Active and Passive Components for Broadband Transmit Phased Arrays Laila Marzall, Megan Robinson, Paige Danielson, Amy Robinson, Negar Ehsan, and Zoya Popovié hased-array antennas have penetrated large application space, and in this article, we present some of the critical components for phased- array frontends,as described in. Figure 1, We focus on an octave-bandwidth 6 to 12-GHz transmit implementation, but the methodology and component designs are scalable in frequency. Over the past few decades, pphased-array applications have expanded from radar to ‘wireless and satellite communications, as well as medical {maging and various sensing modalities. By tracking users. ‘with individual high-gain beams, spatial multiplexing Tra Maza i maralTQcolorade ed) Mego Robinson tncganrabinsontcolorada i, Pale Danian (paige davielsantiolrad es) aa Arey Robinson any robinsonsclorado eu are with the University of Colrad, Boulder Colorado, 80308, USA. Negar Ehsan near csandnasa go) swith NASA Godard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, ‘Maryan, 20771, USA. Zea Popo (oye popoviesealorado eu) is wi the University of Clarad, Boulder, Colorads, 80308, USA, ital eer 201355 ‘fenton ery 2022 56 IEEE microwave magazine Is2nssaaaer0221¢e February 2022, ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply.‘enables cochannel interference mitigation, enhancing. signal levels, and power management in wireless ‘communications systems. For example, [I] shows a 64-element phased-array transceiver operating in the 28-Gllz band with 52-diim effective isotropic radiated power (FIRP) for 5G applications with up to 12 Gb/s. fof throughput, and [2] demonstrates a system-level development of a 384-element, 16-tile, W-band phased array with 52-dBim EIRP in 0.18-ym silicon-germanium bipolar CMOS (BICMOS) technology. In satellite broadcasting and communication systems, phased- array antennas enable beam shaping over countries and continents, tracking at the end-user side, and rain fading mitigation, eg, [3]. In [], advances in phased arrays for satellite applications developed at Lockheed Martin are described from an industry perspective. Phased arrays also provide enhanced capabilities for airborne radar: power efficiency increase; adap- tive beamforming to suppress jammers; space-time adaptive processing to suppress clutter return; mul- tibeam on receive capability for multistatic operation in stealth target detection; and higher system avail- ability due to graceful degradation of array perfor- _mance resulting in low lifecycle cost [5]. For fast mobile applications, automotive radars are used as sensors. for adaptive cruise-control (ACC), safety applications like blind-spot surveillance and collision mitigation/ avoidance, backing/parking, and low-speed /stop- and-go ACC [6]. In [7], a system simulation using a phased-array frequency-modulated continuous-wave radar with beam steering controlled by environmental variables is implemented, demonstrating the adi tages of increased range and providing more time {for adaptation. The automotive envionment pres cents design challenges such as packaging and a harsh, thermomechanical environment. In [6], automotive radar frontend phased array are analyzed, where RE ‘microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are used as switches in a Rotman lens or in phase shifters and opti- ‘mized for RF and thermomechanical behavior For weather monitoring, phased-array radars bring. the capability of scanning bigger volumes in shorter time intervals achieving update rates of <1mm [8], where beam control and null generation enable col- lecting robust data for post-staistial analysis [9]. Also, phased arrays have found applications in REID for localization in the ultrahigh frequency range, eg, [10 while in radio astronomy [Il], adaptive nulling tech~ niques help combat radio frequency interference [12] More recently, beam-steering techniques have been, extended to biomedical devices [13]. Doppler-based, roncontact vital-sign (NCVS) sensor systems are used to monitor heart and respiration rates of patients. The sensor accuracy can deteriorate quickly in a noisy or cluttered environment, and [I4] reports on directive February 2022 phased arrays for NCVS systems with considerably improved accuracy compared to fixed-beam Doppler radar. In [15], a 70-MHz near-field phased array pro- ‘vides 3D specific absorption rate control and increases: locoregional hyperthermia in tumor treatments, while in magneticresonance imaging systems signal-to-noise ratio, image contrast and resolution can be improved [16]. Phased arrays are also applied in wireless power transfer systems for maximizing power delivery to an intended location while minimizing leakage fields in other locations, eg, [17] ‘The growing variety of applications and system requirements lead to the need of scalable, modularized devices for transmit and receive chains. In this context, [IS], eg, shows heterogencously-integrated phased arrays for communication and sensor applications at Ku-band. In the transmit chain, spatial power combin- ing is used to increase the FIRP, where each element or subarray is fed by an independent RF frontend circuit This approach allows operation with multiple signals and beams using the same fixed antenna aperture, ‘with tradeoffs in size and performance requirements for high-power, wideband operation (19). Although it isan effective method to increase radiated power, size and generated heat remain key limitation as frequency increases and the 4s/2 spacing of the antennas shrinks slower than the size of active elements. Therefore, power density and efficiency of the power amplifiers (PAs) favor the use of gallium nitride (GaN) over gal- lium arsenide (GaAs). The high breakdown voltage of GaN results in high peak power levels and is accom- panied by a robust silicon carbide (SiC) substrate with good thermal conductivity. Trends in active arrays for space and radar applications, with GaAs replaced by GaN PAs to increase EIRP with the same number of elements are discussed in [20] and [21], Instantaneous bandwidth and complex modula tion schemes place broadband operation demands fon microwave circuits. Although most phased arrays are relatively narrowband, a number of arrays with broadband optical beamforming, eg, [22], and CMOS true-time delay beamformers, eg, [23], have been dem- onstrated. A comprehensive overview of digital and hybrid approaches ean be found in, eg, [24]-125) This article addresses microwave and millimeter- wave active and passive components for broadband- phased array front ends, focusing mostly on the transmit path, Figure 1 shows a high-level block dia~ igrom thal outlines the article content. The main blocks include the beamforming network, amplification stage, isolation stage between transmit and receive, and the final radiating aperture. The digital control and de supply are not discussed here but are an integral part of the system, The last component in the chain is the passive antenna itself, and its radiating and matching IEEE microwave magazine 57 ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply.The growing variety of applications and system requirements lead to the need of scalable, modularized devices for transmit and receive chains. characteristics affect the entire system performance. ‘More specifically, the coupling between antenna ele- ‘ments results in an active scan impedance that varies across the array and across frequency and scan angle, as overviewed in, eg. [27] We present previous and ongoing studies of the transmit-chain front-end components shown in Fig- ure 1, including design approaches and performance tradeoff analyses. The “Beamforming Networks” sec- tion overviews three broadband analog beamforming approaches: octave-bandwidth monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) phase shifters based on. loaded transmission lines; an octave-bandwvidth Butler ‘matrix; and 2 millimetervave frequency-steered array. DigtalContals| ul a ‘Signal Processing a ‘Suoply Contd — ‘Contl Signals ‘The “Isolation Circuits” section presents a 7-13-GHz MMIC active circulator and a broadband analog method for canceling selfinterference inthe receive path. In the “Analysis of PAs in a Phased-Array Environment” sec- tion, 2 broadband nonlinear analysis for the transmit chain is shown, including the effects of antenna element ‘mismatch due to scanning. The “Discussion and Out- Took” section introduces a quantum sensor with a poten- tial for broadband traceable electric field measurements asa method for near-field array calibration and a supply ‘modulation as an efficiency enhancement technique for PAs on the example of a three-stage 18-25-GHz MMIC PA. Throughout the article, we focus on TIILV semicon- ductor (GaAs and GaN) MMICs for the active compo- ‘nents with potential for heterogeneous integration. Beamforming Networks In the case of brozdband-phased arrays, beam squint can be mitigated using true-time delay beamform- ing, which can be done in the optical or microwave domains. Common microwave true-time delay phase Fiold Sensor Figure 1.A high-level block diagram ofa phased array where the beamforming can be done ether in the digital or analog domains, The dotted arrows indicate coupling between the antenna elements. The focus ofthis article is on analog components (of broadband transmit arrays, including beamyforming networks, amplification, isolation, and field measurements, Shown in the expanded blacks with photographs are MMIC phase shifters, a Butler matrix, and frequency scanning as the beamformer networks; MMIC PAs; MMIC active circulators; and field sensors for aperture eletrometry. Past and ongoing research atthe University of Colorado, related tothe design ofthese components, is described throughout the article. 58 IEEE microwave magazine February 2022, ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply.shifters include loaded lines [28] and switched delay lines [29]. In the next section,’Broadband GaAs and GaN MMIC Phase Shifters for Beamforming,” con- tinuous analog. phase shifters and a corporate feed network in the 6-12 Gllz octave band are discussed Discrete beams can be achieved with other frue-time delay feed networks, such as Butler and Blass matri- ces, and Rotman and Luneburg lenses [27]. Later in this section, a Butler matrix covering the §-12-GHz ‘octave band is presented. These approaches do not scale favorably to higher millimeter-wave frequencies, ‘where phase shifters and transmission-line elements, are too lossy. Therefore, an approach that can use a lower-frequency VCO and fre- quency multiplier as the input is studied on the example of a 130-180-GHz microfabricated broadband sequentially fed fre- quency-steered array for plan- etary-landing radar, described in the last part of this section. output Broadband GaAs and GaN i MMIC Phase Shifters for Beamforming Loaded transmission lines can provide a true-time delay over asmuchasa decade bandwidth, ‘where the phase is varied using vvaractors [29], MEMS [28] or fer= roelectrics [80] and are typically limited by retuen loss varia~ tion over frequency. Reflective phase shifters with different hybrids are presented in (31, {82], and the variable reflec- tive loads can be implemented ‘with MEMS or varactors. Large continuous phase shifts in [3], [34], are accomplished with two cascaded phase shifters. To achieve a good match and large phase shift across an octave band (6-12 GHz), we demon- state the circuit in Figure 2, which combines 2 reflective topology with a loaded-line variable reactance. To showease the architecture and investi gate nonlinear performance, a GaAs MMIC with a phase that increases over the band, and 8 GaN MMIC with maximum phase shift inthe center of the band are designed [35] tout mL ings compar RF; In length ad bridge placement February 2022 Gans Chip ‘The phase shifter MMICs are implemented in WIN Semiconductors’ GaAs enhancement (E-) mode PIF10 and GaN depletion (D-) mode NP15-00 pseudomorphic high electron-mobility tor (pHEMPT) processes. The periphery of the transistors is chosen to approximately scale with power density of the processes: 4x75 um in GaAs (1.5 W/mm) and 275 ym in GaN (=3.5 W/mm). Each variable capacitor in Figure 2 is implemented srith a transistor with grounded source and drain terminals. For the GaAs E-mode devices, the capaci- tance varies with gate bias (-0.2 to 0.6 V) from 0.241 to 0.470 pF at 9 GHz. The GaAs phase shifter uses ‘Arifcal Delay Line- GaAs Laake ‘Shores Termination Cane Axtell Delay Line Open Termination © Figure 2. () A lopology of reflective loaded tne continuous broadband phase shifter. The coupled and through ports ofthe Lange coupler are variable reatances, sin a ref hase shifter, plemented with tunable artificial transmission lines tha! use diode transistors as variable capacitors, (b) 2.5 mam x 2.5 mam GaAs ana Iman x 2.5 nom GaN’ MMIC phase shifter. Both reactive loads are implemented with bumped inductors and a ‘shorted termination in the Gas MMIC (n blue and with tansmisson-line sections and an ‘oper termination inthe GaN MMIC (in re. The gate directions for the chips are indicated swith red arrows. The eects of bends in the Lange couplers are compensated with electrical IEEE microwave magazine 59 ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply.60 Lange couplers and three lumped 0.4-nHT induc t For the D-mode GaN devices at 9 GHz, with a gate bias range of -3 to -1 V, the capacitance variation is 0.163-0.281 pP. The GaN phase shifter loaded lines are open-circuited and use 14 transistors with elec- trically short (17° at 12 Gllz) high-impedance (950) lines as series inductors and four transistors in each shorted loaded line. 400) I t “02-01 0 01 02 03 04 08 06 ‘de Bias Voge (V) o- $e 8s 3 (Output Tone Power (28m) & & Figure 3{@) shows measured phase as a function of bias for the two MMICs in small-signal operation, (Over this range, both phase shifters are matched with a return loss better than 10 dB across the frequency range, as a result of the reflective circuit architecture ‘The insertion loss is between 3 and 7 dB across the fre- quency range, based on tuning level. The MMICs are also tested for increased input power levels (5-25 dBm), (a2) 10 u 2 Ut “3 25 28 ‘de Bias Vokage (V) @ ee el 5 10 18 Input Tone Power (48m) GaAs 0 Vailas — cats: 02 VBas Gas: 0.4 V Bas oe GaN:-2.2V Bias Se GaN-1aVBas = = GaN:-14V Bias — Fundamental Second Harmonic “Tita Harmonic ® Figure 3.) A measured and simulated phase as a function of gate bias for several frequencies. The black lines indicate lower (ted) and upper (sli) biases for a useful voltage range. The results forthe GaAs and GaN MMICS are shown on the lef in blue) and right (i red), respectively. Simulations are shown in dashed and measurements in solid line. (8) Harmonic generation as a furction of input power for the GaAs (in blue) and GaN (in red) phase shifters at 9 GHz. At the low-power fend, the measurements are limited by the sensitivity inthe experimental setup IEEE microwave magazine February 2022, ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply.to evaluate the power handling and nonlinearities. A. frequency-dependent in in phase change is observed for both MMICs, but at different power levels, s expected. The GaAs MMIC, above 10 dBm of input power, provides 50-60" of phase shift but with increasing loss. The GaN MMIC thas 20°-75° of phase shift for up to 20 dBm of input power with little variation in [Sx] compared to the small-signal case. The power dependence eventually levels because the first diode behaves as a short and the phase is no longer tunable. Figure 3(6) summa- rizes second and third harmonic generation behav- ior, showing that the GaN device is linear at 20-dB higher input power as compared to the GaAs device. ‘This is expected and has benefits when higher drive power is needed for the final amplifier chain and nonlinearities in the phase shifter can affect the over~ all linearity. Im a phased array, the broadband phase shifters require integration in a broadband corporate feed network. A single-stage two-way Wilkinson power divider with a voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR) ‘of 21 has a 31 bandwidth. To increase the bandwidth further, multisection Wilkinson dividers can be implemented [36]. Air-based TEM waveguides offer lower loss and dispersion when compared to planar transmission lines such as microstrip [37]. Figure 4 shows a five-section greater than decade (111) band- ‘width Wilkinson divider implemented in air-filled ‘coaxial lines fabricated using the PolyStrata process, which involves sequential deposition of copper la ‘ers and photoresist on a silicon wafer (38]. The cop- per layer thicknesses range from 10 to 100 um with, aspect ratios larger than 15. After the desired layers. are deposited, the photoresist is released leaving an. airfilled low-loss structure, enabling low-loss air- filled coaxial lines up to W-band and waveguides at higher frequencies, The Wilkinson divider is mea- sured with thru-reflectline microcoaxial calibra tion and shows better than -13 dB match with a loss of 04-1.2 dB from 2 to 22 GHz [39]. Integration of a MMIC in the microcoaxial PolyStrata environment is demonstrated in [40], showing that MMIC phase shifters can be integrated in such a low-loss broad- band beamforming network, sage in Joss and a reduction Broadband Butler Matrix ‘A Buller matrix, fist reported in [Allis a network implemented with hybrid couplers and fixed phase shuiers as shown in Figure 5). The network has 2" inputs and 2° outputs, where Nis the size of the matrix Depending on which input is excited, a different phase progression is seen atthe output antenna ports, cor sponding to beams in different directions. For a 4% 4 Butler matrix shown inthe figure, two 90" coupler pairs February 2022 A broadband Butler matrix requires a low-reflection, low-loss, and high- isolation four-port crossover across a large bandwidth, not readily available in standard technologies. (one at the input and one at the output) with 45° phase shifts in two of the branches and two crossovers, pro= duce an output phase progression of £45", 4135" A broadband Butler matrix requires a low-reflection, low- loss, and high-isolation four-port crossover across a large bandwidth, not readily available in standard tech- nologies. The coupler amplitude and phase balance is critical since these errors are cascaded through the two coupler paths, and a fixed phased shifter across a wide bandwidth also requires careful design s7amm 24 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2 ‘Frequency (GHz) E1Si Meas. — [5 Sim] [Sj] Meas. —-— |S] Sim [Seal Meas. -—~ [Spl Sim. ©) Figure 4. A (a) photograph and (b) measured and full-zoave simulated performance ofa microcoaxial 2- to 22-GH1z Wilkinson divider, which can be integrated with MMIC phase shifters into a low-loss broadband beamforming network. The device in the photo does not have mounted resistors, “Sockets” for mounting 0303 surface mount resistors are clearly visible acd described i [39]. Meas. measured; Sis: simulated. IEEE microwave magazine 51 ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply.Fixed Phase Shit 3.48 Coupler 308, = Ports pont 2 pots f= por ports TL tens Folded Lange ae ‘Coupler an m Phase Shier Poni Port? Ponts ————— ¥ Phase Relative to Ports a 6 8 10 2 Frequency (GHz) 40 60 30060 80 280 80 100 260 100 ES —saz —s cre. 140 126 140 160 gy 200 © Figure 5. (a) A schematic ofa 4 x 4 Butler matrix with 90° hybrids. Under the matrix is an implementation i the HRL MECA heterogeneous integration process with alumina passives, Note that another crossover is necessary at the output for rection tothe antenna array. The insert shows a closeup ofthe crossover, which utilizes the additional dimension given by the interconnect ayer in the MECA process. (b) A ful-wave simulated phase difference tothe output ports when Port 1s excited and all oher ports terminated, with Port 5 serving asa reference for the phase, showing approsimately 135° of phase progression. Under this isa farfield normalized H-plane radiation patterns ofthe Buller matrix feding a broadband ridged horn antenna array when Part 1 (shown on the lft) and Port 2 (shown on the right) are excited. Patterns ae shown atthe edge and riddle ofthe band at 6 GHz (in red), 9 GHz (is blue, and 12 GHz (in blac 62 IEEE mcroneve magazine February 2022, ‘AuthotaedIcenced use oie to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februsry 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xalore, Reslcons apply.Broadband 4 % 4 Butler matrices in the approximate frequency range of interest are summarized in Table 1 and include a 3- to 10-GHz multilayer stripline in [42] where the ports are not arranged for direct connection to an antenna array, the phase varies 14° and inser- tion loss degrades severely at higher frequencies. In 13], a corrugated slotcoupied structure was used for the broadband components from 3.1 to 106 Giz, with ‘a resulting magnitude and phase variation of #1.2 dB ‘and 445°, A18-to 12-GHz stripline design using mule tisection couplers is shown in [44] with the magnitude ‘and phase variation between the ports of +2 dB and phase 415% More narrowband versions with good per- formance are shown in SIW, eg, from 8.5 to 10.6 GHz [AS]. A larger 8 x 8 matrix from 2 to 18 GHz is shown {in 18), with increased loss and amplitude/phase varia- tion, especially at higher frequencies. ‘The design in Figure 5(a) is implemented in HRL's Laboratories metal embedded chip assembly (MECA) process [49], with broadband coupler and intercon- nects demonstrated in [50]. The goal of the design shown here is to minimize phase and amplitude imbal- ance over 6-12 GHz. The Lange couplers are folded to reduce footprint, the crossover and Schiffman fixed phase shifters are designed in the MECA interconnect layer, and additional delay lines provide the proper 45° difference between the middle and outer paths. This Butler matrix is designed in three separate pieces of alumina connected by broadband interconnects of the MECA process, Full-wave simulations are shown in Figure 5 for the phase progression referenced to Port § across the 6- to 12-GHz bandwidth with less than #21° variation. In this range, the input ports are matched to better than 7 dB and the insertion loss is within 15 dB. Return loss is better than 10 4B above 7 GHz. ‘This design would need another crossover between the inner two ports for connection to a 4X 1 antenna array. Simulations with the antenna array made of broad- band ridged hom antenna elements [5] result in radia- tion patterns shown in Figure 5(). With Port 1 excited, ‘which has phase progression of approximately 135; at 6 Gilz the beam steers 40°, while at 9 and 12 GHz the The phase of each element is determined by the length of the feed line section between the elements as well as the mutual coupling. steering is 26° and 21; respectively. With the phase pro- _gression corresponding to Port 2 of approximately 45%, at 6 GHz the beam steers by 14%, while at 9 GHz and 12 GHza steering of 9" and 7° is obtained. This beam- former is currently being fabricated and will be con- nected to the antenna array described in the “Analysis ‘of PAs in a Phased Array Environment" section. Broadband Frequency Scanning For space applications such as planelarylanding radar [52] higher millimeter-wave frequencies offer reduced ‘mass but may not suffer attenuation asin the Earth's atmosphere. At W-band and above, MMIC phase shift ers, eg, [53] and Butler matrices, eg, [54] become very lossy and require specialized technologies. Another approach is frequency steering which requires votage- controlled oscillator and potentilly also a frequency multiplier, possible in MMIC technologies. Frequency scanned waveguide arrays have been used since the 1940s, eg, [53], and require broadband components to achieve a large scan angle. Figure 66) show's a li ‘er array where the elements are fed with a varying frequency, which changes the relative phase between clements resulting in beam steering. The input wave travels along the feed line and loses posver at each ele ment to radiation. Elements closer to the feed input couple weakly tothe fed line, while elements near the load couple strongly and any remaining power alter the last element is dissipated inthe load (typically 10-15% ‘ofthe input posver) The phase ofeach element is deter- amined by the length ofthe fed line section between the clements as wells the mutual coupling. In Figure 6(a) the array is fed by a line of physical length « between elements and propagation constant f, with element spacing of d in air. For an angle Om of the m-th beam, Reference (GH) fy (GH) Technology Size 40) AA (8) i) 5 10 Spine axa 4 Not given [63] 31 10s Comugated slot 4x4 45 12 44) 18 2 Stipine 4x4 15 2 [ss] 35 106 sw axe 5 06 les} 2 5 Stripine 4x4 3 Not given (a7) 8 R stipine xs 15 1 (es) 2 18 Supine 3x8 6 13 February 2022 IEEE microwave magazine 63 ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply.peak, the phase is given by sindq=(As/d)(a/Ay—m), where Ao and A; are the free-space and feed guided wavelength, respectively. Both a longer feed line sec- tion and a more dispersive delay line result in a wider beam scan with frequency. ‘Two W-band and G-band architectures, based on rmicrocoaxial line fed slots and slotted waveguides, are introduced in [55}159]. The devices are fabricated using the PolyStrata process with coaxial lines at ‘Weband, or at higher frequencies using lower-loss rect. angular waveguides, which are comparable in size to the microcoax, but have higher dispersion and lower loss. An example 20-¢lement linear waveguide-fed slot array, which scans from —40° to 0° when the frequency varies from 130 to 180 GHz is shown in Figure 5(b), Input along with measured radiation patters. This corre- sponds to approximately 1"/GHz of seanning with gain and scan angle over frequency shown in Figure 6(0) With the same approach and by introducing corruga- tions in the bottom waveguide feed wall, the disper- sion is increased to achieve 2°/GHlz in a 3232 2D array with 1D scanning [59] Isolation Circuits Phased arrays are usually used to both transmit and receive, in which case some isolation method is required to protect the low-noise amplifier from saturating due to leakage from the transmitter. For nonsimultaneous transmit and receive applications, switches can have high isolation and transmitter ued Normalized Pattern (42) 40-30 2-10 010 Scan Angle (*) © Sin. Gan X Meas. Gain — sim Ange. || so © Meas Angle 30140160 160 170 180° Frequency (GH2) o Figure 6. (a) The principle of operation of frequency-scanmed arrays where the phase at each radiating element depends on element spacing and dispersion of the fed line. (b) A microfabricated 20-clement Polystrata WR-S waveguide slotted array (c) Measured normalized radiation patterns from 180 to 180 GH and measured and simulated sear angle ard gain over the Frequency range (5 IEEE microwave magazine Authored leaneed use nied to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Duwnoaded on Februsty 282022, February 2022, 162123 UTC tom IEE Xplore, Resbctlons apply.amplifier bias can be turned off during receive mode. For simultaneous transmit and receive, circulators cor diplexers are used, depending on the frequency of the up/down links. Often the required levels of isolation are greater than 100 dB and exceed what ‘canbe done by only one method, so several methods including eg., antenna polarization are added, and have been demonstrated over a wide bandwidth, eg: [60]. AF the circuit level, circulators are bulky: and usually narrowband, so 2 MMIC solution is attractive. For self-interference and other cancella- tion overa wide bandwidth, tunable notch filters are useful but are large and the additional loss degrades. the noise figure. An active analog canceler amenable to monolithic integration can also produce a tunable spectral notch over a wide bandwidth. Circulator and analog cancellation GaAs MMICs that operate ‘over an octave bandwidth are presented next, ‘Coupler Active Circulator MMIC Nonreciprocal behavior of transistors can be used to achieve circulation and was first presented in 1965 [6 Later, a variety of architectures were further explored, 4g, [62]. In [63], 2 MMIC implementation using Qor- -vo's 025 um GaAs pHEMT process, designed to oper- ate in the 7-13 GIlz band, is demonstrated (Figure 7) Circulation is accomplished by connecting three uncon- ditionally stable, gain-matched, single-stage equal amplifiers with three asymmetric Lange couplers. The through ports are connected to the amplifier inputs, and the coupled ports to the outputs. The isolated ports are terminated in 50-M1 resistors and the Lange coupling coefficient specified to achieve a tradeoff between backward isolation ({Ss|) and forward gain (Sul), while ensuring stability. The forward gain of the circulator is proportional to the amplifier gain, reduced by the coupling and through attenuation of the Measured ~ Simulated 5) Si Sx “Sis Sy “Se 10 2 1% Frequency (GH2) © Figure 7. (a) A broadband 7- to 13-GHz active circulator topology. (b)A photograph of an active circulator Gas MMIC circuit, When Port I(P1) is the input, P2 isthe output, and PS isolated. () Sintulated and measured results for 50-@ loads at all ports from 6 1 14 GHz showing insertion gain of up to 2.4 dB with isolation |S,y| greater than 13 dB across the band [83]. February 2022 ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply. IEEE microwave magazineLange couplers, The simulated versus measured per- formance is shown in Figure 7(d. Simulations for 50-0. loads at the ports shows insertion gain of up to 3 dB across 6-14 GIz with isolation [Si] greater than 13 dB. ‘Measurements show good comparison to simulated insertion gain, but a decrease in isolation, explained later in this article ‘The 25 mm%2.5 mm chip [Figure 7(b] behavior is analyzed when integrated in a phased array-like envi ronment, where the port impedances vary and where process variations impact device performance [Fig- ‘ure 8(a)). The circuit architecture contains many possible feedback paths, o stability needs to be carefully ana- lyzed. Assuming that all port impedances can vary ‘within a VSWR = 2, Figure 8{b) shows simulated sta- tistical analysis of the loop gain for the three ampli- fiers inthe circulator. A safe phase margin is obtained from de to 20 GHz, indicating stability over a wide range of loads. To explain the degradation in isolation ‘measured in Figure 7(Q, a statistical analysis is per- formed with information provided by Qorvo for the GaAs process variations, and with additional load mis- match on all three ports inside the VSWR = 11 circle srith a normal distribution of impedances. The results| in Figure 8(¢ show a large spread in the three isolation parameters. For some values of process parameters and load impedances, the degradation in isolation seen in the measurement is predicted, Active Broadband Interference Cancellation Agile broadband receivers are susceptible to self or external interference where the analog to digital con- vverter (ADC) can become overloaded. A possible solu- tion is the use of electronically-tunable passive filters, extensively reported in the literature, eg, [64]-[66] ‘however they can be lossy and bulky. Another solution isa cancellation circuit amenable to MMIC integration and cointegration with other frontend RF circuits. One rig ys fae f ay ww R ae pr : @ 80° 135° s —_ 15 1 os 180° ° rs 7-25 a 2 -20 As “ S19Sp) Sig Sy} Sp me se 8 7 14 Frequency (GH2) © © Figure 8. A statistical analysis of stability, gain, and isolation on all three ports considering process and load variation. (a) A simulated loop gain forthe three amplifiers (AL, A2, A3) when ports are terminated with loads within the VSWR {from de to 20 GHz (b) Gain ana isolation on all three ports with process variation and loads within a VSWR. circle, 11 circle. (6) ‘A comparison between nonsinal design sinslations and measurements when statistical variation is taken into account. The shaded bands show the range of parameters obtained with normal distribution for impedance values. 66 IEEE mcroweve magazine February 2022, ‘AuthotaedIcenced use oie to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februsry 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xalore, Reslcons apply.‘example is analog finite impulse response filters, which have been implemented in CMOS and Gas and used ‘as equalizers in optical communication systems [67 [68]. A similar idea has been used in RFID for leaking carrier suppression, where an interferometer circuit is designed for the carrier signal [70]. Here we extend these ideas to an active circuit that applies vector addi- tion to eliminate unwanted signals, while relying on a single input signal ‘The general interferometer circuit topology shown in Figure 9{) creates tunable spectrum notches that ‘canbe placed over the largest interferers to reduce the dynamic range requirements on the ADC. The Lange couplers divide and recombine the input signal; one path has only a gain stage, while the other path also includes a variable lumped-clement transmission line ‘with variable shunt capacitances. In an MMIC, these are implemented with gate-source grounded transis- tors, which act as varactors. By changing the bias on the transistors, the delay through the artificial trans- ‘mission line is varied to achieve destructive interfer~ tence between the two paths ata given frequency: The MMIC shown in Figure 9(b) is designed in the WIN Semiconductors’ GaAs E-mode single-polarity sup- ply PIHIO process to operate across X-band. The two gain stages are biased slightly different with more gate vollage applied to the path with the transmis sion line to account for the additional loss. Figure 9(9 shows measured behavior when the control voltage for the variable transmission line varies from -0.7 V to 07 V. The circuit is well matched from 6 GH? to 12 GHz, while the null can be moved from 82. GHz to 108 GHz, The measured behavior matches the simu- lated behavior, except for a 0.4 GHz downward shift in tuning range frequency. ae he REAM, Inoreronce Cancellation ® © Analysis of PAs in a Phased-Array Environment In transmit phased array, eg, for jamming applica- tions, PAs are the last active component in the chain preceding the antenna elements. This section presents an analysis of such a chain, noting that the effects of a switch, circulator, or diplexer can be added without loss of generality. Figures-of-merit (FoM) for broad- band transmit electronically scanned arrays are highly dependent on both passive and active component vari~ ation over frequency and power as well as thei inter- actions. The FoMs we consider here are related to the circuit side of the array, and include impedance varia- tion due to antenna coupling, power-added and aver- allefficiency, and gain/loss. The antenmna-related FoMs are the EIRP and scan volume, not discussed here We first consider how the coupling between elements affects the PA efficiency, on the example ofa small hom antenna presented in [51] and shown in Figure 103) and (©) together with its measured and simulated octave- bandwidth performance. This antenna element is char- acterized, built into a 41 linear array [Figure 10(0)] and is starting point for analyzing effects of imped- ance variation onthe PAS that feed the four ports inthe active array. Figure 11(@) shows the block diagram used in simulation for coupling analysis as a function of the scan angle assuming ideal phase shifters. The full- ‘wave electromagnetic (EM) simulations (HFSS) are imported into Cadence/AWR Microwave Office cit- cuit simulations to determine the coupling asa func- tion of progressive phase shift across the array. A coupler in each element is used to measure the com- plex backward propagating wave from the antenna through the phase shifter. The power of this wave in Figure 9. (a) A block dingram of the active broadband interference cancellation MMIC. (b) A photograph of fabricated GaAs MMIC. (c) Measured amplitude of transmission and reflection coefficients with variation ofthe control voltage on the variable- delay artificial transmission line, The drain bias on both paths is 2 V and the gat bis on the upper ard loser paths i 0.8 V and 1 V, respectively. As the control voltage increases from ~0.7 V to 0.7 V, the notch created By the destructive interference roves down i frequency from 10.8 GHz to 8.2 GHz, as shown by the arrow, February 2022 ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply. IEEE microwave magazine‘each port, when all other ports are fed with a nomi- nal 0 dBm of input power, is shown in Figure 11(6) ‘across frequency. As expected, the two inner and two outer elements show symmetric behavior. The ratio of the complex reflected wave and the incident wave gives the reflection coefficient, and therefore impedance presented to each amplifier when the other ports are active, ‘The PA used for the analysis is a 6 to 12GHz ‘Qorvo QPA2598 GaN MMIC die, with a peak output power of 2 W, small-signal gain of 23 dB and power- added efficiency (PAE) = 30% in continuous wave (CW) ‘operation at a drain bias of 25 V. Qorvo provided an. X-parameter model for this device, with simulated large-signal parameters shown in Figure 12. The cou- pling between the output ports of the PAs, associated ‘with a progressive phase shift for different steering, angles, forces active impedance trajectories shown in Retector Dielectric Lene o [Fe Peioype 1 ——Procype 2 Simulatea 6 7 @ § 0 1 7 Frequency (GHz) ® the Smith charts in Figure 13 for the edges and center of the octave band, and given by by 1 Subt esol se ‘The simulation setup is shown in Figure 13(a), and the active impedance coupling matrix as a function of progressive phase shift for $~[-180", 180°] computation [Figure 13(b)] is used to evaluate the PAE load-pull performance of the linear active array at | dB compression of each of the PAs. Note that the maximum PAF is obtained for different impedances across the bandwidth, ranging from close to 50.2 at 6 GHz to an inductive impedance at 9 GHz and a lower real impedance at 12 GHz. The design attempted a flat PAE at 500 and over frequency. In a 4x1 array, outer and inner elements have the Wo-oms Transiion Flared-Ridge Horn @ Figure 10. (a) An octave-bandwidth small-aperture ridge waveguide horn with dilecric lens showing the wavegide-to~ iicrostrip transition [71], E-plane ridge, and dielectric loading that improves the match. (6) A measured and simulated return Toss and gai from 6 to 12 GH¥2 [SI]. fe) The horn elements are combined in a4 x 1 linear active array with broadband GaN [MMIC PAs feeding ports P1-P4. 68 IEEE mcroneve magazine February 2022, ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply.same T’ trajectory behavior, but occupy symmetric loci in each path, so the PAE and Pow performance is different for each element [Figure 13(0]. The PAE cof the four amplifiers as 2 function of progressive phase shift $= [-50", +60"] is shown in Figure 14 ‘across frequency. Discussion and Outlook Broadband phased array implementations present numerous challenges, and this article only touches ‘upon some front-end components that offer perfor- ‘mance over octave or larger bandwidth in the micro- ‘wave and millimeter-wave ranges. There are a number of other useful advances in the areas of array calibra- tion and high-efficiency PAs with dynamic supplies, briefly overviewed next. Sensors for Electric Field Measurements Calibration of phased arrays often involves measure- ments of near-field magnitude and phase across the aperture, eg, [72] and [73]. Recent interest in quantum sensors for microwave electrometry have resulted in a umber of demonstrations of both room-temperature [7A}-176] and cold [77] Rydberg-atom field measure- ments. These alkali atoms in highly excited states can bbe used to make traceable microwave electric field \ 1 (outing cam ahYy vy ig 4 a A “60 40-20 0 20 40 60 Frequency (GHz) 2 h << of ° 8 7 6 60-40-20 0 20 40 60 “60 40-20 0 Ng Coupling (48m) 10 a5 20 25 -30 = 40 45 50 5 0 20 40 60 3 Progressive Phase Shi?) e Figure 11. (@ Simulation setup wher the full-wave EM simulated d-element linear array is imported ino a circuit simulation ‘with ideal phase shifters, couplers, and switches to determine coupling between elements, () Simulated coupling over _frequency and progressive phase shift forthe four elements of the array at ports PPA indicated in Figure 10¢¢ February 2022 IEEE microwave magazine 6 ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply.PAE (H s 2 Input Power (48m) 6 Figure 12. Output power, power gain, and PAE for the 2-W Qoree QPA2538 GaN MMIC PA, simulated with an sroilable X-paramcter model obtained from measurements The sinuuation conditions areata drain voltage Vey V and with 50-2 port terminations 2v ‘measurements and require a calibration factor as shown in [74]. The atoms in a vapor cell are excited with two lasers (‘coupling” and “probe”) at specific wavelengths making them sensitive to specific microwave frequen- cies. In principle, with widely tunable laser wave- lengths, a practically continuous bandwidth from low Glizto millimeter-waves can be sensed. Rydberg atoms potentially increase sensitivity of electric field mea- surements over traditional probes and detectors down to 780 pW/m [78]. The electric field is extracted from a frequency measurement traceable to the fundamental Plank constant has [F|= (kafa)/p, where p isthe dipole moment of the atomic transition, and Af isthe change in frequency of the spectral splitting (known as Autler- ‘Townes splitting). A photograph of a room-temperature Rubidium Rydberg-atom vapor cell and electric field ‘measurements derived from Autler-Towns splitting, are shown in Figure 15. The cell is made of glass and can be made very small, while the spatial resolution of the electric field detector is determined by the size of PAE Ge f Terie Se < imele H Te 1% 2) St Ties $| >t! PI P2 PS Pa a” ‘ Ta OPS Sel fay ©) sci sche tech 50) 50) 25 100) 25) 400) 10) 19) 50) 0 70 7a 10) 250) -10) I 23) A100) A100) 2 r00} =o 50 2% 30 35 40 45 50 P= 19.d8m PAE (%) © Figure 15. (a) Array geometry used for computing the coupling matrix in HESS, (bj Simulation schematics for active impedance computation as a function of progressive phase shift for $ = [-180°, 180°], and load-pull schematic for computing A the PAE at 6, 9, and 12 GHz at 1 dB compression. () A Smith chart showing I”, trajectory of inner and outer elements ‘overlapped with PAE shown in colo. 70 EEE mcroweve magazine February 2022, ‘AuthotaedIcenced use oie to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februsry 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xalore, Reslcons apply.PAE (2) 0 28. 60 PA - 40 20 2 460 12GHe 98 par Pas oy Figure 14. PAE as a function of progressive phase sift across the 4-element linear array, across frequency and forall fur amplifiers (PA1-PAd) driven 1B into compression. two intersecting laser beams. Recently demonstrated heterodyne measurements, eg. [75] improve sensitivity and show potential of very sensitive electric field ampli tude and phase measurements overa broad bandwidth Enhanced-Efficiency Broadband PAs The PA used for simulations in the previous section is ‘commercial general-purpose broadband GaN MMIC ‘with limited efficiency. PAs with enhanced efficiency through dynamic power supplies (envelope tracking {79}) have been demonstrated at higher power levels, ‘with higher eficiencies and at increased frequencies. An ‘example PA designed for K-band satellite commusnica- tions from 18 to 25 GHe is described in [80], This three- stage GaN MMIC fabricated inthe Qorvo 150-nm process ‘and shown in Figure 16) shows ever 40% efiiency in ‘CW with 4 W of output power from 18 to 24 GHz. The drain supply lines forthe thre stages can be accessed sepacately and by changing them dynamically with the envelope ofa modulated signal, the average efficiency is improved. This approach of efficiency enhancement can bbe extended to high envelope bandwidths and multiple simultaneous signals over large bandwidth Conclusions ‘This article presents several MMIC components amena- ble to heterogeneous integration for broadband-phased, array, investigated by former and current Women in Microwaves students at the University of Colorado, GaAs and GaN octave-bandwidth 6-12-GHz MMIC phase shifters with a circuit topology that combines February 2022 the reflective and loaded-line architectures are demon- strated for analog beamformers as well as a 6-12-GHz Butler matrix and a frequency-scanned broadband 130-180-GHz. array. An active 6-14-GHz MMIC circu- lator is presented with potential of integration in GaN for increased power handling. For reducing unwanted interference, a GaAs MMIC with integrated low-noise amplifier can provide a broadband tunable notch in the 6-12-GHz range. Finally the transmit portion of four- clement active array is analyzed to understand effects of element coupling on PAE over an octave bandwidth, “a0 40 40-200 2040-60 80 100 ‘8, (t2) Figure 15. An example ofa measured electric field ofa 17.04 Giz plane waze, copolarized with the light derived _from Autler-Towns spitting measurements, The inset ‘shows a photograph of Rubidium Rydberg-atom vapor cell made of Pyrex glass, with laser light spt from fibers to excite a specific atomic transition corresponding to 1708 GH, IEEE microwave magazine 71 ‘AuthotzedIcenced use ited to: UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Downloaded on Februery 282022 a! 182123 UTC tom IEE Xslore, Reslcons apply.° 17 18 19 20 2 22 2% 24 25 26 Frequency (i my requency 2) 0 — “0 gx i ea» 10 ° er) Power Out) » Figure 16. (a) A photograph ofa three-stage K-band GaN’ MMIC PA and measured large-signal CW performance for 10 packaged MIMICS [80]. (B)Fffciency curves when the supplies of the last 00 stages ofthe PA are varied, moving the efficiency peak to diferent power (envelope) values and thereby: ‘Ongoing research at the University of Colorado includes: Rydberg-atom electrometry aimed at traceable phased array calibration as well as broadband MMIC PAs. with supply modulation for efficiency enhancement for simultaneous signals transmitted on different beams, Acknowledgments ‘We thank Qorvo and WIN Semiconductors for MMIC fabrication asa part of the ECEN 5014 Active Microwave CCireuits class at the University of Colorado. We also thank De S Schafer at Qorvo for MMIC PA donation and X-parameter models, C. Hay at ADI for phase shifter donation and models, Cadence and Ansys for AWR and FHIFSS software donation, and J. Mologni at Ansys for assistance with the AWR-HFSS interface. We thank Prof G. Lasser for many useful inputs, We are also grateful t0 Dr J. Navarro at Boeing for helpful discussions related to antenna array performance metrics. This work was supported by ONR, the Department of Defense through IEEE microwave magazine increasing efficiency for modulated signals National Defense Science Engineering Graduate Fel- lowship (P Danielson), Lockheed Martin, NIST, DARPA, JPL, and AFOSR. Zoya Popovic’ acknowledges support froma Lockheed Martin Endowed Chair of RF Engineer- ing at the University of Colorado Boulder, and thanks her past and present graduate students ofall genders for their hard work and dedication to the profession References [EK Kibsropla M Saygines I Phelps and G. M Rebeiz “A ott tovent 2-H phased-rroy Uransciver with S-dBon EIRP and SIGb/s Sg link at 200 meters without any elibration” EEE Trans Micro Theory Tc, vol 8 no 12 pp 576-581, 2018, dt rosiayrwrnantsa6saira [215 Shahramian, Mc J Holyoak A. 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