Bulk Carrier

1. Hull Girder Stress

a. THE SHIP AS A BEAM. The deck and bottom shell form the flanges
of the hull girder and are very important to longitudinal strength than
the sides which form the web of the girder and carry the shear forces.
b. When a ship hogs or sags, either the top or bottom will be in
compression or in tension with the other side doing the opposite, the
neutral axis is the position between the two, neither in tension nor
compression.
i. The farther the distance from the neutral axis, the greater the
bending stress
ii. The neutral axis is where longitudinal shear force is the greatest

2. Causes of the longitudinal bending

a. The ship has an uneven distribution of weight due to distribution of
cargo, ballast and structure. The buoyancy distribution is non-uniform
due to underwater section area is not constant along the ship’s length.
The resultant force at each section will either be an excess of
buoyancy or excess of load, creates longitudinal bending.
b. In the seaway, the waves with crests and troughs create more variation
in buoyancy force, increases bending moment.

3. Ship’s torsional strength

a. The ability of a ship to resist twisting force.
i. Static torsion is caused by unsymmetrical cargo loading or
ballasting along the centerline of the ship with the ship
remaining upright.
ii. Dynamic torsion is caused by unsymmetrical hydrodynamic
waves on the port and starboard side of the vessel.
b. The torsion on hull girder will warp the hull section and give rise to
shearing and bending of cross deck structure.
4. Upper deck plating
a. The heaviest deck plating will be found abreast the hatch openings of
the strength deck. Plating in between hatch openings contributes little
to the longitudinal strength, therefore will be lighter.
b. The greatest deck plating thickness is maintained over 40% of the
length at midship, because the greatest longitudinal bending stresses
will occur in midship region.
c.

5. Types of cracking in the upper deck

a. The longitudinal bending causes an axial force on the upper deck that
may cause cracking of the deck plate at the locations where the stress
is concentrated.
b. Cross deck strips and deck beam are arranged in the longitudinal
system, buckling of the cross deck strip may result due to insufficient
strength against axial force.
c. Upper deck plating at deck fittings- Various metal fittings welded to
the upperdeck plating may cause stress concentration at the welded
joints or have defects in the weld, ex. Manholes, hatch coaming end
brackets, bulwark stays, crane post foundation and deck house.
d. Hatchway corners- The hatchway on the upperdeck reduces the ship’s
torsional strength and allows concentrated stress at the hatchway
corners.
e. Hatch coamings- hatch coaming is not a critical longitudinal strength
member but to ensure the cracks do not spread. Cracking will allow
stress concentration and later turn into large scale fracture.
f. Thinner steel structures are used on the cross deck strips and hatch
coaming as they are not longitudinal strength member, they are easily
corroded and holed, resulting stress concentration which then lead to
crack development.
6. High cyclical stress
a. High cyclical stress may lead to fatigue cracks on ship structure.
b. Three categories of load
i. Variation in loading conditions and associated drafts will
generate load fluctuations and cyclical stress, may lead to
fatigue cracks on transverse structural member.
ii. Variation in wave pressure of seaway between the crest and
trough and ship motions in the seaway generate high pressure
fluctuation and cyclic stresses, high pressure fluctuation
between wave crest and trough may lead to fatigue cracks at the
intersection between the longitudinal and transverse structure
below the waterline.
iii. Variation in load of cargo handling will generate load
fluctuations and cyclical stress , may lead to fatigue cracks on
crane foundation and support member.

7. Damage to hatch covers

a. Corrosion- attacks the integrity of the hatch cover and its moving
parts. (wheels and rails, cleats and batten, hinges between panels)
b. Deformation- both the plating and various supporting member and
brackets, due to cargo handling and general corrosion.
c. Build up of scale, rust cargo debris- cause blockage of drain and
incorrect support of hatch cover.
d. Incorrect and inadequate maintenance of the power system of the
hatch cover.

8. Causes of corrosion
a. Corrosive cargo with moisture and oxygen will form acidic solution
attacking the steel. (Sulphur, iron ore, coal).
b. Protective coating is damaged during cargo operation by grabs,
bulldozer and pneumatic hammer. Bare metal is exposed, accelerate
the corrosion rate.
c. The hold is not properly cleaned, cargo residue remains in the hold.
i. The hatch should be weathertight and holds adequately
ventilated, no water ingression from hatch cover.
ii. The cargo should be kept dry during loading and transit.
iii. Proper maintenance on the coating of cargo holds, prior loading
corrosive cargoes.
iv. The hold to be properly cleaned after discharging.
 d.
e. The hopper slop plating, lower side shell frame and lower stool of
transverse bulkhead are more corroded.

9. Cargo hold inspection

a. The hold frames may be susceptible to accelerated corrosion because
they are usually the thinnest structures especially at the web plates,
they have both surface which is a bigger exposed surface area to
corrosion. The failure of hold frame will give additional load to the
adjacent ones, which may lead to failure of side shell structure.
b. Transverse bulkhead at midweight and at the bottom and at the bottom
frames may be susceptible to accelerated corrosion.
c. Tank top and side shell plating generally corrode from the steel
surface facing the cargo hold.
d. Ship with combination cargo/ballast hold, cracks may often be found
at or near the connection of the stool of the transverse bulkhead and
the tank top.
e. On large bulk carriers, bilge hopper plating around the knuckle line
may be cracked along the bilge hopper transverse webs due to
insufficient local reinforcement.
 f.

10.The common damage/defects that may occur on water transverse bulkheads

situated at the ends of dry cargo holds of a bulk carrier
a. Fractures at the boundaries of corrugations and bulkhead stools,
particularly in way of shelf plates, shedder plates, deck, inner bottom,
etc..
b. Buckling of the plating/corrugations, leading to the failure and
collapse of the bulkhead under water pressure in an emergency
situation.
c. Excessive wastage/corrosion, at the mid-height and bottom of
bulkheads, which may look in deceptively good condition. This is
created by the corrosive effect of cargo and environment, when the
structure is not coated. In this respect special attention should be
given to the following areas:
i. Bulkhead plating adjacent to the shell plating;
ii. Bulkhead trunks which form part of the venting, filling and
discharging arrangements between the topside tanks and the
hopper tanks;
iii. Bulkhead plating and weld connections to the lower/upper
stool shelf plates;
iv. Weld connections of stool plating to the lower/upper stool shelf
plates and inner bottom;
v. In way of weld connections to topside tanks and hopper tanks;
vi. Any areas where coatings have broken down and there is
evidence of corrosion or wastage. It is recommended that
random thickness determination be taken to establish the level
of diminution; and
vii. Other structures, e.g., diaphragms inside the stools, particularly
at their upper and lower weld connections
11.Fractures that may occur in the deck plating at hatches in connected
coamings
a. Upper deck plating at deck fittings- Various metal fittings welded to
the upperdeck plating may cause stress concentration at the welded
joints or have defects in the weld
b. Coaming connecting the deck plating may have stress concentrations
at the welded joints or have defect in the welds.

12.Causes of cracking in way of No.1 cargo hold

a. Side stringers and/or side shells in way of No. 1 cargo hold along
the collision bulkhead are often found cracked. This kind of damage is
caused by insufficient continuity between fore peak construction and
cargo hold structure.
b.
1. Principle factor in the loss of many bulk carriers
a. Deterioration of ships hull / structure through corrosion, fatigue and
damage is identified as a principal factor in the loss of many ships
carrying cargo in bulk. Hull structure failure caused by over-stresssing
of the hull structure due to incorrect loading of the cargo holds and
physical damage to the side structure during cargo operation. Failing
to identify such deterioration may lead to sudden and unexpected
accident.
b. The Hull Stress Monitors to monitor the vertical acceleration of the
bow, rolling and swing of the vessel, the operator can monitor the
stress and give an alarm if exceeded while the ship is at sea with wave
action and at berth during cargo operation.
c. Appropriate corrosion prevention measures, including cathodic
protection and protective paint coating. Area with excessive coating
breakdown and/ or wastage are to be replaced or repaired.
d. Stowage plan with sequence for loading/discharging and
deballasting/ballasting, contingency plan together with risk
assessments to identify the risk and control measures.
e. Regular inspection of the cargo hold, any findings should be reported
to the owner and class for a detailed inspection by surveyor and
repairs carried out as necessary. A close inspection should be made
for any damage to the structure of the ship and coatings when
discharging of the cargo is complete.
f. Water ingress alarm shall be at each cargo holds and give audible and
visual alarm on the navigation bridge and cargo control. Master shall
quickly be alerted and assess the damage to the ship.

2. Causes of improper cleaning during hold cleaning

a. During the sweeping operation, care should be taken to ensure that:
i. any residues that may be trapped in places such as accessible
pipe guards, access ladder trunkings, behind frames and frame
knees, are removed
ii. hatch cover undersides, if not boxed in, are swept to remove
any residues that have accumulated under the covers
iii. hatch coamings, hatch trackways, hatch access ladders and
internal ladder spaces are cleaned
iv. during this sweeping process, the hold bilge wells should be
opened and cleaned to remove any residues that may have
fallen into them
b. Hold washing down
 i. Seawater may be delivered from hoses connected to fire main
or from Combi-Jet or Maxi Gun.
ii. Upper reaches of the holds are washed thoroughly to dislodge
any residue trapped in the upper, behind pipe guards, on cross
deck structures, etc. Loose paint or rust scale will be dislodged.
iii. For cargoes which stain or residue remain even after wash
down, chemicals are used to remove them.
1. Coal- heavy duty alkaline detergents
2. Cement- diluted hydrochloric acid
c. Fresh water rinse
i. Holds and hatch covers are rinsed with fresh water to remove
any dried salts formed from seawater previously used has dried
d. The holds are swept clean and loose scale and rust removed to allow
inspection of the tank top and structure inspection. Residual cargo
may hide damage on the hold structure.
e. Traces of pervious cargoes, such as sulphur, sulphur traces in coal
cargoes will corrode bare steel plate.

3. Causes of corrosion due to ballast exchange

a. Cavitation
b. In ballast holds, sloshing forces due to partially filled spaces may
result in damage to the structure. This damage may go unnoticed if it
is in inaccessible positions. Sloshing is also a known cause of
secondary damage after a space has become flooded.

4. Prevention of corrosion
a. Lime washing is used as a protective coating before loading against
corrosive cargoes. The thicker the limewash barrier, the better the
protection.
b. Good condition paint work is the most effective measure to
atmospheric corrosion and corrosion due to the nature of the cargo.
c. Hold block which is transparent and environmentally friendly product.
d. Sacrificial anode to be fitted in combination cargo/ballast tank.
e. Thoroughly washdown of cargo residue after discharging of corrosive
cargo.

5. Vulnerable aspects of bulk carrier operation

a. Corrosion and fatigue will gradually weaken the hull over time. This
can be increased by variations in loading and associated draft, this will
generate high cyclical stress and load fluctuation, will lead to fatigue
 crack at structural member, particularly heavy density cargoes such as
iron ore; variation in wave pressure between the wave crest and wave
trough of the seaway and ship’s motion in the seaway, this will
generate high cyclical stress and pressure fluctuation, will lead to
fatigue crack at structural member.

Another factor that gradually weakens a ship's structure is the abrasive

and corrosive nature of bulk cargoes such as coal, which can cause
unintentional damage to cargo hold coatings. Areas such as welded
frame joints with tanktop or deck plating are very likely to develop
corrosion and subsequently crack if the coatings are damaged.

Other factors include:

i. Liquefaction of cargoes, caused by water ingress or moisture in
the cargo, can cause cargo shift during the voyage.
ii. movement of ballast water in partly filled ballast water tanks or
holds can cause damage and create corrosion. To avoid this,
tanks and holds should be completely filled.

6. Damages to bow plating.

a. Damage to bow plating such as is possible through impacts
associated with swinging or loosely stowed anchors may cause an
initiating fracture or fatigue in bow shell plating that could lead to
failure and subsequent flooding. Internal integrity of forward spaces
(that are usually used for ballast and/or stores) is therefore of vital
importance. Corrosion degradation will seriously reduce the ability of
plating and stiffening to withstand the forces to which it will be
subjected. In larger ships, partially filled forepeak tanks may set up
destructive sloshing forces unless the tank structure is designed for
this.

7. Causes of hatch cover dislodgement

a. Hatch covers may be dislodged by pressure and/or sloshing from
within a hold if flooding occurs through side shell or bulkhead.
b. Sudden pressurisation of compartments adjoining those that are
damaged or flooded will indicate failure of internal subdivision, most
notably bulkheads.
 8. Cracking in bilge hopper and double bottom tanks

Cracks might be found at the intersections of longitudinals and transverse members

and at other locations as follows:

 Intersections of longitudinals and solid floors

Cracks may be found in the side, bottom and/or tanktop longitudinals at

intersections with solid floors or bilge hopper transverses. Cracks also may
be found in the floors or transverses occurring at the corners of the slots cut
for longitudinals.

 Cracking of longitudinals at areas of structural discontinuity

Longitudinals may be cracked at the ends of additional (partial) side girders

provided in the double bottom below cargo hold bulkheads or side walls of
bilge wells for cargo holds due to additional stress concentration caused by
the structural discontinuity at those connections.

 Bilge hopper transverse

Cracks may be observed in transverse webs in bilge hoppers initiating from

the slot openings for longitudinals and at the knuckled corners of the lower
ends of the hoppers.
 Corrosion

In general, the condition of the steel and protective coatings will be in satisfactory
condition much longer in the double bottoms than in topside compartments.
However, even double bottom tanks will deteriorate in time due to the continual
ballasting of the ship.

 .1 Corrosion accelerated by heat

Heavy corrosion was worse in areas closer to the fuel oil tank boundaries. In
those ships.
 The fuel oil heating system raise the temperature in the tank to be 80°C or
more. Such temperature can accelerate corrosion of the steel in the tanks,
particularly in the vicinity of the boundaries of the fuel oil tanks.

 .2 Areas under suction bell mouths

Bottom plates are often eroded under the suction bell mouths in tanks. On
drydocking of an older ship, the bell mouths should be dismantled for
examination of the condition of the shell plates below the bell mouths.

9. Metal fatigue
a. The weakening of the steel in a structure due to constant flexing,
under the repeated cycles of stress may result in structural fatigue
failure. The concern about fatigue failure is that it occurs without any
apparent forewarning (eg deformation of a structure that results in a
crack).

Fatigue usually begins at welded joints, notches, discontinuities in

structures and areas of high rigidity in particular. However, variations
in the size, shape and design of each component and the conditions
that the ship operates mean this may not necessarily result in a
 structural failure. Areas where extra vigilant inspection is
recommended include:
i. The brackets at the connection of frames to the upper and lower
wing tanks
ii. the upper and lower connection of corrugated transverse
bulkheads
iii. corners of the hatch coamings where they are joined to the main
deck.

Bulk carriers in particular become progressively weaker due to

continuous corrosion. In addition, the repetitive cycles of
changing loads and the resulting stresses due to hogging,
sagging, panting, pounding and vibration all increase fatigue.

High tensile steel (which is stronger than mild steel) is used in all
areas likely to experience high levels of stress. It means that
scantlings can be reduced but the vessel will still have higher
strength and resistance to stresses, eg slamming due to heavy
pitching that may cause fatigue on the forward section of the hull.

It is recommended that, as soon as any cracks are seen,

arrangements are made immediately to repair them. Where
possible, a crack arrestor hole should be drilled at each end of the
crack before any temporary repair is made. If the extent of the
crack is not evident, a detector dye can be used to establish this.
As soon as possible, Class should be called for a survey to make
a permanent repair because a crack that is overlooked may
become a central point for localised stress resulting in structural
failure.

A crack may also damage protective coatings such as paintwork,

creating an `open' area for corrosion. While cracks may not
initially be apparent, corrosion in any area should be carefully
checked for signs of minor cracks, particularly if there are dents
in the structure.

10.What can weaken the vessel’s structural capacity

a. Direct fracture can occur when a section of the ship’s hull attains its
ultimate shear, tensile or compressive strength. This can occur, for
 example, when the ship is sailing in extreme weather conditions or
when it is loaded past its design load.
b. Fatigue is a very common mode of failure in structures which
experience cyclic stresses. A crack may emerge in a weak spot of the
structure and propagate with each new loading cycle. The process of
crack propagation is accelerated in materials experiencing frequent
loading and unloading cycles while being exposed to a corrosive
environment, often leading to premature structural failure. This is of
particular concern for ships as they float in a highly corrosive
environment for an average life span of 20 years. Structures may fail
due to fatigue at lower stresses than their yield levels. Research on
fatigue in ships has shown that the average fatigue life for a cargo ship
is approximately 20 million cycles. Engineering structures often have
small cracks in them and function properly despite these cracks.
However, it is key to monitor cracks and predict how far the crack can
be permitted to grow without causing damage to the structure.
Calculating the length at which a through thickness crack becomes
critical, is crucial for the safety of a ship. If the ship is only exposed to
the forces it was designed to withstand, the critical crack length will
largely depend on the fracture toughness of the steel.
c. Corrosion is a chemical process in which a material reacts to lose
atoms to another material or substance. In the case of ships, saltwater
causes the steel of the hull and its paint coating to deteriorate over
time, resulting in a thinner cross-section of the steel plates. Ships are
generally designed with excess material to their hull to account for the
material they will lose due to corrosion over their expected lifetime.
Corrosion is often investigated in relation to fatigue as it can enhance
crack initiation and propagation.
d. Instability. Failure through instability can occur due to buckling of a
section of the hull, such as deflection through wrinkling of a hull
plate. Parts of the hull are subject to axial compression. These parts
are designed to withstand compression up to a critical load below
which buckling will not occur. When this load is exceeded, a
deflection will happen leading to eventual collapse of the structure.
The critical buckling load can be derived from Euler’s laws.
e. Deformation may occur when a part of the structure or machinery of
the ship is deflected. Most often, deformation is elastic and does not
necessarily mean failure of the entire ship. In order to prevent these
modes of failure from occurring, the following four structural units of
 the ship need to be considered during its designing stages: plating-
stiffener combinations, panels of plating, frameworks and fittings.

11.Areas prone to fatigues cracks in the cargo hold

a. Fatigue usually begins at welded joints, notches, discontinuities in
structures and areas of high rigidity in particular.
b. The brackets at the connection of frames to the upper and lower wing
tanks
c. the upper and lower connection of corrugated transverse bulkheads
d. corners of the hatch coamings where they are joined to the main deck.

12. Causes of carriage of high density cargoes

a. High density cargoes have a greater weight than their volume may
imply. Lighter cargoes occupy more space. iron ore, the stowage
factor can be as small as 0.24 m3/tone. Tanktop strength is provided
in the ship's stability booklet. However, as a ship ages, this strength
reduces, and a greater safety margin is recommended for older ships.
b. According to the IMSBC Code, any cargo with a Stowage Factor less
than 0.56 m3/tonne is considered a high density cargo. There are three
recommended ways by which maximum tonnage allowed in any cargo
hold (not just bulk carriers) can be calculated if no other information
is provided in the ship's documentation. These are:

i. Maximum cargo loaded (in tonnes) in a hold = 0.9 × L × B × D

Where L = Length (in metres) of cargo hold
B = Breadth (in metres) of cargo hold
D = Summer load draught (in metres).

ii. If the cargo is untrimmed or partially trimmed, then:

Maximum height of cargo pile = 1.1 × D × Stowage Factor
Where Stowage Factor is given in m3/tonne.

iii. If the cargo is trimmed level, then 20% more cargo may be loaded
(as calculated in [i] above) in the lower hold.

The cargo officer should calculate the maximum permissible tonnage

for each cargo hold. This is found in the ship's stability book, but can
 be calculated by the formula:

Permissible Tonnage = Total Area of Tanktop (m2) × Allowed Load

(ie Tanktop Strength in Tonnes per m2).
c. If a vessel loads a cargo with higher density than the maximum
allowable cargo density, it may cause structural failures to the vessel.
Even when a vessel loads a cargo the nominal density of which is
within the permissible limit, if the loading condition is not followed,
structural failure is also likely to occur.
d. Risk of panting stress. High density cargo is not filled to the max
capacity of the hold, the cargo hold is only partly loaded. The cargo
pressure exerts on a small section of the hull, there is no force to
counteract the hydrostatic pressure on the upper part of the hull. The
only resistance to hydrostatic pressure is the hull structure itself.
When loading low density cargo, holds are filled to the top, the two
forces balanced out.

e.

13. Damages to side shell

a. Damage to side shell, externally through contact with docksides or
tugs and, internally from impact by cargo dislodging equipment
during discharge, can result in initiating fractures and/or fatigue of the
structure. In single side-skin bulk carriers, bulkheads, trunks and
 ballast tank boundaries, can present "hard spots" that concentrate
forces where the change in construction occurs (e.g. longitudinal to
transverse framing). This may lead to undetected fractures.

14.Over-loading will induce greater stresses in the double bottom, transverse

bulkheads, hatch coamings, hatch corners, main frames and associated
brackets of individual cargo holds
a.

15.The distribution of cargo along the ship's length has a direct influence on
both the global bending and shearing of the hull girder and on the stress in
the localised hull structures. The more commonly adopted cargo
distributions are:
i. Homogeneous hold loading condition. (evenly distributed in all
cargo hold)
1. For carriage of low density cargo, or high density cargo
on BC-A and BC-B ship.
2. Reduce shearing force between cargo hold.
ii. Alternate hold loading condition. (stow in odd numbered holds
with the remaining hold empty)
 1. Local structure of odd numbered holds is designed and
reinforced, empty holds have not been reinforced for
heavy cargo in alternate hold loading conditions.
2. Raise center of gravity, for tender rolling of vessel
iii. Block hold loading condition. (stow in a block of two or more
adjoining holds with the hold adjacent to the block is empty)
1. The ship is partly loaded.
2. Avoid over-stressing of the hull, with regard to amount
of cargo carried and the sailing draft. When the ship is
partly loaded, she will have reduced draft. There may not
be sufficient buoyancy force to support the weight mass
of the cargo which will lead to deformation. Reduction of
cargo stowed in the hold will fix this issue.
iv. Part hold loading condition.
b. It is noted that there are additional service features for assigned BC-A,
BC-B and BC-C notations with following requirements for bulk
carrier having the ship rule length L of 150 m or above:
i. BC-A: For bulk carriers designed to carry dry bulk cargoes of
cargo density 1.0 t/m3 and above with specified holds empty at
maximum draught in addition to BC-B conditions.
ii. BC-B: For bulk carriers designed to carry dry bulk cargoes of
cargo density of 1.0 t/ m3 and above with all cargo holds loaded
in addition to BC-C conditions.
iii. BC-C: For bulk carriers designed to carry dry bulk cargoes of
cargo density less than 1.0 t/m3.