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EF2000 PIRATE test flights campaign

Luigi Enrico Guzzetti, Livio Busnelli

Luigi Enrico Guzzetti, Livio Busnelli, "EF2000 PIRATE test flights campaign,"
Proc. SPIE 7109, Image and Signal Processing for Remote Sensing XIV,
71090N (10 October 2008); doi: 10.1117/12.799656

Event: SPIE Remote Sensing, 2008, Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom

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 EF2000 PIRATE Test flights campaign.
Luigi Enrico Guzzetti SELEX Galileo (IT)
Livio Busnelli SELEX Galileo (IT)

ABSTRACT

The PIRATE, short for Passive Infra Red Airborne Tracking Equipment, multi mode Infrared Sensor, has been
developed and manufactured by the Eurofirst consortium. The consortium is led by SELEX Galileo, contract award since
1992, from Italy, and includes THALES UK, and TECNOBIT from Spain.
At the end of the development phase, a three years flight test campaign has started in 2005, and has been carried out
involving Eurofighter partner companies, as flight trials responsible, like ALENIA in Turin (FLIR flight testing leading
company), BAE SYSTEM in Warton, and EADS in Manching, highlighting the functionality and the performance of the
unit, when operating in real scenarios, with cooperative target and TOO (target of opportunity), across different weather
conditions, like clean sky, but also misty and cloudy weather, haze and hail, generally not ideal to the infrared
wavelength operation, either during tracking or imaging.

Keywords: IRST, Infra Red Search Track, FLIR, Forward Looking Infra Red

1. SCOPE

This paper briefly reports about the PIRATE (Passive Infra Red Airborne Tracking Equipment -- herein called ‘
FLIR ’ for brevity), flight trials development and testing campaign, carried out on the Eurofighter (EF2000 Typhoon)
aircraft.

2. A BIT OF HISTORY

The FLIR has been developed through a period spanning between 1992 and 2007. A huge effort of the partner
companies has been necessary to handle such a complex project, either from a technical and programmatic point of view.
As in any other Eurofighter programme, the unit is the result of a joint effort of different companies from different
nations, which work-share is balanced among them according to the main investment coming from the customer nations.
The partner companies are TECNOBIT, from Spain, THALES from UK, and SELEX GALIEO from Italy (leading
company / contract award). These three companies are joint in the Eurofirst consortium.
The unit has been developed substantially starting form scratch, as the Eurofighter programme is very demanding in
terms of development of new technology, even if always keeping an eye on other typical aspects of the avionic defence
market, like reliability, affordability, secure second source components rather than efficient logistic support.
Nowadays, while the qualification phase of the equipment is almost over, either in the laboratory, on the purchaser
avionic RIG reproducing the functional operating condition, and on field, i.e. during the flight trials campaign performed
by Eurofighter, under the supervision of the final customer, the programme is in a well established production phase;
almost a hundred of AC delivered to the Air Forces of UK, Spain and Italy, are equipped with the FLIR, while the
German set up is still without the FLIR unit, because of a decision of their government.
Everything written here is taken from the experience of the flight trials as seen by the supplier, i.e. stressing topics
like the discovery and fixing of problems or algorithms improvement, possibly not giving the right evidence to other
issues much more related to the aircraft functions in its operative environment.

3. AN OVERVIEW OF THE UNIT.

The FLIR is a multi role sensor, able to supply tracking and imaging modes. It is based on a focal plane array
detector, on which the incoming radiation is focalised through an optical path. The detector elements are made of CMT
(Cadmium Mercury Telluride), sensitive to the far IR radiation (8 – 14 µ). The real bandwidth used inside the sensor is
further optimised to maximise the performance in terms of detections of small thermal spots.

Image and Signal Processing for Remote Sensing XIV, edited by

Lorenzo Bruzzone, Claudia Notarnicola, Francesco Posa, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7109
71090N · © 2008 SPIE · CCC code: 0277-786X/08/$18 · doi: 10.1117/12.799656

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 Figure 1: FLIR unit with and without the front casing

3.1. Optical module

The incoming radiation is conveyed onto the FPA (Focal Plane Array) detector, through an optical path composed
of different kind of lenses working in the IR bandwidth, like germanium, gallium arsenide, KR5 and similar, for a total
of more than 90 reflecting surfaces, containing the overall attenuation of the input radiation. The main window facing the
external world, is made of Zinc Sulphide coated by a protective layer with a further durable coating on top of it, to resist
the environment, the pressure, the erosion and the ram air.
A sealed optical module
HEAD
SCAN FPA contains such components. It is
MIRROR DETECTOR
plugged inside the main box,
installed on the Aircraft on the left
side of the fuselage. The optical
module allows the selection of two
different FOVs (Field of View), for
the imaging and for the tracking
INPUT IR
operation. The scanning can be
WINDOW executed by an head mirror mounted
on a two axes gimbals, located right
IMAGER inside the main entrance dome, in
DEROTATION
PRISM
tracking modes, or by a flapping
AFOCAL
TELESCOPE mirror that can be synchronised to a
U
common video frequency, allowing
operation in imaging mode.

VIDEO
FOLDING SCANNING
MIRROR MIRROR

Figure 2: Optical path

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 ((x
.
.1.

.fl
.=?= •-/

Figure 3: optical module

The gold flashed heading mirror reflects the radiation directly inside the afocal telescope, after which a folding
mirror directs the IR rays inside a derotation prism, enable to compensate the periscopic effect during the scanning of the
FOR(Field Of Regard), and to rotate the detector array onto the scenario permitting different stabilisation of the scanning
in inertial space with respect to the aircraft attitude. A flapping mirror permits the scanning at video frequency, while the
subsequent imager mechanism gives the final focalisation onto the detector array. A Stirling cycle cryogenic cooler
allows the detector to cool down at 70K, where the material is sensitive to the thermal radiation.
The optical module is fully interchangeable, being provided with strictly controlled mechanical alignments
reference points, and a set of parameters, factory setup, taking into account of all the opto-mechanical differences to the
nominal design, to real time compensate the pointing and the distortion, and also data correcting the non uniformity of
the detector elements responsivity, used for the correction of the picture, and, generally, the IR stream.

3.2. Sensor head

The main head mirror can be driven to perform a scan of the external world in
a sequence of constant elevation bars, stabilised in the Aircraft inertial system, or
to follow a single hot spot when in single target tracking rather than slaved to
external sources like the pilot direct control or the input from its head position
when the FLIR image is projected onto the HMD (Helmet Mounted Display) worn
by the pilot itself.
A sophisticated Servo Loop system is running to provide all the kind of
stabilisations and the proper pointing accuracy.
An auto-focus mechanism is continuously operating, detecting the
temperature of the optical components and re–calculating the optimum focus and
focal length of the system, fine adjusting the position of a telescope lens, and
redefining in real time the angular sub-tense of the detector elements, giving the
right geometry to the video processing in order to properly compensate for the
distortion and apply the right magnification to the picture, and to the data
processor to give it the correct information, to permit the proper tracking of
subsequent detections and the definition of their exact position.
A gyroscope based system, is installed inside the unit to increase the
accuracy of the stabilisation, especially detecting the high frequency disturbance,
out of the bandwidth of the incoming aircraft inertial data, at the location where the
FLIR is installed. Such data are combined (blended) with the inertial AC data,
Figure 4:Head Mirror on the gimbals. providing a real internal accurate inertial navigation system.
Such data are real time distributed to all the processors. The IR signal coming
out from the detector through its low noise proximity electronics, is converted into a 14 bit digital stream, giving an
overall bandwidth of up to 400 MHz in the most demanding mode. The actuators and moving mechanism inside the
optical module are operated by the Sensor Head Electronics Assembly that is supplying power and controls to all the
movable parts.

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 Figure 5: Scanning stabilisation in the different modes

3.3. Video processor

Once converted into a 14 bits digital format, the signal is

Figure 6: HUD and MHHD in the Aircraft Cockpit.
processed to become a picture projected onto the HUD (Head Up
Display), or the MHDD (Multi-function Head Down Display) of
the Aircraft, as requested by the engaged mode. Processes like the
Gain and Offset compensation of the different elements of the
detectors, caring about their different responsivity, the histogram
equalisation, the edge enhancement, and other techniques to
optimize the aspect of the picture when seen by the pilot, especially
during severe manoeuvring of the aircraft giving instantaneous
changes of the background inside the FOV, are real time executed
inside the video processor.
The optical distortion is electronically compensated permitting
an exact overlay of the image to the external world as seen through
the HUD by the pilot. The effects of the temperature on the optics
are taken into account as well by applying the different focal length
to the magnification and distortion compensation processes, as
described above.

3.4. Data processor.

This is where the detection and tracking of the targets is carried out.
The MTT (Multi target Tracking), is a search mode, where the system is able to follow a number of targets not very
close to the ownship. Extremely low level thermal radiation (signature) objects, can be kept under track at the same time,
while the coverage of the external scenario can be up to the maximum extension of the FOR. When a target gets closer to
the ownship, other modes can be engaged, like STT (Single Target Tracking), where a target can be followed and locked
down to very close distance. A picture of the scene can be displayed while in STT, giving the possibility for the
identification of the threat. SACQ (Slaved acquisition) is another Tracking mode, where the pilot directly selects an area
of interest, as seen through the HUD, and can immediately lock on the target.
Algorithms and techniques like auto-thresholding, together with a sophisticated classification and features
extraction of the detected signatures, limits the number of false alarms, especially in presence of noisy clutter inside the
FOR, like clouds glints, forest, or city urban agglomerate.
The Data Processor, takes the blended inertial data as a navigation data source for the calculation of the target
position in an inertial system, either referred to the aircraft or to the local geographical coordinates.

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 Despite being the FLIR a fully passive and stealth sensor, the Data Processor can also derive a range of the target,
helped by the dynamics of the Aircraft. Such kinematic range is essential for the so called sensor fusion, i.e. a collection
of algorithms, resident and run time running, in the avionic system of the aircraft.
Such information contributes to the operation of the avionics, when fed into the sensor fusion, i.e. what supplied by
the FLIR is compared with similar data coming from other sensors, for example the RADAR, allowing to select the best
characteristics for every target declared by more than one sensor, selecting and prioritizing all the threats. The angular
accuracy supplied by the FLIR is always a candidate to represent the best parameter estimate for a target.
While in imaging mode, during the navigation, a tracking air to surface function can be selected, i.e. a number of
ground targets, located below the horizon, can be detected and highlighted, directly to the HUD, offered to the pilot for
their threat evaluation.

3.5. Bus interface, moding & control.

The position of the targets are finally supplied to the avionic BUS of the Aircraft, specifically to the ATTACK
BUS. Other than the angular position and the range of the targets, information on the signature and the characteristic of
the detected threats are supplied, together with details on the dynamics and the achieved accuracy of the output FLIR
parameters, like the instantaneous angular accuracy.
Other information are exchanged through the high speed bus, the basic commands like the mode changes or the
attitude data coming from the inertial sensors of the aircraft, or information about the health of the unit, useful for a fast
and efficient repair in case of failures.

4. INSTALLATION ON THE AC

The unit is installed in the fuselage of the Eurofighter Aircraft, on the left side, in an advantageous position that is
not confining the functionality to air to air or to ground operation only. Both of them are permitted, with the only
limitation is that part of the bottom right side of the Field of Regard, i.e. the area the FLIR is able to cover during the
scanning, is obscured by the Aircraft nose. This is not, anyway, very significant, so that the installation permits to cover
a wide area during the tracking modes, while, when in imaging modes, the FOV is practically not obscured at all. The
front window protrudes outboard of the envelope of the fuselage as it were looking for a better position to look at the
external scenario.

'
;40•

Figure 7: Installation

5. TESTING

5.1. Laboratory testing

During the development and the prototyping phases, the unit has been widely and thoroughly tested in a laboratory
environment, reproducing most of the conditions encountered during the real operation.

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 The unit can be mounted on a moving table simulating and reproducing the aircraft manoeuvring, while e collimator
is projecting real IR target, in different shape, like pin holes of various dimensions, stripe and slit targets, to verify the
standard parameters as for every IR based system, like the MRTD (Minimum Resolvable temperature Difference) or the
MTF (Modulation Transfer Function), and the NETD (Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference). All the artificial
targets can be driven to present the desired temperature delta with respect to the background with a precision and
stability of less than 0.1 K; the ∆T with respect to the background can be varied, to simulate moving objects of assorted
shape and distance.
A computer is fully reproducing the behaviour of the avionic system sending and reading out all the messages in
real time, managing also further testing lines showing the innermost processes in progress inside the system.

5.2. RIG testing

The avionic system of the aircraft is completely reproduced in the RIG, based at the Purchaser premises, where all
the sensors can be exercised through simulations of real missions. Data are injected and different scenarios are
reproduced in real time, according to the input dictated by the main computer, driving the testing sequence, in terms of
number and dynamics of the simulated tracks. A unit, acting as a RSE (Rig Support Equipment), for every sensors,
creates the commanded scenario translating it into the appropriate stream of data for the specific sensor, according to its
physics. In the case of the FLIR, the RSE is represented by the IRDG (Infra Red Data Generator), that is able to real time
supply a stream of digital data, up to the maximum frequency, containing all the features as they were directly derived
from a scanning of the external scene.

6. FLIGHT TRIALS

The first tracking trial was performed by ALENIA, with some success, i.e. keeping a target revealed by the RADAR
as well, in STT, for around 200 seconds. This was in 2004, where the FLIR SW and algorithms were not mature enough,
especially in tracking. Imaging trials were performed even before that, since 2001 on, especially by ALENIA, during
ferry flights between Turin and Sardinia.
More than a hundred hours of flights have been carried out, on the development Eurofighter aircrafts, by three of the
Eurofighter partner companies, i.e. BAES, EADS and ALENIA, being ALENIA the responsible for the final assessment
as far as the FLIR was concerned. Data form the Avionic Bus have been recorded, as well as the video images supplied
to the displays, to make the full representation of the mission available for evaluation and data analysis. Very often, co-
operative targets were flown, to exercise the FLIR across simulations of real missions, with typical manoeuvres, to test
the behaviour of the FLIR, especially in the tracking functionality. Furthermore, a number of ride along flights have been
executed, for example during the transfer flights, and, even if data where not recorded, the pilots experienced the
capability of the FLIR, looking at the picture, or noticing the tracking of TOOs (Target Of Opportunity), like common
airline aircrafts.

6.1. Imaging modes

The picture of the FLIR can be either displayed on the MHDD, or projected onto the HUD. In the latter situation the
image is overlaid to the external world. An initial assessment of the alignment of the FLIR picture has been carried out,
successfully, exploring the capability to trim the picture shape in terms of dimensions and centring, to take into account
for the positions of the pilot’s head with respect to the display, compensating for the specific pilot posture, and
minimising the parallax error.
The image has been initially evaluated on ground, the compensation of the distortion, electronically achieved inside
the FLIR, as well as the compensation for the magnification variation with the temperature of the optics was assessed.
During the first flights, the image was judged too faint, especially when looking at uniform backgrounds. The image
processing algorithms were modified, optimising the area where the coefficients for the compensation were taken from,
trying to include, in typical situations like level flights, all the ground area, where the FLIR is supposed to optimise the
picture, but also a conspicuous part of the sky, generally more uniform than the ground, so that all the grey levels in the
scenario have representation in the final histogram equalisation.
The trimming of the boundaries of such an area, was directly possible in flight, by means of a piece of test SW,
giving the possibility to modify the area shape, and have immediate feedback to either the pilot for its satisfaction and to
the designer for the algorithm fixing.

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 During sustained manoeuvring of the aircraft, the pilot noticed that, due to the sudden variation of the scene inside
the FOV, flashes on the picture were present, deriving from instantaneous application of the newly calculated histogram
to the changed pixel streams. Bank manoeuvring, especially, highlighted such phenomenon. A trimming of the filtering
application on the varied coefficients have been implemented, to assure smoother transitions.
Problem in the distortion and magnification correction during flights became evident, being the temperature
variations in flight more rapid than during in house testing, very often creating thermal spots inside the optical module,
not leaving the necessary time for the thermal stabilisation; a situation that can hardly be reproducible even in a
controlled laboratory environment. The compensation algorithm was modified, successfully, completely changing the
remapping technique of the pixels in the image stream.
Uniform backgrounds, like the clear sky, i.e. scenes with small variance of their grey level distribution, soon
underlined a limit of the histogram equalisation technique, pushing the algorithm to give a very narrow needle-like
transfer function, with the adverse effects to excessively make defects in the optics, or differences among adjacent
detector elements, visible, further highlighting everything that during normal scenarios has a very small or negligible
equivalent ∆T.
The limit to the maximum number of pixels belonging to the same bin value, before calculating the final transfer
function, the so called Plateau, dynamically variable, was better adjusted, giving a less sharp transfer between the pixels
values coming out from the detector and the displayed grey levels.
The SBC (Scene Based Correction) algorithm takes into account the differences among adjacent pixels and try to
compensate them considering the appearance of the image from the currently scanned and displayed stream, and the
small probability of sudden changes between the statistics of adjacent lines.
According to the pilots comments, in order to avoid noisy stripes in presence of very big contrasted objects, the
algorithm was optimised limiting the area where the statistics is taken from, specifically removing the high contrasted
small area from this process, and limiting the maximum values of the gains and offsets applied to adjacent pixels.
Being the detector a very expensive components, maximum care was taken to make full use of units with some
element responsivity slightly out of the initial specification, due to manufacturing and technological problems, and avoid
them to generate a sort of domino effects in the image, i.e. propagating the defects, especially due to the iterative
compensation processes running in the SBC. On top of that, a significant result of such an experimentation, is the factory
set up of the FLIR unit, before delivery, now including a procedure created to mark the so called ‘ bad pixels ’ inside the
optical module configuration memory, signalling them to the algorithms for their removal from the calculation.
A number of recorded night flights were performed, to show the obvious peculiarity of every IR camera, i.e. the
possibility to supply image during the night giving the impression of a normal daylight.
Especially flights around the sunset, dusk time, have been deeply looked after, where the thermal inversion happens,
and the demarcation area between the terrain and the sky, tends to become more and more confused.
The pilots had a thorough evaluation of the effectiveness of the image, however, being such the worse condition to a
general IR system, it can be summarised that good results have been achieved across this adverse environment.
Through the whole campaign, the pilots shown a preference for the Black-Hot visualisation, (hot objects displayed
as black), generally during the day, and intense sunlight illumination, while the White-Hot representation was sometimes
chosen during the night, or low illumination condition, for example when flying under a low clouds ceiling; this is
obviously a matter of every pilot’s taste, being the FLIR able to always give both possibilities.
During the navigation, a number of details were made visible, like ships, boats, cars, motorways, trains and
railways, bridges, industry, oil tanks, small animals, birds, obviously chimneys, dams, wharves and docks, common
backgrounds like forest or agricultural terrain, or urban city, everything with a thermal contrast with respect to its
surroundings in the picture, or with a different emission in the IR bandwidth, and also visible and identifiable at a
consistent range with a good level of details. The structure of numerous objects became soon familiar to the pilot,
recognisable, able to represent immediate feedback and comparison when a new version of the video processing
algorithms were tried, once the aircraft was driven to view the same scenario, similarity of the weather condition
permitting.
Obviously, military vehicles, tanks, fighters on ground or AC shelters, military ships, destroyers etc … were well
visible and identifiable. Evidently, the higher the aircraft altitude, the lower the brightness and the contrast of the picture,
but sufficient image performance has been achieved at high altitude as well, at least what is considered a normal
navigation cruising altitude and even more than that.
Again, generally, the pilot preference was for the picture on the MHDD, while the superimposed picture on the
HUD was sometimes not well discernible, or at least not always adding information to the already present scene,

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 especially during the day; problems inside the avionic system, about the combination of many synthetic and realistic
video signals on the same projector, contributed to this as well.
The celestial bodies did not give very much disturbance, as expected from the IR theory, like the sun. It appears as a
black (in black-hot) circle of moderate dimensions without any glare o flare around it.
The landing deserves special attention: one of the imaging modes explicitly requires an aid to the pilot during the
landing in adverse weather condition or at night. Many landings were performed; initial problems were found, because of
the difficulties identification of the horizon, and the quality of the picture onto the HUD, and for the high so called angle
of attack required, consequently centring the picture to make the runaway to appear in a very limited and too low area of
the image. However, after some practise, the pilots got used to the mode, and began to regularly make use of the FLIR
image for the landing. In the end, the landing with the FLIR picture is considered positive.
It has to be noted that no landing during night in the deep dark has been carried out. This is because of the
impossibility to land in the dark on a common runaways used for such trials, very often the same used by the civil
aviation, due to the civil airport limitation. An emergency landing in an hostile environment, in a swampy or desert
terrain, without any illumination at all, on an extemporaneous runaway, will surely take benefit of the presence of the
FLIR image.

OO:I73775
1
Figure 8: HUD and MHDD (right), white hot/black hot (left)

, S

Figure 9: Typical IR pictures

6.2. Tracking modes

The air to air primary role of the FLIR, is mainly represented by the MTT (Multi Target Tracking) mode, in which
the FLIR (here fully engaged in its IRST functionality), is supposed to follow a number of targets inside a specific FOR,
the so called scan volume, defined by the avionic and scanned by the Head mirror, in inertial space, as a number of
contiguous constant elevation bars.
Tests have been done starting from the simple tracking without cooperative targets, just to open the door of the
FLIR IR path to the external world and see what was going to happen.
By that time, i.e. the beginning of the flight trials, the literature and the experience on similar tracking missions,
employing Infra Red based tracking sensors, was indeed very poor.
Two things, the first as a consequence of the other, were immediately noticed, i.e. the absolute preference to look up
scenarios, and the high amount of declared targets together with their short duration.
The look down scenarios could likely include terrain background, hence clutter, and consequent increase of declared
false alarms, even if not precluding the possibility to track aircrafts with an altitude lower than the ownship, and
consequently appearing below the horizon, or helicopters flying in front of woody hills. The look up scenarios appeared
as a reasonable first step.

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 Some iterations were necessary to find out the right combination of commanded scan volume, tests to be performed,
initially avoiding, for example, complex functionality, like auto-volume or auto-centring of the scan volume, or
immediate attempts to enter STT ( Single Target Track ).
After some other trials, and some initial refinements of the tracking parameters, TOOs were declared repetitively
together with other targets which presence could not be confirmed.
As far as the number of presumably false declarations were concerned, tough discussions were held and finally it
was decided to increase the minimum limit of the thresholds to permit the detection for consistent IR signature targets
only and allow the first verification with a known cooperative target, leaving to a further stage the full performance
demonstration, including extreme detection ranges.
The minimum threshold was set up according to empirical tests performed on the roof of the supplier company,
facing a civil high traffic airport and trying to be selective in terms of signatures and number of tracks. In the end, we
have been a lot conservative, so that the first flight with a cooperative target allowed the tracking at some nautical miles,
surely less than what required by the specification, but it helped in limiting the number of other undefined alarms to a
real minimum. First, ‘tail on’, i.e. with a relative stability of the signature of the target, was tried, than ‘head on’, and
other geometries and dynamics.
Immediate findings were the difficulties on the tracking maintenance across different elevation bars of the scan
volume, i.e. when the target was crossing the bars boundaries, because of the combination of its manoeuvring and
owniship manoeuvring, ending inside the so called overlap area (bars overlap). This was fixed by means of an
improvement of the factory alignment procedure, optimising the default position of the derotation prism, and introducing
a more consistent and robust detection algorithm able to better manage the concomitance of the same track as seen on
adjacent bars.
Gradually, the minimum threshold were decreased permitting track at considerable range. Additional diagnostic
parameters were added to the Bus messages to help in the data analysis, making the equipment more and more robust.
Function like the auto-volume and auto-centring have been successfully verified, where the system is independently
able to adapt and adjust the volume of the scanned area or its centre, accounting for the ensemble of the threat scenario
with associated target priorities. Another countermeasure to contain the number of very short duration alarms, was the
introduction of a longer declaration time, i.e. the system was forced to confirm the presence of the same detection for a
longer period, before promoting it to a real target to the avionic system.
The retention time, i.e. the time necessary to terminate the prediction of a disappeared target, was slightly increased
according to the experience gained looking at the dynamics of common aircrafts. A lot of effort was in the area of the so
called target stability, the capability of the system to maintain the track once declared, without loosing and grabbing it,
with a different identifier, or exchanging signature with a similar one or being confused by noise, wrongly entering the
prediction phase.
To fix all these problems highlighted by the trials, a number of sophisticated functionality have been introduced or
refined, inside the so called classifier, initially disabled to guarantee the consistency of simple basic tracking, but
progressively more and more important to the good outcome of the mission.
As it can be easily figured out, a number of big and small issues has presented, requiring immediate fixing, like, the
trespassing of the south direction from the target, the scan awareness under certain circumstances, the tracking under
extreme manoeuvring, the overload of the data processor, adjusted by means of the threshold trimming, and many others.
Once the FLIR tracking consistency was judged sufficient, the time to compare the result of the FLIR tracking with
other more mature and traditional sensors, like for example, the RADAR was due to begin. The RADAR installed on the
Eurofigther, as on any other fighter, is a reference for the targets discovery. The minimum threshold was further reduced,
to allow for a greater number of targets to appear.
Other testing involved the capability to track a target outside the current scanned area, but seen by other sensors like
the RADAR. Such a technique calls for the necessity to command the FLIR to look in a sector where the RADAR target
is, and force it to a declaration as soon as possible. Successful trials have been recorded.
It was immediately evident how the capability of the FLIR in terms of target tracking was often comparable to the
RADAR one, especially giving even better angular accuracy, as it should be according to the theory, and acquiring the
targets at a comparable range. Very often the same targets were declared for long period of time, positively feeding the
sensor fusion of the aircraft. The capability of the FLIR in terms of kinematic ranging, was initially not sufficient; this is
the possibility to supply a range of a target, as described above, even being the FLIR a passive sensor, by means of
geometrical calculation, taking into account the dynamics of the ownship and suppositions on the dynamics of the target.

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 A long set of trials was devoted to the fine-tuning of the most suitable manoeuvre, to permit the calculation of the
range. Some of the manoeuvres performed on the RIG, as a preliminary validation testing, were repeated as well during
the flights, with some success but without the expected repeatability.
Such a problem was also impacting the sensor fusion mechanism and the final scope to have the so called fused
target (i.e. a target where the characteristic parameters are chosen among different sensors according to their specific
peculiarity). It was always difficult to fully ‘ fuse ’ a target between the FLIR and the RADAR, as, while the angular
position was absolutely more than enough to identify the similarity, the range often was not. A FLIR target is often
called an ‘ angular only target ’, because of this reason.
When the fusion was satisfactorily, attempts to lock on a fused target were performed, i.e. to enter the STT on such
a track. Either on fused or angular only targets, good STT was obtained in terms of pointing accuracy and tracking
stability, also on either very far and extremely close targets.
As a general comment, better performance are achieved against look-up scenarios, i.e. when the scan volume is
pointed across, but mostly above, the horizon. Enemies of the FLIR consistent and robust tracking are surely the edges of
the clouds with their glints and flares, even if the latest improvements in the classification algorithms noticeably reduced
the number of false alarms due to these causes. As far as the weather condition are concerned, the theoretical concept
about the IR transmissivity and its limitation inside such application is strengthened and confirmed by these trials; very
simply, the clean sky is the best background; nevertheless, good performance have been achieved also during misty
weather, but still very valid from an operational point of view.
To the purpose of scenarios analysis where clutter and various kind of noisy backgrounds are present, the
availability of the recorded incoming IR stream would be beneficial. This was possible during some trials performed
inside the consortium, but not on the Eurofighter fight trials, because of programme reasons.
Cooperative targets were generally other Eurofighter’s, or Tornado’s rather than Phantom’s. At the end of the trails
campaign, quite a number of data set were made available, where it is possible to identify the trajectories of the targets
and of the ownship, define the angular position of the targets and their slant ranges, and find them again inside the data
bus, as shown by the FLIR as fully tracked targets for long period of time.
The tracking in MTT mode, was in the end rated reasonably correct, even if some improvements in the consistency
of the data supplied by the FLIR, specifically regarding the false alarm rate and the kinematic ranging, together with a
better target stability, would be appreciated.
Here below, an example of tracking in MTT is shown. The jitters in the continuous line is due to the sampling of the
data used for the calculation. At a certain point, either the azimuth and elevation tracks leave the target as it exits the
scanned area.

Figure 10: Azimuth and elevation tracking in MTT

6.3. Thermal cueing

This is a sub-function where imaging and tracking are joint. Ground targets are highlighted through simbology
superimposed on the picture projected onto the HUD. It is a real air to surface mode, and, despite being a sub-mode, this
has been widely exercised and tested attracting the attentions of the pilots. The scanning is carried out by the small
flapping mirror at video frequency, so that, the data processor can refresh the scenario information very rapidly. The

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 ground targets appear instantaneously, some of them only have to be displayed, to give the pilot a reasonable scenario;
initially, it was apparent how the prioritisation was a big issue, where usual scenarios generated a very big number of
potential tracks. The prioritisation rules have been attuned upon discussion with the Purchaser, taking the feed back from
the pilots, considering the vicinity of the potential threat to the onwship, and its position with respect to the horizon, as
well as the ownship altitude. In TC as well, adjustments of the minimum threshold has been introduced, to contain the
jitters of the tracking simbology in the scene and increase the overall stability.
Objects visible in imaging can generally be tracked if this sub-mode is entered, so ships, boats, cars on the
motorways, trains and railways and so on, appear as potential targets.
As in imaging, everything showing thermal contrast with respect to its surroundings can be highlighted. Several
tests have been performed on favourable background condition, like the calm sea, as well as against more hostile
situation, like forest or agricultural terrain, mountains, an so on. During thermal cueing, the verification of the cues slant
range, has shown good results.
The final judgement of the test pilots was positive, supporting their utilisation even if we are speaking about a non
primary mode.

a a
Figure 11: TC in Black/Hot and White/Hot.

6.4. STT and Identification

The STT is clearly one of the most important functionality. Transition to STT can be obtained after a previous phase
in MTT, where one of the tracked target can be selected, or through another primary mode called SACQ (SLAVED
ACQUISITION) where the pilots manually search for an area of interest, moving the centre of the scan of the flapping
mirror where he thinks the threat is. When a target is identified, the system immediately locks on it and turns to STT.
Obviously, rejection of non wanted targets is always possible.
The pointing accuracy was shown to be comparable to what expected, while the tracking stability, here as well,
shown some malfunctions in terms of unwanted lost of the lock, even if rather infrequent, indeed. The final judgement of
the pilots was substantially positive, especially about the transition from SACQ to STT.
Another very interesting sub-function of this mode is the identification, i.e. the possibility to superimpose a real
picture of the scanned area, permitting to identify the kind of threat.
The domino and striping effects were initially devastating to the displayed picture quality. An image process,
similar to the one undertaken for the imaging, is carried out, with some differences; for example the gain and offset
compensation function removes the central area from the calculation of the compensation coefficients. This, because it is
supposed that, during successful STT, the threat is clearly lying there, and becomes bigger and bigger as it gets closer to
the ownship, increasing its contrast to the background as well.
The quality of the picture and of the overall functionality was judged very good. The possibility to recognise a
target is effectively there. Of course, the pilot knows about the co-operative targets during the test flights, but when
showing in flight recorded pictures to other pilots, they never failed in the identification.
Black Hot and White Hot, the digital magnification of the image, together with its freezing function, were widely
exercised and experimented.

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 Figure 12: Azimuth and elevation tracking in STT
rnr — LAO?

Figure 13: Identification of close targets, white hot/black hot

7. RELIABILITY

Up to five FLIR units have been flying at the same time in Warton, Manching and Turin. Only really few HW
failure has presented, and this can be considered down to the physiological level, also bearing in mind that development
units suffered of the lack of the full product engineerisation. Such a surprising level of reliability, allowed to concentrate
on the main effort, the fix of the SW and the tuning of the algorithms without worrying too much about other noisy
things.

8. CLEARANCE.

Despite of the initial diffidence on the functionality, detailed reports have been issued by all the test flights
companies, and especially by the FLIR flight trials responsible, i.e. ALENIA, giving a general positive judgement, and
not preventing the utilisation of any of the described modes. It is one of the first IR system, with either imaging and
search and track functionality’s, successfully installed on a fully operating Aircraft.

9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Quite a number of people contributed to the success, but among the Eurofigther community, three people, Leander
Arnold and Manfred Scheuer from EADS MANCHING, Germany, Purchaser FLIR team, and Roberto Lucherino from
ALENIA CASELLE, Italy, Flight Trials Test Department, have to be mentioned, that supported the activity because of
they role in the programme, but offering efforts and showing enthusiasm well above the boundary of the tasks they were
committed to, across the whole flight trials campaign.

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