Calculus 1 Introduction to Differentiation

DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES

Figure (1)

As shown in the figure, A and B are two points very close together on a curve,
𝜹𝒙 (𝒅𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒂 𝒙) and 𝜹𝒚 (𝒅𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒂 𝒚) representing small increments in the x and y directions,
respectively.
𝜹𝒚
As 𝜹𝒙 approaches zero, ⁄𝜹𝒙 approaches a limiting value and the gradient of the chord
approaches the gradient of the tangent at A.
When determining the gradient of a tangent to a curve, there are two notations used. The
gradient of the curve at A in Figure (1) can either be written as:
𝛿𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 )
lim 𝑜𝑟 lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝛿𝑦
LEIBNIZ’ NOTATION = lim
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 )
FUNCTIONAL NOTATION 𝑓 ′(𝑥 ) = lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑑𝑦
is the same as 𝑓 ′(𝑥 ) and is called differential coefficient or the derivative. The process
𝑑𝑥
of finding the differential coefficient is called differentiation.
Calculus 1 Introduction to Differentiation

Summarizing, the differential coefficient,

𝒅𝒚 𝜹𝒚 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝜹𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙)
= 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 { }
𝒅𝒙 𝜹𝒙→𝟎 𝜹𝒙 𝜹𝒙→𝟎 𝜹𝒙

Sample Problem #1

Differentiate from first principles 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 and determine the value of the gradient of the curve
at 𝒙 = 𝟐.
Solution:
To differentiate using the first principles means “to find 𝑓′(𝑥)” by using the expression
𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2
Substituting (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) for x gives:
𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 2
Hence,
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 2 ) − (𝑥 2 )
𝑓 ′(𝑥 ) = lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

′(
2𝑥𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 2
𝑓 𝑥 ) = lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

2𝑥𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 2
𝑓 ′(𝑥 ) = lim { }
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑓 ′(𝑥 ) = lim {2𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 }

𝛿𝑥→0

As 𝜹𝒙 → 𝟎, [𝟐𝒙 + 𝜹𝒙] → [𝟐𝒙 + 𝟎]. Thus, 𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙, i.e., the differential coefficient of 𝒙𝟐 is 𝟐𝒙.
At 𝒙 = 𝟐, the gradient of the curve, 𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟐(𝟐) = 𝟒.
Calculus 1 Introduction to Differentiation

Sample Problem #2

Find the differential coefficient of 𝒚 = 𝟓𝒙.

Solution:
By definition:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim { }
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

The function being differentiated is 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 5𝑥. Substituting (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) for x gives:

𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) = 5(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 + 5𝛿𝑥
Hence,
𝑑𝑦 (5𝑥 + 5𝛿𝑥 ) − (5𝑥 )
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim { }
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑦 5𝛿𝑥
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim { } = lim {5}
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0

𝒅𝒚
Since the term 𝛿𝑥 does not appear in [5], the limiting value as 𝛿𝑥 → 0 of [5] is 5. Thus, = 𝟓,
𝒅𝒙
i.e., the differential coefficient of 5x is 5. The equation 𝑦 = 5𝑥 represents a straight line of gradient
5. The “differential coefficient” means, “the gradient of the curve”, and since the slope of the line
𝑦 = 5𝑥 is 5, the result can be obtained by inspection. Hence, in general, if 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥, then the
𝑑𝑦
gradient of the line is k and or 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑘.
𝑑𝑥

Sample Problem #3

Find the derivative of 𝒚 = 𝟖.

Solution:
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 8. Since there are no x-values in the original equation, substituting (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) for x still
gives 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) = 8. Hence,
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim { }
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑦 8−8
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim { }=0
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
Calculus 1 Introduction to Differentiation

𝒅𝒚
Thus, when 𝒚 = 𝟖, 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎.

The equation 𝑦 = 8 represents a straight horizontal line and the gradient of a horizontal line is
zero, hence the result could have been determined by inspection. “Finding the derivative” means
“finding the gradient”, hence, in general, for any horizontal line, if 𝒚 = 𝒌 (where k is a constant),
𝒅𝒚
then 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎.

Sample Problem #4

Differentiate from first principles 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 .

Solution:
Substituting (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) for x gives:
𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) = 2(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)3
𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) = 2(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 2 )
𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) = 2(𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥 + 3𝑥𝛿𝑥 2 + 𝛿𝑥 3 )
𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥 + 6𝑥𝛿𝑥 2 + 2𝛿𝑥 3
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim { }
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑑𝑦 ′( )
(2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥 + 6𝑥𝛿𝑥 2 + 2𝛿𝑥 3 ) − (2𝑥 3 )
= 𝑓 𝑥 = lim { }
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑑𝑦 6𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥 + 6𝑥𝛿𝑥 2 + 2𝛿𝑥 3
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim { }
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim {6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝛿𝑥 + 2𝛿𝑥 2 }
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0

Hence, 𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟔𝒙𝟐, i.e., the differential coefficient of 𝟐𝒙𝟑 is 𝟔𝒙𝟐.