buildings

Article
Monitoring of Structural Safety of Buildings Using
Wireless Network of MEMS Sensors
Jacek Zabielski and Piotr Srokosz *
Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland;
zabiel@uwm.edu.pl
* Correspondence: psrok@uwm.edu.pl




Received: 25 July 2020; Accepted: 20 October 2020; Published: 23 October 2020


Abstract: The 21st century abounds in modern electronic-information technologies, which are applied
in many areas of life. Amongst many modern technologies there is also the Internet of Things (IoT)
that is the concept of incorporating objects and devices equipped with a communication interface into
the telecommunication and IT networks. This particular feature makes IoT a paradigm that can be
successfully applied to measurement systems used in research in civil engineering, especially using a
wireless sensor network deployed in scattered research locations. In turn, technological progress in
the miniaturization of sensors and controllers allows the construction of very efficient and low-cost
systems for monitoring the physical parameters of buildings, which are safety indicators. The main
purpose of this paper is to present the concept of wireless network of MEMS-based sensors with
particular emphasis on its application in monitoring of structural safety including the author’s
own system based on Long Range (LoRa) technology. The exact novelty of the proposed concept
is the synergistic synthesis of solutions in the field of electronics, micromechanics and computer
science, applied for civil engineering purposes. The system consists of MEMS accelerometers based
on MPU6050 chips and A1302 Hall-effect sensors supported by AVR microcontrollers and LoRa
transceivers based on RF98 chips operating at 433 MHz. The prototype of the measuring network was
installed in a selected university building in which structural discontinuities (wall cracks) were noted.
Sample results of measurements of the impact of service loads on the building structure behavior
were presented in the form of accelerograms.

Keywords: structural safety; MEMS sensors; LoRa network

1. Introduction
Structural cracks are a phenomenon occurring in all types of buildings, regardless of the technology
and material used. Ensuring structural durability and safety requires engineers to analyze the causes
of cracks, as well as to plan and carry out appropriate repairs. Repairs and remedial measures are
effective if engineers correctly identify the true causes of cracks. The most common causes are uneven
and excessive foundation settlements. However, to verify the presumed causes, careful observation
of the location, shape, size, depth, behavior, and other features of the cracks should be carried out.
In addition, as much information as possible about the conditions in which the building was operated
should be collected [1]. One of the techniques for automatically collecting data on the operating
conditions of the facility is a wireless monitoring network.
Systems for wireless monitoring of the structural safety of buildings are becoming increasingly
popular due to the rapid development of the concept of the Internet of Things (IoT). A particularly
useful application of IoT is measuring systems used in sensor networks located in distributed research
locations [2–5]. Technological progress in the miniaturization of sensors and controllers greatly
facilitates the design and implementation of such networks, enabling the construction of very efficient

Buildings 2020, 10, 0193; doi:10.3390/buildings10110193 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

 Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 14
Buildings 2020, 10, 0193 2 of 14
greatly facilitates the design and implementation of such networks, enabling the construction of very
efficient and, above all, cheap systems for monitoring physical parameters of buildings [6–9]. The
and, above
concept ofall,
thecheap systems
Internet for monitoring
of Things physical
is most often usedparameters
in mechatronic of buildings
systems[6–9]. The concept
(see [10]), e.g., for
ofintelligent
the Internet of Things is most often used in mechatronic systems (see [10]),
energy control in intelligent buildings [11] and smart cities [12]. The IoT facilitates remote e.g., for intelligent
energy
real-time control in intelligent
monitoring buildings
of processes [11] and smart
at end-of-life vehicle cities [12]. The
recycling IoT facilitates
centers remote
[13]. It is used real-time
in the field of
monitoring of processes at end-of-life vehicle recycling centers [13]. It is
public safety [14], including human disaster detection system [15], early warning systems to prevent used in the field of public
safety [14], including
accidents, human disaster
and advanced safety detection
managementsystemin[15], early warningstructures
underground systems to [16,17]
prevent and accidents,
early
and advancedwarning
earthquake safety management
systems [18].inIncreasingly,
underground structuresmanagement
production [16,17] and early earthquake
systems warning
for prefabricated
systems
structural [18].components
Increasingly, production
use solutionsmanagement
offered by the systems for prefabricated
IoT [19,20]. The Internet structural
of Things components
is used to
use solutions
monitor veryoffered
complex bystructures
the IoT [19,20].
with the The Internet
huge of Thingsofispossible
consequences used tofailures,
monitorasvery in the complex
case of
structures
dams andwith mines the[21].
huge consequences of possible failures, as in the case of dams and mines [21].
The
Thewidespread
widespread occurrence
occurrenceof wireless networks
of wireless encourages
networks their use intheir
encourages specialized
use inapplications.
specialized
Wireless measuring
applications. networks
Wireless measuringcan be built incan
networks various
be builttechnologies,
in various usually using usually
technologies, the 2.4–2.5 GHz
using the
Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) band (like: WiFi, Bluetooth
2.4–2.5 GHz Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) band (like: WiFi, Bluetooth including Bluetooth including Bluetooth Low
Energy—see
Low Energy—see [22], nRF24). Carrier
[22], nRF24). frequencies
Carrier frequenciesin the GSM
in the GSM1.88–1.9
1.88–1.9 GHz GHz band
band arearealso
alsoused
usedforfor
data
datatransmission,
transmission,but thethe
but mostmostinteresting
interestingfrom the the
from point of view
point of designing
of view of designinginexpensive,
inexpensive,smallsmall
and
local
and measurement
local measurement networks are solutions
networks based onbased
are solutions loweron carrier
lower frequencies: 865–956 MHz
carrier frequencies: 865–956(Z-wave)
MHz
or(Z-wave)
even 433orMHz even(remote
433MHz control
(remotedevices).
controlAmong
devices).theAmong
low-frequency radio communication
the low-frequency solutions,
radio communication
the Long Range
solutions, (LoRa)
the Long concept
Range (LoRa)deserves
conceptspecial attention.
deserves special LoRa is a low-power
attention. wide area wide
LoRa is a low-power networkarea
technology that can use three carrier frequencies: 433, 868 and 915 MHz.
network technology that can use three carrier frequencies: 433, 868 and 915 MHz. It is based on It is based on spread spectrum
modulation
spread spectrum techniques derived
modulation from chirp
techniques spreadfrom
derived spectrum (CSS) technology
chirp spread spectrum (CSS) [23], technology
which enables [23],
transmission over a distance of more than 10 km (in rural areas). It is
which enables transmission over a distance of more than 10 km (in rural areas). It is available asavailable as cheap modules
with
cheap Semtech
modules Sx1276/1277/1278 or HopeRF RF96/97/98
with Semtech Sx1276/1277/1278 integrated
or HopeRF circuitsintegrated
RF96/97/98 that act as circuits
transceivers thatas
that act
provide high that
transceivers interference
provide immunity.
high interferenceAn important
immunity. advantage of these
An important solutionsofisthese
advantage the low poweris
solutions
consumption
the low power enabling batteryenabling
consumption operation. The operation.
battery concept of The wireless monitoring
concept of wireless network presented
monitoring in
network
this article isinbased
presented on theisGrove-LoRa
this article based on theRF98 433 MHzRF98
Grove-LoRa module 433 (Figure
MHz module 1a). (Figure 1a).

Task management
Software layer

Mobility management
Hardware layer
Power management
Application layer
Application layer
Transport layer

Network layer Network layer

Data link layer

Physical layer Sensing layer

(a) (b)
Figure1.1.Sensor
Figure Sensornetwork:
network:(a)
(a)General
Generalarchitecture
architecture[24];
[24];(b)
(b)Functional
Functionalorientation
orientation[14].
[14].

Selection
Selectionofofparameters
parametersfor formonitoring
monitoringofofbuilding
buildingstructural
structuralsafety
safetywas
wasinfluenced
influencedby bycurrently
currently
conducted
conductedresearch
researchininthetheInstitute
InstituteofofGeodesy
Geodesyand andCivil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,atatthetheUniversity
UniversityininOlsztyn
Olsztyn
(Poland). In connection with the cyclical inventory of construction damages carried
(Poland). In connection with the cyclical inventory of construction damages carried out at the out at the Faculty
ofFaculty
Geoengineering by the Social
of Geoengineering Labor
by the Inspectorate,
Social it was decided
Labor Inspectorate, to build
it was decideda wireless
to buildsystem for
a wireless
monitoring
system forthe width of cracks
monitoring and of
the width thecracks
impactand
of dynamic
the impact loads on building
of dynamic structures.
loads The prototype
on building structures.
system was installed
The prototype system in was
the building
installedlocated at 4 Heweliusz
in the building locatedStreet in Olsztyn,Street
at 4 Heweliusz Poland.
in Olsztyn, Poland.
This
Thispaper
paperisisorganized
organizedasasfollows.
follows.Section
Section22describes
describesthe theconcept
conceptof ofaawireless
wirelesssensor
sensornetwork.
network.
The
Thesub-sections
sub-sectionspresent
presentthe
thehardware
hardwareand andsoftware
softwarefunctionality
functionalityofofthethedeveloped
developedsystem.
system.Section
Section33
gives
givesexamples
examples of of
thethe
results recorded
results recordedby the
bysystem and also
the system anddiscusses them inthem
also discusses some in selected
some aspects.
selected
Finally,
aspects.Section 4 presents
Finally, Section 4our conclusions
presents based on the
our conclusions based contributions.
on the contributions.
Buildings 2020, 10, 0193 3 of 14

Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

2. Wireless Sensor Network Concept
2. Wireless Sensor
In general, theNetwork Concept consists of five layers: application layer, transport layer,
sensor network
network layer, data
In general, the link layer,
sensor and physical
network consistslayer.
of fiveInlayers:
addition, three more
application transverse
layer, transportlayer planes
layer, are
network
considered
layer, datafor network
link layer, management
and physicaltolayer.
increase
In overall efficiency
addition, [24] (Figure
three more 1a). layer planes are
transverse
However, networks may have different architectures mainly
considered for network management to increase overall efficiency [24] (Figure 1a).due to expected functionality.
For example, in distributed sensor networks, measurement units (nodes) can be
However, networks may have different architectures mainly due to expected functionality.clustered just like cells
For
in a cellular network. Each cluster is assigned to a local head unit that coordinates
example, in distributed sensor networks, measurement units (nodes) can be clustered just like cells the units in the
cluster and collects
in a cellular network.data from
Each themisduring
cluster monitoring
assigned to a local[25].
headRegardless of the type the
unit that coordinates of architecture
units in the
used, each network must consist of a hardware and software layer, according to the adopted
cluster and collects data from them during monitoring [25]. Regardless of the type of architecture operating
assumptions. The design
used, each network mustassumptions
consist of ofa the networkand
hardware were as follows:
software layer, according to the adopted
•operating assumptions.LoRa
data transmission: The design assumptions of the network were as follows:
wireless,
•• registration of dynamic
data transmission: LoRaactions: acceleration sensor (Figure 2c),
wireless,
•• registration of changes in crack width: linear Hall-effect
registration of dynamic actions: acceleration sensor
sensor (Figure 2c),(Figure 2d),
•• reading
registration of changes
frequency: in crackper
one reading width: linear Hall-effect sensor (Figure 2d),
minute,
• reading frequency: one reading per minute,

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure2.2.Main
Figure Maincomponents
componentsofofsensing
sensingmodule:
module: (a)
(a) Grove
Grove LoRa
LoRa Radio
Radio Transceiver
Transceiver433MHz;
433MHz; (b)(b) AVR
AVR
ATmega328PAmicrocontroller;
ATmega328PA microcontroller;
(c) (c) MPU6050
MPU6050 MEMS MEMS accelerometer;
accelerometer; (d) A1302
(d) A1302 linear Hall-effect
linear Hall-effect sensor.
sensor.
• internal memory capacity (in case of lost connection): data saved from 24 h of observation,
•• internal
power memory
supply: 3.6capacity
V 18650 (in case of lost
lithium-ion connection): data saved from 24 h of observation,
cell.
• power supply: 3.6 V 18650 lithium-ion cell.
According to the adopted assumptions, the architecture of the designed network has the functional
According
orientation to the
presented adopted
in Figure 1b assumptions,
(see [14]). the architecture of the designed network has the
functional orientation presented in Figure 1b (see [14]).
2.1. Hardware Layer—Functional Orientation
2.1. Hardware Layer—Functional Orientation
2.1.1. Application Layer
2.1.1. Application Layer
In the project, the service platform was built on the basis of a microcontroller connected to a
laptopInthrough a Universal
the project, Asynchronous
the service platform wasReceiver-Transmitter interface
built on the basis of (UART) operating
a microcontroller at ato
connected bita
rate of 9600
laptop (Figure
through 3). Connectivity
a Universal with the Receiver-Transmitter
Asynchronous network is also ensured by UART
interface working
(UART) with theatsame
operating a bit
bit rate.
rate of 9600 (Figure 3). Connectivity with the network is also ensured by UART working with the
sameDue to low computing power requirements and a strictly defined range of processed numbers
bit rate.
(mainly integers, without floating point numbers), the implementation of the service platform was
based on the Atmel 8-bit Advanced RISC Architecture AVR chip—ATmega328PA microcontroller,
clocked at 16 MHz (Figure 2b). In these types of designs, high clock frequency is usually not necessary
if the microcontrollers do not perform high-intensity activities. Ensuring a significant reduction in
energy consumption with simultaneous failure-free operation requires clocking reduced to about
1 MHz and a supply voltage not greater than 3 V.
Buildings 2020, 10, 0193 4 of 14
Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14

Laptop
computer

μUSB
connector

LoRa USB ↔ UART

transceiver hardware μController software bidirectional converter
RF98 UART ATmega328PA UART with 5VDC power supply
ATmega168PA FT232RL

Figure3.3.Application
Figure Applicationlayer
layerschematic
schematicdiagram
diagram(red
(redarrows—power
arrows—powerlines,
lines,blue
bluearrows—data
arrows—datalines).
lines).

2.1.2. Network Layer

Due to low computing power requirements and a strictly defined range of processed numbers
The integers,
(mainly network without
layer is based
floating onpoint
the Grove-LoRa
numbers), the RF98 433MHz module
implementation of the(Figure
service2a), whichwas
platform is
abased
very onpowerful platform developed by Seeed Studio to simplify
the Atmel 8-bit Advanced RISC Architecture AVR chip—ATmega328PA microcontroller, IoT projects. It provides the
transmission
clocked at 16of MHz various types 2b).
(Figure of information
In these typesobtained from sensing
of designs, high clock layer frequency
through the is application
usually not
layer to all request
necessary centers. It has high
if the microcontrollers do reliability
not perform andhigh-intensity
high security. activities. The Hope-RF Ensuring RF98 transceivers
a significant
provide
reductionwide-range,
in energy spread-band
consumption communication and high noise
with simultaneous failure-freeimmunity, while minimizing
operation power
requires clocking
consumption.
reduced to about The1 module
MHz and is aequipped with anot
supply voltage local microcontroller
greater than 3 V. (Atmel AVR ATmega168PA),
which contains RF98 management software. The module is controlled via the UART interface. The RF98
2.1.2. Network
transceiver Layer a sensitivity of −148 dBm and the output power reaches 100 mW (20 dBm),
can achieve
which, with a half-wave dipole antenna, ensures seamless connectivity in buildings with a dense and
The network layer is based on the Grove-LoRa RF98 433MHz module (Figure 2a), which is a
complex arrangement of rooms.
very powerful platform developed by Seeed Studio to simplify IoT projects. It provides the
transmission
2.1.3. of various types of information obtained from sensing layer through the application
Sensing Layer
layer to all request centers. It has high reliability and high security. The Hope-RF RF98 transceivers
The sensing
provide wide-range, layerspread-band
consists of a communication
set of Micro-Electro-Mechanical
and high noise immunity, System (MEMS) while Invensense
minimizing
MPU6050 accelerometers and Hall-effect Allegro Microsystems
power consumption. The module is equipped with a local microcontroller (Atmel A1302 linear sensors (Figure AVR
4b).
The MPU-6050 combines
ATmega168PA), which acontains
three-axisRF98
gyroscope and a three-axis
management software. accelerometer
The module (only the accelerometer
is controlled via the
was used in the project). The measurement data are 16-bit numbers
UART interface. The RF98 transceiver can achieve a sensitivity of −148 dBm and the available via the Inter-Integrated
output power
Circuit 2 C) interface. The acceleration recording range is programmable and has been set to ±2 g
reaches(IIC,
100ImW (20 dBm), which, with a half-wave dipole antenna, ensures seamless connectivity in
(the most sensitive
buildings with a dense range).and The A1302 arrangement
complex is a continuous-time,
of rooms.ratiometric, linear Hall-effect sensor. It is
optimized to accurately provide a voltage output that is proportional to an applied magnetic field.
The output
2.1.3. Sensingsensitivity
Layer is 1.3 mV/Gauss. The sensor works with a miniature neodymium magnet in the
configuration shown in Figure 4a.
The 2020,
Buildings sensing layer
10, x FOR PEER consists
REVIEW of a set of Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) Invensense 5 of 14
MPU6050 accelerometers and Hall-effect Allegro Microsystems A1302 linear sensors (Figure 4b).
LoRa
The MPU-6050 combines a three-axis transceiver gyroscope and a three-axis accelerometer (only the
RF98 μUSB
accelerometer was used in the project). The measurement data are 16-bit numbers
ATmega168PA
connectoravailable via the
digital
Inter-Integrated Circuit glue
(IIC, I2C) interface. The acceleration UART recording range is programmable and
μController Li-ion battery
has been set to ±2g (the most
glue sensitive range). The A1302
neodymium
is a continuous-time,
ATmega328PA chargerratiometric,
with linear
protection
Hall-effect sensor.SIt Nis optimized Memory
magnet to accurately provide
EEPROM digitala voltage
analog output
analog that is proportional
TP4056,DW01A to an
IIC input input
applied magnetic field. The output sensitivity is 1.3 mV/Gauss. The sensor works with a miniature
AT24C512
A1302 sensor 3.6V Li-ion battery
neodymium magnet in the configuration shown in Figure 4a. INR18650-35E
MEMS
crack accelerometer Hall-effect sensor
MPU6050 A1302 5VDC power supply
step-up converter
MT3608

(a) (b)
Figure Sensing
Figure4.4. Sensing node:node: (a) Hall-effect
(a) Hall-effect sensor configuration;
sensor configuration; (b) Node
(b) Node schematic schematic
diagram (red
arrows—power
diagram lines, blue arrows—data
(red arrows—power lines, green arrows—analog
lines, blue arrows—data signal lines). signal lines).
lines, green arrows—analog

In total, five modules were designed and manufactured (four nodes and one request center).
The node schematic diagram is shown in Figure 4b (the request center module has a simplified form:
it consists only of a microcontroller, LoRa module and a USB-UART converter based on FTDI
FT232RL chip).
 MPU6050 A1302 5VDC power supply
step-up converter
MT3608

(a) (b)
Figure
Buildings 4. Sensing
2020, 10, 0193 node: (a) Hall-effect sensor configuration; (b) Node schematic diagram (red5 of 14
arrows—power lines, blue arrows—data lines, green arrows—analog signal lines).

In total,
total, five modules
modules were designed and manufactured (four nodes and one request center).
The node schematic diagramisisshown
The node schematic diagram showninin Figure
Figure 4b 4b
(the(the request
request center
center module
module has ahas a simplified
simplified form:
form: it consists
it consists only ofonly of a microcontroller,
a microcontroller, LoRa LoRa
module module
and aand a USB-UART
USB-UART converter
converter based based on
on FTDI
FTDI FT232RL
FT232RL chip).chip).

2.2. Software Layer—Functional

2.2. Software Layer—Functional Orientation
Orientation
2.2.1. Application Layer
2.2.1. Application Layer
The software service platform is a set of two programs that handle all events related to external
The software service platform is a set of two programs that handle all events related to external
requests and commands as well as internal, programmed tasks. The software (created in C/C++)
requests and commands as well as internal, programmed tasks. The software (created in C/C++) was
was installed on a hardware service platform (AVR microcontroller + laptop computer). The view of
installed on a hardware service platform (AVR microcontroller + laptop computer). The view of the
the task manager window is shown in Figure 5. The algorithm of the program running in the AVR
task manager window is shown in Figure 5. The algorithm of the program running in the AVR
microcontroller is shown in Figure 6.
microcontroller is shown in Figure 6.

Figure
Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER 5. Window of the application serving the request center.
REVIEW 6 of 14
Figure 5. Window of the application serving the request center.

START Setup and initialization

NO
Command arrived (?) Send command

YES
Laptop computer
Processing command
Receive data
Power on Get data Power off

Create and broadcast message

Processing reply message

Acknowledgement Data ready

Send data

Figure 6. Algorithm of the program running on the service platform.

The system user starts monitoring nodes and receives data at set intervals (selectable in the
range of 1 min–1 h). Incoming data is saved on the laptop disk as a text file.

2.2.2. Network Layer

 Acknowledgement Data ready

Send data

Buildings 2020, 10, 0193 6 of 14

Figure 6. Algorithm of the program running on the service platform.

The system user starts monitoring nodes and receives data at set intervals (selectable in the
The system user starts monitoring nodes and receives data at set intervals (selectable in the range
range of 1 min–1 h). Incoming data is saved on the laptop disk as a text file.
of 1 min–1 h). Incoming data is saved on the laptop disk as a text file.

2.2.2.
2.2.2. Network
NetworkLayer
Layer
The
The type
type and
and complexity
complexity of of the
the measurement
measurement network
network topology
topology depends
depends primarily
primarily on
on the
the
creativity
creativity of
of the
the designer.
designer. Measurement
Measurement nodesnodes can
can bebe programmed
programmed in in two
two basic
basic ways:
ways: for
for direct
direct or
or
indirect communication. In the direct type of communication, nodes can communicate
indirect communication. In the direct type of communication, nodes can communicate with each other with each
other
only ifonly
theyifare
they are within
within range (Figure
range (Figure 7a).
7a). This type This type of configuration
of configuration is most
is most often often
used used in
in networks
networks with topologies
with topologies based on abased
centralonnode
a central node supervising
supervising the operationtheofoperation
the entireof the entire
network. Thenetwork.
indirect
The indirect type of communication enables the formation of a mesh network
type of communication enables the formation of a mesh network in which nodes can communicate in which nodes can
communicate
with each otherwith each
either other(if
directly either directly
within range)(if
or within range)
indirectly or indirectlynodes
via intermediate via intermediate nodes
(Figure 7b). Due to
(Figure 7b). Due to the small size of the monitored space (building), the
the small size of the monitored space (building), the first communication topology was used. first communication
topology was used.

Node Node

Node Node

Gateway Gateway
node node
Node Node

Node Node

Node Node

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Direct
Direct(a)
(a)and
andindirect
indirect (b)
(b) types
types of
of communication.
communication.

2.2.3. Sensing Layer

The software sensing layer is a program that handles a set of physical signal converters as well
as external requests. The software (created in C/C++) was installed on a hardware sensing platform
(AVR microcontroller + sensors). The algorithm of the program running in the AVR microcontroller is
shown in Figure 8.
The system works cyclically by reading data from the accelerometer and Hall sensor (every 5–6 ms)
and saving extreme values in the internal memory. Receiving a data transfer request resets the maximum
values. Requests are sent at 1-minute intervals (intervals can be extended to 1 h). The set of data
stored in the memory is sent in the form of ASCII characters (numbers in hexadecimal code); the data
frame is presented in Table 1 (the “<” and “>” characters facilitate parsing of message in the request
center). The transmission protocol is shown in Figure 9. A general view of assembled modules is
presented in Figure 10.
 2.2.3. Sensing Layer YES
Calibration (?) Hall sensor positioning

The software sensing layer is a program that handles NO a set of physical signal converters as well
as external requests. The software NO (created in C/C++) was installed on a hardware sensing platform
Buildings 2020, 10, 0193
(AVR microcontroller + sensors).
YES
The
System active
NO
(?) algorithm of the
Message program
arrived (?)
7 of 14
running in the AVR microcontroller
is shown in Figure 8. YES

Processing message

START Power on SetupGet

anddata Power off
initialization

Activate the system, Read the extremes

YES
reset measurements Calibration (?) Hall sensor positioning
NO
Create message
Take measurements
NO
YES NO
System active (?) Message arrived (?)
Send message
Save the extremes
YES

Processing message STOP

Power on Get data Power off

Figure 8. Algorithm of the program running on the sensor node.
Activate the system, Read the extremes
reset measurements
The system works cyclically by reading data from the accelerometer and Hall sensor (every 5–6
ms) and saving extreme values in the internal memory. Receiving a data transfer request resets the
Create message
Take measurements
maximum values. Requests are sent at 1-minute intervals (intervals can be extended to 1 h). The set
of data stored in the memory isSave
sent in the form ofSend
the extremes
message
ASCII characters (numbers in hexadecimal code);
the data frame is presented in Table 1 (the “<” and “>” characters facilitate parsing of message in the
STOP
request center). The transmission protocol is shown in Figure 9. A general view of assembled
modules is presented in Figure 10.
Figure8.8.Algorithm
Figure Algorithmofofthe
theprogram
programrunning
runningon
onthe
thesensor
sensornode.
node.
Table 1. Message frame.
The system works cyclically by reading data from the accelerometer and Hall sensor (every 5–6
Bytes
Table 1. Message frame. 4
ms) and1 saving 4 extreme 4 values in 4 the internal
4 memory. 4 Receiving a data4 transfer 4request resets 4 1
the
Batter
maximum 1
Bytes „< values. 4 Requests4 aremin(X
sent4at min(Y
1-minute
4
acc intervals
4 (intervals
4 can
4 beaccextended
max(X 4max(Yaccto4 1max(Z
h). The set
1 „>
Data y min(Hall) min(Zacc) max(Hall)
Data ”
of data stored
“<” in
Batterythe memory
status is
min(Hall)sent ) in
min(X
acc ) )
accthe form
min(Y acc of ASCII
) min(Z ) max(Hall) max(X )
acc characters (numbers
acc ) in
max(Y acc)
hexadecimal
) max(Z )
acc
acc ) “>” ”
code);
status
the data frame is presented in Table 1 (the “<” and “>” characters facilitate parsing of message in the
request center). The transmission protocol is shown in Figure 9. A general view of assembled
Command Ack
modules is presented in Figure 10.
Laptop Sending
Receiving
Ack Data

Ack Message Table 1. Message frame.

Ack Data
Request center Sending
Receiving
Bytes 1 4 4
Command 4 4 Ack 4 Data 4 4 Ack 4 4 1
Batter
„< min(X min(Yacc
Ack Data max(Xacc max(Yacc max(Z „>
Data Node y min(Hall) min(Z acc) max(Hall) Sending
” acc) ) ) ) Receiving acc) ”
status Message Ack

Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW Figure 9. Transmission protocol.

Command Ack 8 of 14
Laptop Sending
Receiving
Ack Data

Ack Message Ack Data

Request center Sending
Receiving
Command Ack Data Ack

Ack Data
Node Sending
Receiving
Message Ack

Figure 9. Transmission protocol.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 10.10. Modules
Modules view:
view: (a),(a),
(b)(b) Node
Node located
located at at
thethe elevator
elevator shaft;
shaft; (c)(c) Request
Request center.
center.

3. Results and Discussion

The system was installed in September 2019 in the building and put into use in 2012. Despite
careful construction works, the building suffered numerous minor damages, visible in the form of
cracks on the walls and pillars (see Figure 10b). The damages became noticeable after about 3 years
of the building’s operation. However, no corrective action was taken due to uncertainty that the
 (a)
Buildings 2020, 10, 0193 (b) (c) 8 of 14

Figure 10. Modules view: (a), (b) Node located at the elevator shaft; (c) Request center.

3. Results and Discussion

3. Results and Discussion
The system was installed in September 2019 in the building and put into use in 2012. Despite careful
The system was installed in September 2019 in the building and put into use in 2012. Despite
construction works, the building suffered numerous minor damages, visible in the form of cracks on the
careful construction works, the building suffered numerous minor damages, visible in the form of
walls and pillars (see Figure 10b). The damages became noticeable after about 3 years of the building’s
cracks on the walls and pillars (see Figure 10b). The damages became noticeable after about 3 years
operation. However, no corrective action was taken due to uncertainty that the structure has stabilized
of the building’s operation. However, no corrective action was taken due to uncertainty that the
in terms of displacements. It is well known that in cases where minor damage to building structures
structure has stabilized in terms of displacements. It is well known that in cases where minor
is revealed due to excessive displacement, e.g., foundation subsidence, and it does not endanger the
damage to building structures is revealed due to excessive displacement, e.g., foundation
safety of the structure; radical measures are not taken to eliminate the causes. In such cases, it is
subsidence, and it does not endanger the safety of the structure; radical measures are not taken to
waited until the “state of equilibrium” is achieved, i.e., the entire structure “adjusts” to the operating
eliminate the causes. In such cases, it is waited until the “state of equilibrium” is achieved, i.e., the
conditions. Such information on the stabilization of the structure’s operation allows for final repair
entire structure “adjusts” to the operating conditions. Such information on the stabilization of the
works that remove the visibility of local damage: gaps and cracks. However, in order to unequivocally
structure’s operation allows for final repair works that remove the visibility of local damage: gaps
determine whether the structure of the building is not at risk and whether it has reached a state of
and cracks. However, in order to unequivocally determine whether the structure of the building is
equilibrium in terms of displacements, a monitoring network was installed at the most sensitive points
not at risk and whether it has reached a state of equilibrium in terms of displacements, a monitoring
of the facility. The sensing nodes were installed in preselected locations (Figure 11):
network was installed at the most sensitive points of the facility. The sensing nodes were installed in
•preselected
node 1: locations
the elevator(Figure
shaft11):
in the basement (wall with crack),
•• node 2: the laser scanning
node 1: the elevator shaft in laboratory on the(wall
the basement top (2nd) floor (wall with crack),
with crack),
•• node
node3:2: the
the elevator shaft on
laser scanning the top floor
laboratory (wall
on the topwithout cracks),
(2nd) floor (wall with crack),
•• node
node4:3: the
the mezzanine pillar
elevator shaft on on
thethe
topfirst floor
floor (crack).
(wall without cracks),
• node 4: the mezzanine pillar on the first floor (crack).

3
1 4 RC

10m

(a) (b)

Figure 11. Monitored building: (a) General view [26] (b) Scheme of location of measurement nodes
(RC—request center on the top floor, 1, 2, 3, 4—nodes).

The monitoring process was carried out for several weeks, with the highest intensity of operational
loads. During the measurements, no disturbances in data transmission were observed. Typical results
recorded by all nodes during observation are shown in Figures 12–15 (accelerations exceeding 10 mg
are marked with red ovals, due to the 10-bit resolution of the A/D converter of the Hall sensor—the raw
values have been approximated with a 6th degree polynomial).
 (RC—request center
(RC—request center on
on the
the top
top floor,
floor, 1,
1, 2,
2, 3,
3, 4—nodes).
4—nodes).

The monitoring
The monitoring process
process was
was carried
carried out
out for
for several
several weeks,
weeks, with
with the
the highest
highest intensity
intensity of
of
operational loads. During the measurements, no disturbances in data transmission were
operational loads. During the measurements, no disturbances in data transmission were observed. observed.
Typical results
Typical results recorded
recorded by
by all
all nodes
nodes during
during observation
observation are
are shown
shown in
in Figures
Figures 12–15
12–15 (accelerations
(accelerations
Buildings 2020, 10, 0193
exceeding 10 mg are marked with red ovals, due to the 10-bit resolution of the A/D converter the 9 of 14
of the
exceeding 10 mg are marked with red ovals, due to the 10-bit resolution of the A/D converter of
Hall sensor—the
Hall sensor—the raw raw values
values have
have been
been approximated
approximated with
with aa 6th
6th degree
degree polynomial).
polynomial).

Figure
Figure 12.Results
12.12.
Figure Results registered
Results registered by
registered by node
bynode
node11 (2-day
(2-day interval).
1 (2-day interval).
interval).

Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

condition. The demonstrated stabilization of the displacements of the building structure elements
and the minimal impact of operational loads allowed for the decision to start renovation works.
On the occasion of the conducted measurements, observations made in the laser scanning
laboratory confirmed that dynamic interactions coming from users are completely imperceptible.
This confirms the correctness of the purpose of this room for a workshop of precise geometric
Figure
Figure
Figure 13.Results
13.13. Results registered
Results registered by
registered by node
bynode
node22 (2-day
(2-day interval).
interval).
2 (2-day interval).
measurements.

As it
As it can
can be
be easily
easily seen,
seen, the
the dynamic
dynamic loads
loads have
have aa negligible
negligible impact
impact onon the
the building
building structure.
structure.
Noticeable changes in acceleration values are recorded during the building’s hours
Noticeable changes in acceleration values are recorded during the building’s hours of use; at of use; at night
night
the sensors do not record vibrations of significant amplitudes, which is in line with expectations.
the sensors do not record vibrations of significant amplitudes, which is in line with expectations. The The
width of the cracks changes its value cyclically, which indicates the normal operation of the
width of the cracks changes its value cyclically, which indicates the normal operation of the building building
structure and
structure and does
does not
not indicate
indicate the
the development
development of of further
further discontinuities
discontinuities that
that could
could lead
lead to
to aa failure
failure

Figure 14.14.Results
Figure Results registered bynode
registered by node 3 (2-day
3 (2-day interval).
interval).
Buildings 2020, 10, 0193 10 of 14
Figure 14. Results registered by node 3 (2-day interval).

Figure
Figure 15.15.Results
Results registered
registered by
bynode
node4 (2-day interval).
4 (2-day interval).

The reliability of the information flow in the system was analyzed on the basis of the frequency
As it can be easily seen, the dynamic loads have a negligible impact on the building structure.
of transmission errors. LoRa systems based on Semtech Sx1276/1277/1278 chipsets can be
Noticeable changes in acceleration values are recorded during the building’s hours of use; at night the
programmed for a fixed number of repetitions of attempts to establish contact, as well as time
sensorsintervals
do not record vibrations
for renewing of significant
transmissions. amplitudes,
Nevertheless, which
it may is inthat
happen line an
with expectations.
attempt to establishThe width
of the cracks
contactchanges its value cyclically,
will be unsuccessful, which indicates
which is manifested the
by a lack of normal
record inoperation of data
the collected the building
set (Figurestructure
and does16).not
Theindicate
occurrence theofdevelopment
such errors inofthe recordsdiscontinuities
further was negligible and
that did notlead
could exceedto a0.1% of the
failure condition.
volume of collected
The demonstrated data. of the displacements of the building structure elements and the minimal
stabilization
impact of operational loads allowed for the decision to start renovation works.
On the occasion of the conducted measurements, observations made in the laser scanning
laboratory confirmed that dynamic interactions coming from users are completely imperceptible.
This confirms the correctness of the purpose of this room for a workshop of precise
geometric measurements.
The reliability of the information flow in the system was analyzed on the basis of the frequency of
transmission errors. LoRa systems based on Semtech Sx1276/1277/1278 chipsets can be programmed
for a fixed number of repetitions of attempts to establish contact, as well as time intervals for renewing
transmissions. Nevertheless, it may happen that an attempt to establish contact will be unsuccessful,
which is manifested by a lack of record in the collected data set (Figure 16). The occurrence of such
errors inBuildings
the records
2020, 10, xwas negligible
FOR PEER REVIEW and did not exceed 0.1% of the volume of collected data. 11 of 14

Figure
Figure 16. 16.
Raw Raw dataregistered
data registered by
bynode
node1 with errors
1 with marked.
errors marked.

Due to the specific design of the algorithms built into the LoRa Semtech chipset, multiple
attempts to establish a connection by nodes resulted in successful sending of data packets to the
request center. However, such errors can be easily identified from the time delays in the data
delivery. Figure 17 shows the time anomalies that occurred during data registration in the request
center. Such errors occurred quite often (they constituted even about 5% of all measurements), but
Buildings 2020, 10, 0193 11 of 14
Figure 16. Raw data registered by node 1 with errors marked.

Due totothe
thespecific design
specific of the
design of algorithms
the algorithmsbuilt into
builtthe LoRa
into theSemtech chipset, multiple
LoRa Semtech chipset, attempts
multiple
to
attempts to establish a connection by nodes resulted in successful sending of data packets center.
establish a connection by nodes resulted in successful sending of data packets to the request to the
However, such errors
request center. can besuch
However, easilyerrors
identified
can from the time
be easily delays infrom
identified the data
the delivery.
time delaysFigure
in 17
theshows
data
the time anomalies that occurred during data registration in the request center. Such
delivery. Figure 17 shows the time anomalies that occurred during data registration in the request errors occurred
quite often
center. Such (they constituted
errors occurredeven
quiteabout
often5% of all
(they measurements),
constituted but they
even about 5% are notmeasurements),
of all problematic duebutto
the
theylong, 1-minute
are not intervals
problematic duebetween subsequent
to the long, 1-minute transmissions (the maximum
intervals between subsequent delay value recorded
transmissions (the
during the 2-week observation did not exceed 10 s).
maximum delay value recorded during the 2-week observation did not exceed 10 s).

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Recorded
Recorded time
time delays during subsequent
delays during subsequent data
data transmissions.
transmissions.

Another aspect
Another aspectof of
the the
teststests
of theofconstructed
the constructed
system wassystem was the assessment
the assessment of energy
of energy consumption
consumption of measurement nodes. The analysis of the energy consumption of
of measurement nodes. The analysis of the energy consumption of the wireless nodes consistedthe wireless nodes
consisted in measuring the voltage of the lithium-ion cell supplying each measuring
in measuring the voltage of the lithium-ion cell supplying each measuring unit during continuous unit during
continuousuntil
operation, operation, untilsource
the current the current source was
was completely completely
discharged discharged
(Figure (Figure
18). During 18). During
the tests, the
the control
tests, the control and transmission circuits did not go into a low energy state (sleep mode)
and transmission circuits did not go into a low energy state (sleep mode) in the intervals between in the
the sensor readings. The average current during the full load of the node (operation of sensors,
microcontroller and LoRa transceiver) did not exceed 60 mA. The nodes were powered by an
INR18650-35E cells with a nominal capacity of 3500 mAh and a minimum capacity not less than
3350 mAh. Therefore, during the energy consumption tests, the continuous operation time of the
device was not shorter than about 2 days. In the normal operation mode, i.e., with the active state
of low energy consumption (sleep mode) of the control and transmission circuits occurring during
transmission intervals, the period between recharging the batteries increased several dozen times (the
lithium-ion cell is charged via a micro USB connector, which can also be used to connect an external
larger battery).
There is a possibility of deeper optimization of the system in terms of even greater energy savings,
which may include:

• reducing the clock frequency of the microcontroller below 1 MHz (several hundred kHz),
• using a more economical step-up converter (e.g., TPS61202) to power Hall sensor,
• using thresholds and interrupts to generate LoRa transmission.

A prototype of such a module has already been built; the working period between charging the
cells is several months.
 not less than 3350 mAh. Therefore, during the energy consumption tests, the continuous operation
time of the device was not shorter than about 2 days. In the normal operation mode, i.e., with the
active state of low energy consumption (sleep mode) of the control and transmission circuits
occurring during transmission intervals, the period between recharging the batteries increased
several
Buildings dozen
2020, times (the lithium-ion cell is charged via a micro USB connector, which can also12be
10, 0193 of 14
used to connect an external larger battery).

Figure
Figure 18.Energy
18. Energyconsumption
consumption test
test (continuous
(continuous work,
work,full
fullpower
powerofofnodes).
nodes).

4. Conclusions
There is a possibility of deeper optimization of the system in terms of even greater energy
savings, which may
Preliminary include:
results of measurements confirmed the effectiveness of the constructed monitoring
•
system of the building
reducing the clockstructure.
frequencyThe most
of the important conclusions
microcontroller below 1 MHz that can behundred
(several drawn from
kHz),ongoing
• using aare
observations more economical step-up converter (e.g., TPS61202) to power Hall sensor,
as follows:
• using thresholds and interrupts to generate LoRa transmission.
• LoRa wireless communication systems ensure trouble-free data transmission from sensor networks
in A prototype
high of such a module
electromagnetic has already
wave conditions been
(cell built; the
phones, working
WiFi, period
bluetooth between charging the
etc.);
• cells is several
cheap MEMS months.
sensors can be successfully used to monitor dynamic effects on building structures;
• the monitored building, despite numerous wall cracks, shows no signs of progressing
4. Conclusions
structure degradation;
• thePreliminary
system can results
be usedoftomeasurements confirmed
test selected rooms the effectiveness
in buildings to verify of
thethe constructed
correctness of monitoring
their purpose
system of the building
and conditions structure. The most important conclusions that can be drawn from ongoing
of use;
• observations
a constant are as follows:
monitoring network of structures exposed to cracks allows for obtaining information
• about the time of safe repair
LoRa wireless communication and renovation (cracktrouble-free
systems ensure stabilization);
data transmission from sensor
• thenetworks
modular in high electromagnetic
structure wave conditions
of the system enables its(celleasy
phones, WiFi, bluetooth
modernization andetc.);
improvement,
• including
cheap MEMS sensors can be successfully
adaptation to individual needs. used to monitor dynamic effects on building
structures;
•
It is obvious that in general cases, observations lasting several weeks may not be enough to
the monitored building, despite numerous wall cracks, shows no signs of progressing structure
formulate recommendations for building safety, but the created network of sensors can certainly act as
degradation;
an •earlythe
warning
systemsystem
can be for
usedanto
impending breakdown
test selected rooms inor disaster.toBased
buildings verifyonthe
thecorrectness
data collected so far,
of their
the building administrator has made
purpose and conditions of use; a decision about the need to carry out the necessary repairs to the
damage found in the structure of the monitored facility.
One of the most important aspects of evaluating the effectiveness of a remote building monitoring
system is real-time wireless transmission performance. LoRa circuits have been set to repeat the
transmission 15 times in case of encountered errors, while the maximum time of sending a data packet
was set to 1 s from the attempt to establish communication. It is obvious that the wireless early warning
system should have a short transmission time. The proposed remote event recording system does not
have time synchronization circuits. One of the proposals for supplementing the wireless network are
GPS receivers; conceptual work has already begun.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.S.; methodology, J.Z.; software, P.S.; validation, P.S.; formal analysis,
J.Z.; investigation, P.S.; writing—Original draft preparation, P.S.; writing—Review and editing, J.Z. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Buildings 2020, 10, 0193 13 of 14

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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