from its “True
Position”.

The True position callout on a block

7.1.4.2.Concentricity

Concentricity, sometimes called

coaxially, is a tolerance that controls the
central axis of the referenced feature, to
a datum axis. The axes for the datum and
referenced feature are derived from the
median points of the part or feature.
Concentricity is a very complex feature
because it relies on measurements from a
derived axis as opposed to tangible surface or
feature.

GD&T Tolerance Zone:Concentricity is a 3-

Dimensional cylindrical tolerance zone that is
defined by a datum axis where all the derived median points of a referenced circular
feature must fall into. the median points of the reference surface cross sections form the
theoretical axis that must be in this tolerance zone.

An intermediate shaft in a transmission is composed of two different diameter

sections which are coaxial. Datum A is the drive side and relatively fixed with bearings
to the housing, The referenced surface B is desired to be concentric with Datum A to
avoid oscillations at high speed.
7.1.4.3.Symmetry

GD&T Symmetry is a 3-Dimensional

tolerance that is used to ensure that two
features on a part are uniform across a datum
plane. An established “true” central plane is
established from the datum and for the
symmetry to be in tolerance, the median
distance between every point on the two
surface features needs to fall near that central
plane. Each set of points on the reference
features would have a midpoint that is right
between the two. If you take all the
midpoints of the entire surface, this must lie
within the tolerance zone to be in specification.

When Used:

When you want to make sure that the center plane of two symmetric features
is always held exactly center AND has even form along the surface of the part. This
symbol only has specific uses for mass balance and form distribution. However, in most
cases it is better to avoid using since this is a very difficult callout to measure and can
easily be replaced with a Position tolerance.

Example:

If you had a rotating U-Joint, a groove that needed to always have even balance,
you would need to make sure that the mating part is always located to fall into the
center of the groove and that the surface form is properly balanced… Instead of
widening the groove causing the conncetion to be loose, you could constrain it with
symmetry.
7.1.5.Runout

7.1.5.1.Circular Runout

Runout is how much one given reference

feature or features vary with respect to
another datum when the part is rotated 360° around
the datum axis. It is essentially a control of a circular
feature, and how much variation it has with the
rotational axis.

Runout can be called out on any feature that is

rotated about an axis. It is essentially how much
“wobble” occurs in the one part feature when
referenced to another.
GD&T Tolerance Zone:

2-Dimensional circular tolerance zone that is defined by a datum axis where

all points on the called surface must fall into. The zone is a direct reference to the datum
feature. Runout is the total variation that the reference surface can have when the part is
rotated around the datum’s true axis.

Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Circular Runout = Concentricity (axis offset) + total Circularity (out of round)

Runout captures both of these in a single measurement when you are

comparing the surface to another datum. Runout can also be constrained using a face as
well as another circular surface. If this is the case the perpendicularity of the datum face
to the reference surface can add into the runout of the surface as well, since if the part is
tilted at an angle, the part would runout higher due to the tilting of the part.

Runout is the 2D version of total runout. While it is measured in individual

cross-sections, total runout takes the measurement around and across the surface of the
entire part in a 3D tolerance zone.

When Used:

Runout and its 3D component, Total runout, are very common symbols in
GD&T due to the control they have on a rotating part. They are used in any rotating
components such as drills, gears, shafts, axles, and many machine tool parts.
The automotive and industrial industry uses this GD&T symbol very often on any part
that is rotated. Runout usually is put into place when oscillations or vibrations need to
be controlled on a fast rotating part, like an engine or transmission. If the part rotates it
probably requires runout.
Example:
A shaft that is rotated at very high speeds is prone to oscillations and checked. To
control this without GD&T would be nearly impossible. The small amount of variation
in the shaft, straightness of the shaft, and roundness of the individual surfaces would be
unrealistic to control. With runout, you have your final rotational condition that you
want controlled without needing to specify unnecessary tight control on the entire
part.

The best way to constrain this part is with GD&T

By constraining with runout as shown on the drawing you are ensuring that when
the shaft rotating, with datum A fixed in housing, the reference surface will not go
outside of a perfect central rotation by more than 30 microns. This will ensure that only
a limited vibration is made and that both parts will wear evenly. To ensure this
condition is met, you must measure the parts with a gauge.
7.1.5.1.Total Runout

Description:

Total Runout is how much one entire feature

or surface varies with respect to a datum when the
part is rotated 360° around the datum axis. Total
runout controls both the amount of variation in the
surface as the part is rotated, but the amount of
variation in the axial dimension. Both radial
variation and axial variation are measured and held
within the tolerance.
GD&T Tolerance Zone:
A 3-Dimensional cylindrical
tolerance zone that surrounding a
referenced surface that is directly derived
from either the datum surface or the axis.
All points along the surface must fall within
this zone when the part is rotated at all
times.

Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Concentricity, Perpendicularity/Parallelism
Total Runout Controls: (feature of size axis), Cylindricity, Circularity,
Straightness and of course normal Circular Runout

➢ Total Runout captures Concentricity by controlling the radial alignment of the

datum’s axis to the feature’s median points.
➢ Perpendicularity or Parallelism of the two features would be controlled because if
the central axis is offset by an angle, the end of the workpiece would runout far
more than the side closer to the datum.
➢ Cylindricity would also be controlled because any form variation along a
cylindrical surface would show up in the total runout.
➢ Axis Straightness is controlled because any bow in the feature would cause the
end of the piece to have a larger runout at the end of the work piece. Surface
Straightness would also be controlled because you are now controlling any form
variation across the entire surface. (this would control whether the part is a
cylinder or a tapered feature)
➢ Circularity is controlled because any form variation along surface, would be
picked up by the total runout measurement.

Gauging the entire surface

When Used:

Total runout is much less common than circular runout due to the tight constraint
it puts on an entire part surface However it is still a fairly common symbol in GD&T
due to its functional effect of preventing vibration and oscillation. It is very effective at
preventing surface taper of a cylinder. Any time a part rotates and has a large amount of
surface contact, total runout may be required. Things like large pump shafts,
transmission shafts, and complex gears all are cases where total runout is used.
7.1.6.Profile of Line

Profile of a line
describes a tolerance zone around
any line in any feature, usually of
a curved shape. Profile of a line is
a 2-Dimensional tolerance range
that can be applied to any linear
tolerance. If it is called out on a
surface, like a radius on a part –
profile of a line would specify
how much that cross-
section could vary from a true
curved radius. Profile of a line takes a cross section at any point along the surface and
sets a tolerance zone on either side of the profile.

GD&T Tolerance Zone:

2-Dimensional tolerance
zone existing of two parallel curves
that follow the contour of the true
surface profile. The application on
where the tolerance zone applies can
be specified on the drawing. This
tolerance zone may or may not
be referenced by a datum.
Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Profile of a line is of course

closely related to profile of a surface.
The difference being that profile of a
line takes only the measurement at a
specific cross-section and does not take
into account the variance of one cross-
section to the next.

Profile of a line can also be

thought to be similar
to straightness or circularity. All three
tolerance symbols specify how much a
cross-section can vary whether in a
straight line, a circle or in a custom
profile shape.

When Used:

Profile of a line is used for advanced curved surfaces, such as when a feature
curves in multiple axes at once. A common use of line profile would be if you were
comparing a curving surface such as the hood of a car, or an airplane wing. With an
airplane wing, each cross-section would need to be a different profile shape and require
multiple measurements to ensure at each location the profile tolerance is met. Both
profiles of a line or profile of a surface can be called out on such surfaces.
7.1.6.Profile of Surface

Description:

Profile of a surface describes

a 3-Dimensional tolerance zone
around a surface, usually which is an
advanced curve or shape. If it is
called out on a curved surface, like a
fillet on a welded part, the entire
surface where the radius is has to
fall within the tolerance zone.
Profile controls all the points along
the surface within a tolerance range
that directly mimics the designed
profile. Any point on the surface would not be able to vary inside or outside by more
than the surface profile tolerance.

GD&T Tolerance Zone:

3-Dimensional tolerance zone

existing of 2 parallel surface curves that
follow the contour of the surface profile
across the entire length of the surface.
This tolerance zone may or may not
be referenced by a datum.
Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Profile of a surface is the 3D version of profile of a line. The difference

between them is that profile of a surface would cover the entire required surface,
making sure that every point falls in the tolerance zone, not just at a cross-section.

➢ When used without datums, Profile of a line can also be thought to be similar
to flatness or cylindricity as these symbols are only more specific versions of the
profile of a surface symbol.
➢ When used with datums, profile can mimic all the orientation symbols
(perpendicularity, parallelism, angularity) and even control the location and size
of a feature or surface.

All of these tolerance symbols specify how much a surface of any geometric shape can
vary from its true form.

When Used:

Profile of a surface
can be used for advanced curved
surfaces, such as when a surface
curves in multiple axes at once.
Other uses could be an airplane
wing, complex surfacing designs
in automotive engineering, each
requiring to fit between two
parallel surfaces of the same
shape to ensure the profiles are
always consistent.
 FITS AND TOLERANCE

The term fits refers to the degree of tightness or looseness between two mating
parts. Depending upon the actual limits of the hole and shaft.

2.1.Types:

(i) Clearance fit.

(ii) Interference fit.

(iii) Transition fit.

2.2.Standard Terms

2.3.International Tolerance Grade

2.4.Indication Method

2.5.Clearance

The term clearance refers to the difference between the sizes of the hole and the
shaft before assembly.In clearance fit, the minimum size of the hole is either greater
than or, equal to (in extreme case) the maximum size of the shaft, so that the shaft can
rotate or slide as per the purpose of the assembled members.

In clearance fit, the difference between the maximum size of the hole and
minimum size of the shaft is called maximum clearance, whereas the minimum size of
the hole and maximum size of the shaft is known as minimum clearance.
2.5.1.Clearance– Types

2.3. Transition Fit:

A fit which may provide either a clearance or interference between the shaft and
hole when assembled, depending on the actual sizes of the shaft and hole, is known as
Transition fit. It may be noted that in a transition fit, the tolerance zone of shaft and hole
overlap completely or partially.

The transition fit may be of different types,

✓ Push fit,
✓ Force fit,
✓ Tight fit etc.
2.3.1.Transition– Types

2.4.Interference Fit:

A fit that everywhere provides interference between the hole and shaft when
assembled, is known as interference fit. In interference fit, the maximum size of the hole
is either smaller or equal to (in extreme case) the minimum size of the shaft. In this fit,
the shaft and the hole members are intended to be attached permanently.

In interference fit, the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the
maximum size of the shaft is called maximum interference. Whereas difference between
the maximum size of the hole and the minimum size of the shaft is known as minimum
interference,
2.4.1.Interference– Types

2.5.Hole Basis System and Shaft Basis System

2.5.1.Hole Basis System: 2.5.2. Shaft Basic System:

In hole basis system, the size of In shaft basic system, the size of the
the hole is constant and different fits shaft is constant and different fits are
are obtained by varying the size of obtained by varying the size of the
shaft as shown in Fig. 1.57 (a). hole

It may be noted that, from manufacturing point of view, a hole basis system is
always preferred. Because holes are produced by standard size of drills and reamers,
whose size cannot be adjusted easily on the other hand, the size of the shaft which is to
go into hole, can be easily adjusted by turning and grinding.
2.6. International Tolerance Grade
 Assembly Tolerance Stack Up Analysis

3.1.Introduction

Tolerance Stack up is
the permutation of
inadequacy (or, flaws) of an
assembly part design which
directly affects the
manufacturability of a part.
Knowing the complications
involved in assembling a
part, tolerance stackup
analysis anticipates the
impact on total tolerance of
a part based on assembly
challenges and (preliminary)
fluctuating tolerance of
component.

Tolerance Stackup Analysis answers this integral manufacturing question

and anticipates design execution demand much in advance. Widely practiced across
mechanical domain, tolerance stackup analysis quantifies the impact of gathered
variations qualified by requirements (tolerances and dimensions) designated by
assembly.

Often defined in engineering drawings, tolerances and dimensions of an assembly

part often requires precise tolerance stackups. Worst Case and Statistical Analysis
(Root Sum Square/Root Mean Square) are widely used methodologies for Tolerance
Stackup Analysis .

What is Assembly Tolerance Stack up Analysis?

In short, assembly tolerance stack up analysis will tell you the tolerance value of
the whole assembly or a specific gap of the assembly when you know the tolerance
values of all its components.

Tolerance Stack up Methodology

To perform tolerance stackup analysis, there are two methods which are very
common in the industry:

1. Worst Case, and.

2. Root Sum Square (RSS).
3.2.Worst Case Method

Worst Case method calculates the impact of shift in single (or, multiple) tolerance on
the entire assembly. Popular for its simplistic nature, this method is based on the
assumption that every dimension in the assembly chain would be manufactured at its
maximum and minimum allowable value. Further, it is assumed that each deviation has
adverse combination irrespective of its uncertainty. It is as simple as adding up the
tolerances of the entire assembly chain, which is termed as linear sum.

Following are commonly used signs in worst case method:

1. Accumulated Tolerance = (ΔY).

2. n = Number of constituent dimensions in the dimension chain.
3. d i = Tolerance associated with the ith dimension.

While it gives user the ease of calculating tolerance stackup analysis, this approach is
only applicable when,

➢ The volume of production is very small.

➢ 100 per cent acceptance is required.
➢ The number of constituent dimensions in assembly is very small.

The thickness and tolerance of the four plates are shown in the above figure. We
have to find out the dimension “X" and its tolerance value. Proceed as below:

The above
diagram depicts the
tolerance and
thickness of
quadruple plates.
Herein, the
dimension and
tolerance value
needs to be found.
In order to achieve
this, the following
steps need to be
followed,
 Calculate the lower specification Calculate the upper specification limit
limit (LSL) size for each of the plates (USL)size for each of the plates like
like below: below:

1. For PLATE-1: 1. For PLATE-1:

LSL= 27-0.4 = 26.6 USL= 27+0.4 = 27.4
2. For PLATE-2: 2. For PLATE-2:
LSL= 15-0.3 = 14.7 USL= 15+0.3 = 15.3
3. For PLATE-3: 3. For PLATE-3:
LSL= 15-0.3 = 14.7 USL= 15+0.3 = 15.3
4. For PLATE-4: 4. For PLATE-4:
LSL= 15-0.5 = 14.5 USL= 15+0.5 = 15.5

Sum up the LSL thickness values of all Sum up the USL thickness values of all
the plates, and you will get the LSL the plates, you will get the USL of the
thickness of the whole assembly as below: whole assembly as below:

TL = 26.6 +14.7 + 14.7 + 14.5 = 70.5 TU = 27.4 + 15.3 + 15.3 + 15.5 = 73.5

Tolerance of the whole assembly obtained as:

~ + mn ~ (TU – TL) / 2 = ~ + mn~ (73.5-70.5)/2 = ~ + mn ~ 1.5

Sum up the nominal thickness dimensions of all the plates to get the nominal thickness
value of the whole assembly, like below:

TN = 27 + 15 + 15 + 15 = 72

So, by the worst case method we got the overall dimension (X) of the assembly as:

X = 72 ~+mn~ 1.5

Conclusion:

Assembly tolerance chain stack up analysis is used for calculating the tolerance
value of the overall assembly (or a gap in the assembly) from the tolerance values of the
individual components. The worst case method of the stack up analysis is the simplest
among all the methods used in industry.
3.3.Root Sum Square (RSS)

Unlike the previous method, Root Sum Square

(RSS) assumes the certainty of tolerance estimate and
the arrangement of tolerances being considered.

This statistical method of calculating tolerance stack-up

analysis denotes total tolerance as mentioned below,

Where,

➢ n = Number of constituent dimensions in the dimension chain.

➢ d i = Tolerance associated with the ith dimension.

Contrasting the method mentioned afore, this methodology can be used in cases where,

(a) Volume of production is very high

(b) Finite rejection of the product assembly is acceptable.

(c) The number of constituent dimensions in the loop is sufficiently large.

Calculations

The root sum square (RSS) method works on a statistical approach. It assumes that
most of the components fall to the mid of the tolerance zone rather than at the extreme
ends.

The aim of the

assembly tolerance stack up
analysis is to find out the
overall thickness (X) of the
assembly with tolerance. We
have the thickness and the
tolerance values of all the
plates (plate-1, 2, 3 and 4).
Calculate the nominal thickness of the whole assembly as below:

X = 15 + 15 + 15 + 27 = 72

Find the Standard Deviation (σ) of each components tolerance as below:

σplate1 = 0.4/3 = 0.133

σplate-2 = 0.3/3 = 0.1

σplate-3 = 0.3/3 = 0.1

σplate-4 = 0.5/3 = 0.167

Find out the standard deviation of the tolerance zone of the assembly like below:

σassembly = √ [(σplate-1)^2 + (σplate-2)^2 + (σplate-3)^2 + (σplate-4)^2 ] = 0.256

Find out the tolerance zone of the assembly like below:

T = σassembly * 3 = 0.256*3 = 0.768

So, the thickness dimension (X) with the tolerance zone of assembly would be:

X = 72 ± 0.768

The root sum square or RSS or statistical tolerance stack up method is useful for
tolerance stack up analysis of an assembly having a large numbers of components.

Best Tolerance Stackup Analysis Method

The fast paced manufacturing sector often highlights the best (and, the worst) of
both methodology. While worst case method is always deemed simple, root sum square
method often guarantees extra exact results. In the course of weighing the benefit of
each methodology, the fact remains unchanged-variation and its impact.

In such times, tolerance stackup analysis should be able to cater to the need of
achieving accuracy at minimal cost. Irrespective of the method used, optimization in
both existing and new design need to be ensured. Such should be the analysis that user
should be able to troubleshoot right in the initial stage, be able to contemplate on
alternate design idea…all this to meet the final production goal.

Benefits of Tolerance Stackup Analysis

➢ Reduces the rework resulting into cost reduction.

➢ Optimized use of resources at disposal.

➢ Sure fit which reduces the span of design-to-manufacture.

➢ Anticipate demand in advance.

➢ Knowing the cost and performance impact on the final assembled part.
 SURFACE ROUGHNESS

4.1.Introduction

Repetitive or random
deviations from the normal
surface which form the pattern
of the surface.
Surface texture include
roughness, waviness, lay and
flows. Every part’s surface is
made up of texture and
roughness which varies due to
manufacturing techniques and
the part structure itself.
1. Primary texture: lr/hr50 (Waviness)
2. Secondary texture: lw/hw>50 (Waviness)
The imperfections take the form of successive hills and valleys, which may vary
both in height and spacing, and results in a kind of “texture", which in appearance or
feel is often a characteristic of the machining process and its accompanying defects.
Roughness:
Roughness consists of surface irregularities which result from the various machining
process. These irregularities combine to form surface texture.
Roughness Height:
It is the height of the irregularities with respect to a reference line. It is measured in
millimeters or microns or micro inches. It is also known as the height of unevenness.
Roughness Width:
The roughness width is the distance parallel to the nominal surface between successive
peaks or ridges which constitute the predominate pattern of the roughness. It is
measured in millimeters.
Lay :
Lay represents the direction of predominant surface pattern produced and it reflects the
machining operation used to produce it.
Waviness Height:
Waviness height is the peak to valley distance of the surface profile, measured in
millimeters.
Flaws:
Irregularity which occur at one place or widely varying intervals in surface. It include
cracks, scratches etc.
Indication of Surface Texture:
The basic symbol consists of two legs of unequal length
inclined at approximately 60 degrees to the line representing the
considered surface
The symbol must be represented by thin line:

If the removal of material by machining is required, a bar is added

to the basic symbol.

If the removal of material is not permitted, a circle is added to the

basic symbol.

When special surface characteristics have to be indicated, a line is

added to the longer arm of any of the above symbols.

Indication of Surface Roughness:

The value or values defining the principal criterion of roughness are added to the
symbols

If it is required that the required If it is necessary to impose maximum

surface texture be produced by one
particular production method, this
method shall be indicated in plain
language on an extension of the longer
arm of the symbol
and minimum limits of the principal
criterion of surface roughness, both
values shall be shown,
Special Characteristic Symbol for
indicating Production Method.

Industrial Drawing:
Direction of Lay: