MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

Mechanics of metal cutting consists of study of machining process and

accurate estimation of dynamic cutting forces by the use of suitable analytical
models.

METAL CUTTING

The process in which a thin layer of excess metal (chip) is removed by

a wedge-shaped single-point or multipoint cutting tool with defined geometry
from a work piece, through a process of extensive plastic deformation.

MACHINING

It is used to described removal of material from a workpiece with the

help of cutting tool to give desired shape and size, it covers several processes,
which we usually divide in to following categories as;

a) Cutting, generally involving single-point or multipoint cutting tools, each

with a clearly defined geometry.

b) Abrasive processes, such as grinding.

c) Non-traditional machining processes using electrical, chemical etc. energy.

Single Point Cutting Tool

This tool consists of a sharpened cutting part called its point and the shank.

The point of the tool is bounded by the face (along which the chips slides as
they are cut by the tool), the side flank or major flank the end flank or minor
flank and the base.
Single Point Cutting Tool Types:

There are only two types of tool:

1. Single and
2. Multi-Point cutting tool.

1. Single Point cutting tool:

 One cutting point or tip is available

 Example: Lathe Machine, Planning Machine tool

2. Multi-Point cutting tool:

 More than One cutting point or tip is available

 Example: Milling cutter, Grinding wheel, drill tool, extra.

Examples of cutting tools

Cutting tool is basically the cutter used in machining operation. Various
machining operations utilize different cutters and thus various names are
available for these cutters based on the application. A list of commonly used
cutting tools is provided below.
 1. Single point turning tool—cutter for turning operation performed in lathe
2. Drill—cutter for drilling operation performed on drilling machine or lathe
or milling machine
3. Milling cutter (or mill)—cutter for milling operations performed on
milling machine
4. Fly cutter—cutter for fly milling operation performed in milling machine
5. Shaper—cutter for shaping operation performed in shaping machine
6. Planer—cutter for planing operation performed in planing machine
7. Boring bar—cutter for boring operation performed in drilling or boring
machine
8. Reamer—cutter for reaming operation performed in drilling machine
9. Broach—cutter for broaching operation performed in broaching machine
10. Hob—cutter for hobbing operation performed in hobbing machine
11. Grinding wheel—abrasive cutter for grinding operation performed in
grinding machine.

CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

Cutting tool materials are the materials of the cutting tool present in the
machines which are used in different machining processes like turning,
shaping, slotting, etc.

1)Carbon Tool Steel:

It is one of the cheapest material used in cutting tools for different
machining processes. This material is also easy to make.
These carbon tool steel has a composition of 0.6-1.5 % carbon and very small
amount of Mn and Si which are less than 0.5%.
These material looses their hardness rapidly at a temperature of about 250°C,
so these are not suitable for high temperature applications and are not used
at high cutting speed. These are only used at low cutting speed. The hardness
of this material is about 65 Rc.
It is generally used for machining soft materials like aluminum, brass,
magnesium, etc.

2) High Speed Steel (H.S.S)

These materials were named high speed steel because these materials
can cut at speed higher than carbon steels.
But in today’s world, we have materials that can be used to cut at a higher
speed than high speed steel.
High speed steel is high carbon steel with a significant amount of alloying
elements such as tungsten, chromium, molybdenum, etc are present to
improve hardenability, toughness, and wear resistance.
These materials can retain their hardness up to 650°C.

High speed steel comes in two series:

i) Tungsten Series

In the tungsten series, the most famous material is 18-4-1 HSS, it means it
has 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and 1% vanadium. Apart from these there
is 0.5% to 0.75% carbon is also available in this material.

ii)MolybdenumSeries:

In the molybdenum series, the most used material 6-6-4-2 HSS. In this
material, there is 6% tungsten, 6% molybdenum, 4% Chromium and 2%
vanadium. It also has 0.6% carbon.

3) Cast non-ferrous alloys:

It is named so because it is nor-ferrous alloy and made using casting.

A typical alloy of this type is stellite which has 30-35% chromium, 43-48%
cobalt, 17-19% tungsten, and nearly 2% Carbon.
Cast non-ferrous alloys can maintain their hardness up to 900°C.
Cast non-ferrous alloys can cut at double speed than the speed of the high
speed steel.

4) Carbides:

Carbides are the cutting tool that mainly consists of tungsten carbides
particles that are held together by cobalt and nickel.
Straight tungsten carbide tools contain about 94% tungsten carbide and 6%
cobalt. Straight tungsten carbides are used for machining cast iron.
It is not used for machining steel because if we use it for machining steel then
the chips tend to stick to the tool. To overcome this problem tantalum,
titanium is added to the carbides.
These carbides are made by powder metallurgy techniques.
The initial cost of carbides is high but it can cut at a speed which is 4 to 5
times the speed of High speed steel (H.S.S).
Carbides can retain their cutting edges up to 1200°C. They are very hard and
they also have very high compressive strength.
The disadvantage with carbides is that they are brittle in nature and cant
withstand impact loading.
5) Ceramics or Cemented Oxides:

These are essentially aluminum oxide powder. Apart from aluminum oxides
additives like titanium, magnesium, or chromium oxide are also used.
Ceramics are harder than all the materials discussed above.
Ceramics can retain their hardness up to 1100°C.

6) Cermets:

Cermets are the combination of ceramics and metals and they are produced
using powder metallurgy technique.
In the combination of metal and ceramics, ceramics will give high
refractoriness, and metals will give high toughness and thermal shock
resistance.
Cermet is a cemented carbide with titanium-based hard particles.

7) Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN):

Cubic Boron Nitride is the second hardest material available after diamonds to
be used as a cutting tool material.

CBN tools are used in two ways:-

1) It is used as a small solid tip.
2) It is used as a 0.5 to 1mm thick layer of polycrystalline boron nitride
sintered into a carbide substrate under pressure.
In the second case, the CBN layer provides high wear resistance and cutting
edge strength and the carbide provides high shock resistance.

8) Diamond:

It is the hardest material of all discussed so far. Its main disadvantage is that
its cost is very high.
Since its cost is very high it is used to machining only such materials which
are very hard and cannot be cut using any of the tool material mentioned
above.
Diamond is also used as cutting tool material in such applications where high
accuracy and surface finish are required.
CHARACTERISTIC OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

 Cutting tools should have high strength, hardness even at higher or

lower temperatures.
 It should not change any of the material properties (ductility, hardness,
strength) in the long rung.
 It should have high toughness and should have the ability to withstand
shock and vibration.
 The tool should be cheap in price.
 Easily manufactured.
 It should have a low coefficient of friction.

TYPES OF METAL CUTTING PROCESS

Basically, the metal cutting process can be classified into two main types.

 Orthogonal cutting
 Oblique cutting

Orthogonal cutting Two Dimensional Cutting

It is a type of cutting in which the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction

of tool motion. In this cutting, the flow of chip is perpendicular to cutting edge.
The tool has lesser cutting life in this type of cutting.

Oblique cutting Three Dimensional Cutting

It is a type of cutting in which cutting tool is at an oblique angle to the direction

of tool motion. In this cutting, the flow of chip is not perpendicular to cutting
edge. The tool has greater cutting life as compared to orthogonal cutting.
CHIPS IN METAL CUTTING

Machining is a process of cutting metal work piece by means of a tool

to convert it into desire shape. It is a finishing or semi finishing process by
removal of excess material from work piece. The excess material removes
from work piece in form of chips.

Material removed from a workpiece with the help of a tool are

known as chips. Chips are formed by shearing. Machining of material is
highly dependent on chips.

Chips are formed during the machining process. As the cutting tool
engages the workpiece, the material ahead of tool is sheared and deformed
under tremendous pressure. The deformed material then seeks to relieve its
stressed conditon by fracturing and flowing above the tool in the form
of chip and hence the chips are formed.
The chips types are depend on

* Nature of work piece

* Nature of tool
* Dimension of tool
* Feed rate
* Cutting speed
* Friction between tool and work piece
* Cutting environment like temperature, friction etc.

TYPES OF CHIPS IN METAL CUTTING

1. Continuous chips:

According to its name, continuous chips have a continuous segment.

This chip is form during cutting of ductile material like aluminum, mild steal,
cooper etc. with a high cutting speed. The friction between tool and material
is minimum during this process. This is form due to continuous plastic
deformation of the material by application of tool. These chips have equal
thickness throughout the length. It generally gives good surface finish.
The most favorable conditions of forming continuous chips are

1. Work piece should have ductile in nature.

2. The rack angle should be large.

3. Friction between work piece and tool should minimum.

4. Cutting speed should high.

5. Deft of cut should be small.

6. Proper use of coolant and lubricant.

7. Tool should have low coefficient of friction.

Continuous chips are the most preferable type of chip due to following
benefits.

1. It gives high surface finish of machining ductile material.

2. Continuous chips form when low friction which minimize friction loss.

3. Due to low friction, tool life is high

4. Power consumption is low.

2. Discontinuous chips or segmental chips:

According to its name, this chips form in segment. It is form when

machining of brittle material like cast iron, brass etc. with slow cutting speed.
Chips cut into small segment during cutting. This is formed during slow cutting
speed with small rack angle. This chips form in ductile material when the
friction between tool and work piece is high. Discontinuous chips in ductile
material give poor surface finish and slow machine. It is suitable form of chips
of machining brittle material.
The favorable conditions of forming this type of chip are

1. The work piece should have brittle in nature.

2. Slow speed of cutting
3. Small rack angle of tool
4. Depth of cut should large

3. Continuous Chips with built up edge:

This type of chip is same as the continuous chips except a built edge is
form at the face of tool. It is form during machining of ductile metal with
excessive friction between tool and work piece. This chip is not smooth as
continuous chips. The built up edge form due to high temperature between
tool and work piece. This high temperature is due to high friction force
between tool and work piece.
 CHIP THICKNESS RATIO

In the metal cutting process, the chip flow of the metal is shorter and
thicker than the metal prior to the cutting because of plastic deformation.
The extent of this variance in dimension is denoted by the chip thickness
ratio or cutting ratio. The chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio is defined
as the ratio of chip thickness before cutting to the thickness after
cutting.

Chip thickness ratio depends on

 Type of material to be worked

 Geometry of cutting tool
 Types of cutting fluid
 Other cutting variables such as feed rate, speed, depth.

Let
t1 = chip thickness before cutting or depth of cut
t2 = chip thickness after cutting

Then chip thickness ratio= t 1/t2

 CHIP BREAKERS

Continuous machining like turning of ductile metals, unlike brittle metals

like grey cast iron, produce continuous chips, which leads to their handling
and disposal problems. The problems become acute when ductile but strong
metals like steels are machined at high cutting velocity for high MRR by flat
rake face type carbide or ceramic inserts. The sharp edged hot continuous
chip that comes out at very high speed
• becomes dangerous to the operator and the other people working in the
vicinity
• may impair the finished surface by entangling with the rotating job
• creates difficulties in chip disposal.
Therefore it is essentially needed to break such continuous chips into small
regular pieces for
• safety of the working people
• prevention of damage of the product
• easy collection and disposal of chips.

Chip breaking is done in proper way also for the additional purpose of
improving machinability by reducing the chip-tool contact area, cutting forces
and crater wear of the cutting tool.

Types of chips breakers

Usually, the following types of chip breakers are used:

 Step or Shelf Chip Breaker
 Groove and Ridge Chip Breaker
 Universal Chip Breaker
 Separate Chip Breaker
Step Chip Breaker

This type of chip breaker is used for carbide tipped tools and before
leaving the tool, the chip is prevented from becoming a continuous chip by
swirling or breaking it, for which a small step or shelf is sometimes grinded on
the face of the tool.

Groove and Ridge Chip Breaker

This is parallel to the groove cutting edge and it is made on a special

electric spark erosion device.

This groove is 2.5 to 3 mm wide by 0.1 to 0.4 mm deep and has a radius of
1.5 to 3 mm.
 Universal Chip Breaker

It consists of a shank with which a curved profiled steel block is clamped

over the tip of the tool using bolts which is a more reliable chip breaker.

Separate Chip Breakers

These chip breakers are used for successful high-velocity turning of

ductile metals and many modern era designs.

A separate chip breaker can be divided into two types.

 Fixed Type Separate Chip Breaker
 Adjustable Type Separate Chip Breaker