1

FRICTION LOSSES
IN PIPES AND
FITTINGS

JOHN FRIX G. ALEJANO

RONALD PIDOY

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

UNIVERSITY OF NEGROS OCCIDENTAL-RECOLETOS
BACOLOD CITY

(i)
 2

ABSTRACT
__________________________________________________________________
All engineering specialties require a solid grasp of fluid movement in pipes and
ducts. Since most chemical processing activities are carried out either entirely or
partially in the fluid phase, chemical engineers need to have a strong grasp of
fluid mechanics. The biological and waste processing sectors are two places
where you may find examples of these processes. Friction losses, which have
several sources, are related to head loss. The overall head loss in a pipe is affected
by the viscosity of the fluid, internal pipe diameter, internal pipe surface
roughness, change in elevation between the pipe ends, bends, kinks, and other
sharp turns in hose or piping, as well as the length of the pipe along which the
fluid travels. In this experiment a virtual lab was adopted, enacting the experiment
as it would on a face-to-face setting. The set-up was composed of a simple
arrangement of apparatuses with the smooth pipe, main valve, rotameter, and u-
tube manometer as the main apparatuses, recording up to 8 trials of varying flow
rates and its effect on the limb height of the manometer. Which drew the basis of
observations and conclusions that as the flow rate increases, fluid velocity
increases and head loss also increases. Furthermore, the values were converted to
be used in calculating the Reynold’s number and friction losses values and were
used in plotting graphs that showed various relationships. The Reynold’s number
were all in the turbulent flow regime. Overall, the experiment allowed students to
practically experience fluid flow, the only suggestion would be a procedure where
students are required to change the length and pipe diameter to also see what the
effect of changing those factors. (diri nong pwede kadi kadugang daw summarize
lg)
Keywords: Reynold’s number, rotameter, float, manometer, head, valve and
friction (diri makadugang kaman miski isa)

INTRODUCTION

A good understanding of fluid flow in pipes and ducts is crucial in all

engineering disciplines. Chemical engineers must have a solid understanding of
fluid mechanics since most chemical processing operations are performed either
wholly or partially in the fluid phase. Examples of these processes may be found
in the biological and waste processing industries (Fluid Mechanics for Chemical
Engineers, 2017). The resistance to fluid flow through a pipe comes from the
viscous shear stresses present in the fluid as well as the turbulence that develops
along the interior pipe wall and is influenced by the material's roughness. The
head loss due to pipe friction is another name for this resistance, which is also
known as pipe friction and is often measured in feet or meters of fluid head. (Pipe
Friction Loss Calculations, 2023.) The size of the pump to be utilized, which is
widely used in industrial facilities, depends on the assessment of these friction
losses. In a chemical plant, a pump is one of the most frequent pieces of
 3

equipment used to move fluid from one place to another (CheGuide ‐ Pump
Sizing Calculation, n.d.).
Head loss relates to friction losses, which can result from a variety of
causes. The viscosity of the fluid, the internal pipe diameter, the internal pipe
surface roughness, the change in elevation between the pipe ends, bends, kinks,
and other sharp turns in hose or piping, and the length of the pipe along which the
fluid travels all have an impact on the overall head loss in a pipe (Cella, 2016).
Internal pipe roughness can influence the head loss of the fluid and lead to eddies.
Eddy: A fluid current whose flow direction deviates from the direction of the
general flow; the motions of the eddies that make up the fluid's overall motion.
Eddies really mix up vast quantities of fluid, which allows them to transport far
more energy and dissolved matter than molecular diffusion in nonturbulent flow.
Turbulent flow is characterized by a significant number of eddies, which typically
multiply as the fluid flow velocity rises. Up until its dissipation, energy is
continuously transmitted from big to tiny eddies. (Eddy | Turbulence, Vortex &
Flow | Britannica, n.d.)
The velocity profile of fluid flowing in a pipe will reveal that fluid
elements in the middle will move more quickly than those elements close to the
walls. Friction between layers of fluid will also occur, and it is this friction that is
closely related to head loss and is referred to as frictional loss which is greater in
rough than smooth pipes. To develop numerous equations that may determine
head loss in a pipe, a significant amount of study has been done over a long
period of time. Most of this work was created using experimental data. Several
factors influence the overall head loss in a pipe (Pipe Friction Loss Calculations,
2023.)
It is said that increased velocity causes more head loss, hence it is crucial
to understand how velocity relates to other factors like pipe diameter and fluid
flow rate. The cross-sectional area of the pipe has an inverse relationship with
flow velocity at any given flow rate whereas flow rate is directly proportional to
fluid velocity, smaller pipes will result in greater flow rates whereas bigger pipes
will result in slower flow rates (Relationship between Flow Rate, Flow Velocity,
and Pipe Diameter. - LORRIC, n.d.). It is demonstrated that internal or relative
roughness are not factors in the equation used to determine friction losses in a
laminar flow. The disturbances caused by rough surfaces affect the fluid layers
closest to the tube surface, causing them to become curved, while the flow in the
center of the tube remains parallel and unchanged. This is known as the laminar
flow regime, where the fluid flows in parallel streamlined layers that slide over
one another. Surface roughness was determined to have little impact on friction
factors because the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers are not
appreciably altered in standard laminar theory for macro-scale tubes (Everts et al.,
2022).
Pipes can experience laminar, turbulent, and transitional flows, among
other forms of flow. Usually, laminar flow occurs while working with tiny pipes
and slow flow rates. Laminar flow may be seen as a sequence of liquid cylinders
 4

in a pipe, with the cylinders closest to the pipe flowing the least amount of all
while the innermost portions move the quickest. Vortices, eddies, and wakes in
turbulent flow make the flow unpredictable. High flow rates and bigger pipes are
typically associated with turbulent flow. Laminar flow is found close to the pipe's
sides whereas turbulent flow is found in the pipe's middle in transitional flow.
Regarding the loss of frictional energy, each of these flows exhibits distinct
behaviors (Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent Flow, n.d.). The Reynolds number
may be used to identify certain kinds of flows. The ratio of inertial to viscous
forces is known as the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number is a
dimensionless number used to classify fluid systems where viscosity plays a
significant role in regulating fluid velocities or flow patterns (Rehm et al., 2008).
A pipe can never be completely smooth; instead, it is hydraulically smooth
when additional smoothing has no further impact on the friction factor. The
existence of a hydraulically smooth regime is not limited to the absence of
roughness. This indicates that even when there is relative roughness, the smooth
regime can persist (Brkić, 2012). It was discovered that the friction factor is
generally a function of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the
pipe. Here, relative roughness is defined as the ratio of the pipe's internal wall's
absolute roughness to its internal diameter. However, the calculations for laminar
and turbulent flow regimes are different. The turbulent friction factor is
influenced by the pipe's overall roughness. Usual methods for determining it
include the Moody diagram. The Darcy friction factor, Reynolds number, and
relative roughness for fully developed flow in a circular pipe are all related to the
Moody diagram, often known as the Moody chart (Moody Diagram - Friction
Loss | Application | Nuclear-Power.Com, n.d.)

As a chemical engineer we must know how a piping system works. As

we know there are two flow in a Pipe fittings, a turbulent flow and laminar flow.
Pipe Fittings are defined as the piping components that help in pipe routing for
directional changes, size changes, and branch connections. Piping Elbows, Piping
Reducers, Tee Connections, Olet Connections, Caps, Crosses, etc are pipe fittings
and are widely used in both the piping and plumbing industries. Different pipe
fittings serve different functions as per layout or process requirements. Pipe
fittings are manufactured as separate items and procured separately. Pipe fittings
are connected to piping using various end connections (Dey, 2023). As we know
pipe fittings help change the flow of a fluid in the pipes. There are many different
types if pipe fittings but these all fittings help to change the flow. Different types
of fittings also different kinds of flow rate applied. Also its very important that we
consider the materials we used in pipe fittings. The bodies of fittings for pipe and
tubing are most often of the same base material as the pipe or tubing being
connected. However, any material that is allowed by the code may be used, but
must be compatible with the other materials in the system, the fluids being
transported, and the temperatures and pressures inside and outside of the piping
 5

system. Fire hazards, earth quake resistance, and other factors also influence
choice of pipe fitting materials (Satyendra, 2015).

All pipe fittings create some resistance to airflow which translates into a loss of
pressure that is inducing that airflow. The shape and curve radius of a PVC fitting
makes a large difference in the resistance it creates to airflow. PVC fittings have
different radius turns and shapes, even if two fittings are both 45 or 90 degrees.
The resistance is quantified as a pressure drop. To provide a practical unit of
resistance the pressure drop induced by the fitting is converted into the equivalent
length of piping that would produce the same amount of resistance at the same
airflow (Pressure Drop from System Piping, 2021). Energy losses is not rare to us
a chemical engineering because we always encounter this in our profession. Also
in pipes fittings there two energy losses, minor and major losses. Pressure loss is
proportional to L/D ratio and velocity head. For low velocities, where the flow is
laminar, friction loss is caused by viscous shearing between streamlines near the
wall of the pipe and the friction factor (f) is well defined. For high velocities
where the flow is fully turbulent, friction loss is caused by water particles coming
into contact with irregularities in the surface of the pipe and friction factor itself is
a function of surface roughness. In most engineering applications, the velocity is
less than that required for fully turbulent flow and f is a function of both the
viscosity of a boundary layer and the roughness of the pipe surface. Values of f
can be determined experimentally and plotted in dimensionless form against
Reynolds Number Re to from a Moody Diagram. Minor losses behave similarly
to major losses, where a device with a large k value leads to a high pressure loss.
In general, a very sudden change to the flow path contributes to significant
pressure loss (Practical 3: Friction and Minor Losses in Pipes, 2023).

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORY

The fluid flow in pipes is the subject of the experiment described in this
paper. Based on variations in fluid parameters like velocity, density, etc., the fluids
may be divided into many categories. In fluid mechanics, the analysis approach
differs depending on the kind of flow. A flow is characterized as steady when the
fluid properties at a given place, such as velocity, density, and pressure, do not
vary over time. A steady flow may be mathematically stated as:
 6

[1]
where there are no changes of V(volume), p(pressure) and J (density at a
point). Opposite can be said about unsteady flow and can be mathematically
defined as:

[2] (K, 2020)

The set-up in this experiment involves a pipe, a main and bypass valve, a
float, a rotameter, a u tube manometer, and a smooth pipe. It is apparent that a u
tube manometer is employed here, signifying that pressure at two points or
pressure taps are measured. Precision equipment known as manometers are used
to measure pressure, which is the force that a gas or liquid exerts per unit surface
area because of the effects of that gas or liquid's weight due to gravity.
Manometers can be constructed to measure a variety of pressure values,
depending on their kind and configuration (All About Manometers - What They
Are and How They Work, n.d.). Here, a u-tube manometer is utilized. The
manometric liquid is placed within the U-shaped tube that makes up this
manometer. The manometer is used to measure pressure since gravity's
acceleration and force, g = 9.81 m/sec2, cannot be utilized to calculate it. Once
the manometric liquid or mercury inside the tube has moved or risen to the
constant area after the unknown pressure has been applied to one of its arms, the
movement is stopped. The liquid's height is measured and recorded (Mishra,
2012). The pressure difference measured by a vertical U-Tube manometer can be
calculated as:

[3]
where pd is the pressure, γ is the specific weight, ρ is the density, g is the
gravitational acceleration and h is the height of the manometric fluid (U-Tube
Differential Pressure Manometers, n.d.).

APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

For Expt. 1.a:
 7

Lab Medium: Virtual Lab

Main apparatuses:
Pump
Main valve
Bypass Valve
Float
Rotameter
A long smooth pipe
A U-tube Manometer

Materials Used:
Water
CCl4
Hg

Procedures:
1. In a virtual lab, press the continue button after you redirected to the
simulation tab.
2. You will be shown to a screen containing demo instructions.
3. After demo instructions, check the label’s tab to familiarize with the
apparatuses employed in the experiment.
4. Go to set up tab and input desired values.
5. At this point you can now start the experiment at the experiment tab.
6. Press the green button on the pump to start the experiment. NOTE: the set-
up tab will be disabled once you start and will only enable again if the red
button on the pump is pressed.
7. The main valve can be adjusted by turning it clockwise or
counterclockwise to adjust and achieve desired flow rate values which is
measured on the rotameter.
8. Record 8 different flowrates and tap the “add current readings” button
each time.
9. You can now then click on the observations button to see the observation
table.
NOTE: If you get a manometric error, go to set-up tab and change the
manometric fluid.
 8

For expt 2.b:

Lab Medium: Virtual Lab

Main apparatuses:
CCL4 Manometer
HG Manometer

Procedure:

1. Keep the valve leading to fittings open and valves leading to other lines
closed.
2. Keep the bypass valve completely open and the main valve completely
closed. Switch on the pump.
3. Connect a CCLmanometer to the pressure taps across the globe valve.
Ensure that no air bubbles present and height in both the limbs of
manometer are the same.
4. Set a flow rate of water through the pipe by opening the main valve and
throttling the bypass valve suitably using the rotameter.
5. Note down the rotameter reading and manometer reading after a steady
state is attained.
6. Increase the flow rate of water by opening the main valve and throttling
the bypass valve suitably and repeat step 4 and 5.
7. Use mercury manometer for higher flow rates.
8. Take eight readings with CCL4 manometer as well as with Hg manometer.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

At the experiment and observation table was generated:
[SEE APPENDIX 1.A]
The data is based on 8 trials utilizing water as the process fluid and
mercury as the manometric fluid for CCl4 was easily overflowing thus it was
changed. The Flowrate interval is appreciably by 1lpm, and respective limb height
is also noted, h1 being the one on the left side near where the water is exiting and
h2 being on the right side the first pressure tap that is passed by the process fluid.
 9

Given the data above it can be deduced that as flowrate increases h1 increases but
h2 decreases.

Data:
Diameter of pipe (D)= 0.25 in or 0.0683m
Length of pipe (L)= 1m
Density of water= 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity of water= 1x10^-3 kg/ms
Density of CCl4= 1600 kg/m3
Density of Hg= 13600 kg/m3

Creating a tabular arrangement with rotameter reading and manometer reading:

[SEE APPENDIX 1.B]

The data above shows that as rotameter reading increased the manometer
reading or the height difference in the manometer also increased, signifying a
greater pressure loss as flow rate increases, which can be tied theoretically for it
was stated that greater velocity of fluid flow can have greater head loss.

The following table includes various calculated data obtained from the following
working equations:

1. ∆Hm is cm of manometric fluid

2. Volumetric flow rate, Q = m3/s

3. Pressure drop in m of water [4]

4. Cross sectional area of the pipe A = =0.000032 m2

 10

5. Average velocity through the pipe = V=Q/A = m/s [5]

6. Reynolds number = NRe = [6]

7. Friction factor f is calculated using f Blasius

equation: [7]

8. Friction factor [8]

9. Nicurdse’s correlation: [9]

[SEE APPENDIX 1.C]

Q or flowrate is converted into the desired units, deltaHw which is the
pressure drop in mH2O are also calculated using formula number [4], V which is
the fluid velocity measured in m/s are also calculated using formula [5], done by
dividing the flowrate by the cross-sectional area which is available also given.
NRe or the Reynold’s number are also calculated using formula [6], done by
dividing the product of the diameter of pipe, density and velocity of the fluid
flowing by the viscosity of the fluid, fexpt are calculated using formula [8],
fblasius are calculated using formula [7], this equation is usually used in laminar
flow regime, and the last two columns can be calculated using the previous
generated values.
 11

Plotting fexpt and NRe on log-log graph:

Based on the graph generated above as Reynold’s number increases

friction factor increases, the trend shows that the more laminar a flow is the
greater is its friction factor, and it can be tied theoretically for in laminar flow, the
fluid moves in a smooth and orderly manner, with no turbulence or vortices
present in the flow. The friction loss arises from the transfer of momentum from
the fluid in the center of the flow to the pipe wall via the viscosity of the fluid.
This means that the fluid in the center of the pipe moves faster than the fluid near
the wall, which creates a velocity gradient across the pipe. The greater the
velocity gradient, the greater the friction loss, and hence the higher the friction
factor. The friction factor is inversely proportional to the velocity of the fluid. In
laminar flow, the velocity of the fluid is low, and hence the friction factor is high.
This means that the flow experiences a high level of friction loss, which can have
a significant impact on the performance of the system.

1
Plotting vs NRe√ fexpt :
√ fexpt
 12

This plot is done to verify Nicurdse’s correlation. Based on the plot

generated, as the x variable increases the y variable also increases.

Solving for the slope and intercept using excel:

Slope= 0.46
Intercept= 562

A positive slope represents that as x variable increases y variable also

increases, a specific value of 0.46 indicates that for every 0.46 rise there is 1 run
and that indicates the rate of change of one variable with respect to another. And
the intercept value of 562 indicates the value of y variable when the x variable is
zero.

Part b:

At the experiment and observation table was generated:

[SEE APPENDIX 1.A]
The data is based on 8 trials utilizing water as the process fluid and
mercury as the manometric fluid for CCl4 was easily overflowing thus it was
changed. The Flowrate interval is appreciably by 1lpm, and respective limb height
is also noted, h1 being the one on the left side near where the water is exiting and
 13

h2 being on the right side the first pressure tap that is passed by the process fluid.
Given the data above it can be deduced that as flowrate increases h1 increases but
h2 decreases.

Data:
Diameter of pipe (D)= 0.25 in or 0.0683m
Length of pipe (L)= 1m
Density of water= 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity of water= 1x10^-3 kg/ms
Density of CCl4= 1600 kg/m3
Density of Hg= 13600 kg/m3
The following table includes various calculated data obtained from the following
working equations:

1. Flow rate:
2. ∆Hm is cm of manometric fluid:
3. Volumetric flow rate, Q =m3/s

4. Pressure drop in m of water hf = (4)

5. Cross sectional area of the pipe A =

6. Average velocity through the pipe = V=Q/A = m/s (5)
7. Reynolds number (6)

8. Friction factor f is calculated using f = (7)

9. Equivalent length of Globe valve: (8)

[SEE APPENDIX 1.C]

Q or flowrate is converted into the desired units, deltaHw which is the pressure
drop in mH2O are also calculated using formula number [4], V which is the fluid
velocity measured in m/s are also calculated using formula [5]. NRe or the
Reynold’s number are also calculated using formula [6], f are calculated using
formula [7], Le/D are calculated using formula [8].
 14

Plotting the L/De and pressure drop of CCL4 and Hg For Globe valve fitting:

This plot showing the L/DE in x-intercept while y-intercept is the pressure
drop. The blue dot is the CCL4 working fluid while the orange dot is Hg
working fluid. In this plot it shows that the higher the pressure drop the
smaller the L/De obtain and vice versa. The fitting we used is Globe valved.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION:

The experiment allows the students to grasp an understanding of fluid

flows in a pipe and how length, surface irregularities, and fluid velocity affects the
friction factor and consequently the head loss or pressure loss. The virtual lab
required a minimum of 8 trials, and those trials consisted of varying values of
 15

flow rate with an appreciable interval of 1LPM. The fluid used in the virtual lab
was water and the manometric fluid was mercury although CCl4 was also an
option, the limiting factor was that CCl4 overflows easily even at lower flow rates
opting one to prefer mercury. The virtual experiment utilized a u-tube manometer
which is connected to 2 pressure taps in the length of pipe of 1m, the height of the
manometer limbs in every trial is recorded. It was shown that as the flow rate
increased, which also directly increased the velocity the manometer height
difference also increased signifying an increasing pressure drop as flow rate
increases. Moreover, the values were converted and used in the calculation of
friction factors and Reynold’s number which revealed laminar regime quantities,
and it can be traced back to the type of fluid, diameter of pipe, fluid velocity and
viscosity as the factors of why we get such values of Reynold’s number. 2 Plots
was then made one was fexpt vs NRe which showed that as Reynolds number
increased the friction factor also increased and the second was 1/squareroot(fexpt)
vs NRe*squareroot(fexpt) which was plotted to verify the Nicurdse’s correlation,
following that was the calculation of the slope and intercept using excel which
gave values that can represent the rate of change of the values of variables with
respect to one another and the value of y when x is zero. Fittings in pipes its very
helpful because its help to change the flow of fluid in different kinds of situation.
Also it helps to improve they reynolds number of a pipes and its convenience to
used this because they different types of it and one example of that is elbow. In
this laboratory helps us to know more about fittings and its effects.Suggestions
would be to require students to also record the effect of change of diameter and
length of pipe to the friction loss and head loss.

REFERENCES:
All About Manometers—What They Are and How They Work. (n.d.). Retrieved
September 21, 2023, from https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/instruments-
controls/all-about-manometers-what-they-are-and-how-they-work/
 16

Brkić, D. (2012). Can pipes be actually really that smooth? International Journal
of Refrigeration, 35(1), 209–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2011.09.012
Cella, L. (2016, April 4). Pump school: What are the factors that lead to head
loss? - Pump Industry Magazine. https://www.pumpindustry.com.au/factors-
leading-to-head-loss/
CheGuide ‐ Pump Sizing Calculation. (n.d.). Retrieved September 20, 2023, from
https://cheguide.com/pump_sizing.html
Eddy | Turbulence, Vortex & Flow | Britannica. (n.d.). Retrieved September 20,
2023, from https://www.britannica.com/science/eddy-fluid-mechanics
Everts, M., Robbertse, P., & Spitholt, B. (2022). The effects of surface roughness
on fully developed laminar and transitional flow friction factors and heat transfer
coefficients in horizontal circular tubes. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 189, 122724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.122724
Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers | 1.1 Fluid Mechanics in Chemical
Engineering | InformIT. (n.d.). Retrieved September 20, 2023, from
https://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=2832417
K, N. S. (2020, February 21). What are the Types of Fluid Flow in Pipe? The
Constructor.
https://theconstructor.org/fluid-mechanics/types-fluid-flow-pipe/38078/
Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent Flow. (n.d.). Retrieved September 20, 2023,
from https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/laminar-transitional-turbulent-flow-
d_577.html
Mishra, R. (2012, July 20). U- Tube Manomerter | Theory, Explanation, Diagram,
& Working Equations. Automate Process Industry.
https://learnprotocols.wordpress.com/2012/07/21/u-tube-manomerter-theory-
explanation-diagram-working-equations/
Moody Diagram—Friction Loss | Application | nuclear-power.com. (n.d.).
Nuclear Power. Retrieved September 20, 2023, from https://www.nuclear-
power.com/nuclear-engineering/fluid-dynamics/major-head-loss-friction-loss/
moody-diagram/
Moran, S. (2016). Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice. Back to
Basics.
Pipe Friction Loss Calculations. (n.d.). Retrieved September 20, 2023, from
https://www.pipeflow.com/pipe-pressure-drop-calculations/pipe-friction-loss
Rehm, B., Consultant, D., Haghshenas, A., Paknejad, A. S., & Schubert, J. (2008).
CHAPTER TWO - Situational Problems in MPD. In B. Rehm, J. Schubert, A.
Haghshenas, A. S. Paknejad, & J. Hughes (Eds.), Managed Pressure Drilling (pp.
 17

39–80). Gulf Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-933762-24-

1.50008-5
Relationship between flow rate, flow velocity, and pipe diameter. - LORRIC.
(n.d.). Retrieved September 20, 2023, from
https://www.lorric.com/en/WhyLORRIC/Flowmeter/flow-rate-flow-velocity-
pipe-diameter
Reynolds’ Number—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved
September 20, 2023, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/reynolds-number
Technologies, S. (2021, March 4). Why Dimensional Tolerances Matter.
SyBridge Technologies. https://sybridge.com/dimensional-tolerances-matter/
U-Tube Differential Pressure Manometers. (n.d.). Retrieved September 21, 2023,
from https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/u-tube-manometer-d_611.html
Vassilev, N., Vassileva, M., Lopez, A., Martos, V., Reyes, A., Maksimovic, I.,
Eichler-Löbermann, B., & Malusà, E. (2015). Unexploited potential of some
biotechnological techniques for biofertilizer production and formulation. Applied
Microbiology and Biotechnology, 99(12), 4983–4996.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-6656-4

APPENDIX 1

TABLE:A
 18

Trial number Process Fluid Manometric Flowrate(lpm) h1 (cm) h2(cm)

Fluid

1 Water Mercury 7 36.90 33.10

2 Water Mercury 6.02 36.46 33.54

3 Water Mercury 5.01 36.06 33.94

4 Water Mercury 4.01 35.72 34.28

5 Water Mercury 2.99 35.43 34.57

6 Water Mercury 2.00 35.21 34.79

7 Water Mercury 1.00 35 35

8 Water Mercury 0.00 35 35

Part b
Process Manometric Flowrate(lpm) h1(cm of h2(cm of
fluid fluid Manometric Manometric
fluid) fluid)
Water Carbon 0 0 0
tetrachloride
Water Carbon 2.58 35.71 34.29
tetrachloride
Water Carbon 4.65 37.31 32.69
tetrachloride
Water Carbon 5.83 38.63 31.37
tetrachloride
Water Carbon 7.75 41.42 28.58
tetrachloride
Water Carbon 9.73 45.12 24.88
tetrachloride
Water Carbon 11.73 49.71 20.29
tetrachloride
Water Carbon 15.34 60.16 9.84
tetrachloride
Water Mercury 21.95 37.45 32.55
Water Mercury 26.85 38.67 31.33
Water Mercury 29.98 39.58 30.42
Water Mercury 32.72 40.45 29.55
 19

Water Mercury 36.37 41.73 28.27

Water Mercury 38.60 42.58 27.42
Water Mercury 40.54 43.37 26.63
Water Mercury 40.97 43.54 26.46

TABLE: B
Sl No. Rotameter reading (LPM) Manometer reading (∆ Hm )
(cm)

1 7 3.8
2 6.02 2.92
3 5.01 2.12
4 4.01 1.44
5 2.99 0.86
6 2.00 0.42
7 1.00 0
8 0.00 0
 20

TABLE: C

Sl. Q ∆ Hw V
NRe fexpt fblasius
No. (m3/s) mH2O m/s

0.0001
1 0.4788 3.68 23393 0.00110 0.00639 910.0233 775
2
0.0001
2 0.36792 3.17 20118 0.00114 0.00663 875.8912 680
0
0.0000
3 0.26712 2.64 16743 0.00120 0.00694 835.5638 579
8
0.0000
4 0.18144 2.11 13401 0.00127 0.00734 788.0727 477
7
0.0000
5 0.10836 1.57 9992 0.00136 0.00790 733.6416 369
5
0.0000
6 0.05292 1.05 6684 0.00149 0.00874 672.1261 258
3
0.0000
7 0 0.53 3342 0 0.01039 0 0
2
8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Part b
Manometric fluid: Carbon tetrachloride
SI. hf m
NO. Q m^3/s H20 V m/s Nre f L/De
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0.000043 0.00852 0.011736 900.639 0.014420802 21038.5
3 0.0000775 0.02772 0.021153 1623.31 0.012445912 24415.45
4 9.7167E-05 0.04356 0.026521 2035 0.01176213 25826.7
5 0.00012917 0.07704 0.035255 2705.52 0.01095379 27755.72
 21

6 0.00016217 0.12144 0.044262 3396.73 0.010348129 29381.8

7 0.0001955 0.17652 0.05336 4094.93 0.009875645 30791.9
8 0.00025567 0.30192 0.069782 5355.18 0.009234929 32931.51

Manometric fluid: Mercury

SI. hf m
NO. Q m/s H2O V m/s Nre f L/De
1 0.00036583 0.6174 0.099851 7662.715166 0.008443673 35972.47
2 0.0004475 0.92484 0.122141 9373.298506 0.008028862 37872.86
3 0.00049967 1.15416 0.136379 10465.97725 0.007810559 38969.49
4 0.00054533 1.3734 0.148844 11422.50753 0.007641643 39791.27
5 0.00060617 1.69596 0.165448 12696.71757 0.00744225 40834.65
6 0.00064333 1.91016 0.175592 13475.20754 0.007332351 41443.46
7 0.00067567 2.10924 0.184417 14152.4589 0.007243011 41999.44
8 0.00068283 2.15208 0.186373 14302.57131 0.007223931 42068.5

APPENDIX 2
 22

Sample Calculations

Calculating for the height difference:

h1-h2=(36.9-33.1)=3.8cm

Conversion of Flowrate in LPM to m3/s:

7 L m3 1 min
=0.0001167 m3 /s
min 1000 L 60 s

Calculating for deltaHw in cmH2O:

( ρm − ρ) (13600 −1000)
∆ Hw = ∆ Hm= 3.8=47.88 cmH2O
ρ 1000

Calculating V using Flowrate and Cross-sectional area:

Q 0.0001167
V= = =3.68 m/s
A 0.000032

Calculating NRe:
ρDV 1000 x 0.00635 x 3.68
NRe= = =23368
μ −
1 x 10 3

Calculating fexpt:
2 gDhf 2 x 9.81 x 0.00635 x 0.4788
fexpt= 2
= 2
=0.0011
4 LV 4 x 1 x 3.68

Calculating fblasius:
0.079 0.079
fblasius= 0.25
= 0.25
=0.0064
NRe 23368
 23

2 ghf 2 x 9 .81 x 0 .30192

L/De= 2 = 2 = 32931.51
4f V 4 x 0.009234929 x 0.184417