Chapter 121 ◆ Neonatal Resuscitation and Delivery Room Emergencies 925

Chapter 121
Neonatal Resuscitation
and Delivery Room
Emergencies
Jennifer M. Brady and
Beena D. Kamath-Rayne

Most infants complete the transition to extrauterine life without difficulty;

however, a small proportion require resuscitation after birth (Fig. 121.1).
For a newborn infant, the need for resuscitation is often caused by a
problem with respiration leading to inadequate ventilation. This is in
contrast to an adult cardiac arrest, which is usually caused by inadequate
circulation. The goals of neonatal resuscitation are to reestablish adequate
spontaneous respirations, obtain adequate cardiac output, and prevent
the morbidity and mortality associated with hypoxic-ischemic tissue
(brain, heart, kidney) injury. High-risk situations should be anticipated
from pregnancy history and labor. Improved perinatal care and prenatal
diagnosis of fetal anomalies allow for appropriate maternal transports
for high-risk deliveries. Infants who are born limp, cyanotic, apneic,
or pulseless require immediate resuscitation before assignment of the
1 min Apgar score. Rapid and appropriate resuscitative efforts improve
the likelihood of preventing brain damage and achieving a successful
outcome.

NEONATAL RESUSCITATION
See also Chapter 81.
Guidelines for the Neonatal Resuscitation Program (NRP) are based
on recommendations from the International Liaison Committee on
926 Part XI ◆ The Fetus and the Neonatal Infant

<1.4 million <1%

babies of babies
require advanced
resuscitation
(endotracheal
intubation, chest
compressions and drugs)
Approx 6
million babies Approx 3-6%
of babies require basic
resuscitation (bag-and-mask ventilation)
Approx 10 Approx 5-10%
million babies of babies require simple stimulation
at birth to help them breathe
(drying and rubbing)

136 million
babies born All babies require immediate assessment at birth
and simple newborn care

(assess breathing, dry, and put the baby skin-to-skin with mother)

Fig. 121.1 Estimates of infants requiring resuscitation at birth. (From

Wall SN, Lee ACC, Niermeyer S, et al: Neonatal resuscitation in low-
resource settings: what, who, and how to overcome challenges to scale
up? Int J Gynaecol Obstet 107:S47–S64, 2009, Fig 1.)

Resuscitation Consensus on Treatment Recommendations. These recom-

mendations propose an integrated assessment/response approach for
the initial evaluation of an infant, consisting of simultaneous assessment
of infant general appearance and risk factors. The fundamental principles
include evaluation of the airway and establishing effective respirations
and adequate circulation. The guidelines also highlight the assessment
and response to the neonatal heart rate.
Before the birth of a baby, sufficient preparation for the birth should
occur. At least 1 individual capable of neonatal resuscitation should be
present at the delivery, and if advanced resuscitation is anticipated,
*
more individuals should be available to help. Necessary equipment
should be available, which routinely includes: a warmer bed, blankets,
infant hat, stethoscope, bulb suction, suction catheter with wall suction,
bag-mask device, oxygen source with blender, pulse oximeter, laryn-
goscope with blade, and endotracheal tubes (ETTs). Based on the specific
details of the pregnancy, further equipment that may be needed should
be anticipated and readily available. The equipment should be checked
to make sure it is functioning appropriately. Team members should
introduce themselves, define a team leader, assign roles for the resuscita-
tion, and discuss what actions they will take during the resuscitation.
For complex resuscitations, there may be 1 individual whose sole job Fig. 121.2 Newborn resuscitation algorithm. CPAP, Continuous positive
is to keep track of time and record what interventions are taken, both airway pressure; ETT, endotracheal tube; HR, heart rate; IV, intravenous;
to ensure the correct steps are performed in a timely manner and to PPV, positive pressure ventilation; UVC, umbilical venous catheter. *At
this point in resuscitation 100% oxygen is instituted. (From Wyckoff MH,
review during debriefing later. Aziz K, Escobedo MB, et al. Part 13. Neonatal resuscitation: 2015
Immediately after birth, all term infants should be dried, warmed, American Heart Association guidelines update for cardiopulmonary
and stimulated. If the infant does not need resuscitation, these steps resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care, Circulation 132(Suppl
can occur on the mother’s abdomen while delayed cord clamping is 2):S542–S560, 2015, Fig 1.)
taking place. Simultaneously, the infant’s tone, respiratory effort, and
heart rate should be assessed (Fig. 121.2).
Failure to initiate or sustain respiratory effort is fairly common at
birth, with 5–10% of births requiring some intervention. Infants with and ETT insertion should the baby remain apneic or PPV is not achieving
primary apnea respond to stimulation by establishing normal breathing. effective ventilation; and C, maintain the circulation with chest compres-
Infants with secondary apnea require some ventilatory assistance in sions and medications, if needed. Fig. 121.2 outlines the steps to follow
order to establish spontaneous respiratory effort. Secondary apnea usually for immediate neonatal evaluation and resuscitation.
originates in the central nervous system (CNS) as a result of asphyxia In term infants after stimulation, if no respirations are noted, or if
or peripherally because of neuromuscular disorders. The lungs in infants the heart rate is <100 beats/min, PPV should be given through a tightly
affected by conditions such as pulmonary hypoplasia and prematurity fitted and appropriately sized bag-mask device. PPV should be initiated
may be noncompliant, and initial efforts to begin respirations may be at pressures of approximately 20 cm H2O at a rate of 40-60 breaths/min
inadequate to initiate sufficient ventilation. initially with 21% fraction of inspired oxygen (FIO2) for full-term infants.
The steps in neonatal resuscitation follow the ABCs: A, anticipate At the same time PPV is initiated, a pulse oximeter should be placed
and establish a patent airway by positioning the baby with the head on the right hand (preductal) and cardiac leads placed on the chest.
slightly extended, sniffing position, and suctioning if secretions are In the past the recommended inspired gas for neonatal resuscitation
blocking the airway; B, initiate breathing first by using tactile stimulation, had been 100% oxygen. However, resuscitation with room air in term
followed by positive pressure ventilation (PPV) with a bag-mask device infants is equally effective and may reduce the risk of hyperoxia, which
 Chapter 121 ◆ Neonatal Resuscitation and Delivery Room Emergencies 927

is associated with decreased cerebral blood flow and generation of

oxygen free radicals. Room air is the preferred initial gas for neonatal
resuscitation in term infants. O2 concentration administered should
then be titrated as needed to obtain expected O2 saturations in a term
infant after birth, as defined by normal reference range by minute of life
(see Fig. 121.2).
Successful and effective ventilation is signified by adequate chest rise,
symmetric breath sounds, improved pink color, heart rate >100 beats/
min, increasing O2 saturation, spontaneous respirations, and improved
tone. If after 30 sec of providing PPV there are no signs of effective ventila-
tion, corrective steps should be performed to improve ventilation. The 6
ventilation corrective steps can be remembered with the mnemonic
MRSOPA: mask readjustment, reposition the head, suction mouth and
nose, open the mouth, pressure increase, and alternative airway).
In infants with severe respiratory depression who do not respond to
PPV by bag-mask, after corrective steps have been taken, endotracheal
intubation should be performed. For infants with an otherwise normal
airway weighing <1,000 g, ETT size is usually 2.5 mm; for infants
1,000-2,000 g, 3 mm; and for infants >2,000 g, 3.5 mm. A general rule
for depth of insertion from upper lip in centimeters is 6 plus infant’s
weight in kilograms. Poor response to ventilation may be a result of a
loosely fitted mask, poor positioning of the ETT, esophageal intubation,
airway obstruction, insufficient pressure, pleural effusions, pneumothorax,
excessive air in the stomach leading to abdominal competition, asystole,
hypovolemia, diaphragmatic hernia, or prolonged intrauterine asphyxia.
Various devices to detect exhaled CO2 and to confirm accurate ETT
placement are available. A laryngeal mask airway may also be an effective
tool to establish an airway, especially if PPV is ineffective and intubation
attempts are unsuccessful.
The underlying cause for the vast majority of infants having a low
heart rate is not a primary cardiac cause, but instead the result of
ineffective ventilation. Therefore, if the heart rate remains <60 beats/
min after 60 sec of PPV with corrective MRSOPA steps, the infant
should be intubated (if not already done) to achieve effective ventilation. Fig. 121.3 Emergently placed umbilical venous catheter suitable for
Once the infant is intubated, if the heart rate remains <60 beats/min, neonatal resuscitation.
chest compressions should be initiated with continued ventilation, and
FIO2 increased to 100%. Chest compressions should be initiated over
the lower third of the sternum at a rate of 90/min. The ratio of compres-
sions to ventilation is 3 : 1 (90 compressions:30 breaths). A provider,
separate from the person providing ventilation, is needed to administer for 10 min without a detectable heart rate, it is reasonable to stop
chest compressions. Two different techniques exist for performing chest resuscitative efforts.
compressions: the thumb technique and the 2-finger technique. For the
thumb technique the tips of both thumbs are used to depress the sternum, RESUSCITATION OF THE PRETERM INFANT
with the fingers on each side encircling the chest; this is the preferred Resuscitation of the preterm infant should follow the same steps as
method to administer chest compressions, because it has been shown a term infant, with some special considerations. Whereas resuscita-
to achieve a higher blood pressure, increase coronary perfusion, and tion of term infants should start with room air, resuscitation of most
result in less fatigue. The 2-finger technique involves depressing the preterm infants can be initiated with slightly higher FIO2, 21–30%.
sternum with the tips of the middle finger and index finger while Pulse oximetry of the preductal (right) hand should be used to titrate
supporting the back with the palm of the other hand. In infants, regardless O2 concentrations for targeted saturations per the NRP algorithm
of whether an alternative airway has been secured, chest compressions (see Fig. 121.2).
are always coordinated with PPV. Chest compressions should continue Special attention should be paid to keeping the preterm infant warm
uninterrupted for 45-60 sec before reassessing heart rate to determine in the delivery room. Quality improvement projects have initiated bundles
next steps. to improve admission temperatures of preterm infants to the neonatal
Medications are rarely required, but epinephrine should be admin- intensive care unit (NICU) and have included such interventions as
istered when the heart rate is <60 beats/min after 60 sec of combined higher ambient temperatures in the delivery room, immediate placement
ventilation and chest compressions or during asystole. Persistent bra- of preterm infants into a plastic bag or under plastic wrap rather than
dycardia in neonates is usually attributable to hypoxia resulting from drying, and exothermic mattress for resuscitation and transport of the
respiratory arrest and often responds rapidly to effective ventilation preterm infant.
alone. Persistent bradycardia despite what appears to be adequate Delayed cord clamping for 1-3 min can be performed in both preterm
resuscitation suggests inadequate ventilation or more severe cardiac and term infants but is especially recommended for preterm infants.
compromise. Benefits to term infants include higher hemoglobin levels at birth with
The umbilical vein can generally be readily cannulated and is the improved iron stores in the 1st several mo of life. Additional benefits
preferred method for administration of medications and volume expand- for preterm infants include improved hemodynamic stability, decreased
ers during neonatal resuscitation (Fig. 121.3). The ETT may be used need for inotropic support, decreased need for transfusions, and decreased
for the administration of epinephrine if intravenous access is not yet risk of necrotizing enterocolitis and intraventricular hemorrhage. The
available. Epinephrine (1 : 10,000 solution at 0.1-0.3 mL/kg intravenously American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recom-
or 0.5-1 mL/kg intratracheally) is given for asystole or for continued mends at least 30-60 sec of delayed cord clamping after birth for vigorous
heart rate <60 beats/min after 60 sec of combined resuscitation. The term and preterm infants. It is unclear, however, whether delayed cord
dose may be repeated every 3-5 min. If adequate resuscitation continues clamping should be continued when an infant requires resuscitation.
928 Part XI ◆ The Fetus and the Neonatal Infant
Fig. 121.4 EXIT procedure. Baby with teratoma and critical high airway obstruction syndrome. Trachea is displaced to the lateral neck. (Courtesy
of Dr. Mark Wulkan, Pediatric Surgery, Emory University.)
Studies are investigating whether the onset of respirations before delayed
cord clamping is beneficial for both hemodynamic stability and decreased
neonatal mortality.
SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES IN
THE DELIVERY ROOM
Meconium
Meconium staining of the amniotic fluid may be an indication of fetal
stress. Previously, the presence of meconium-stained amniotic fluid in
a nonvigorous infant required tracheal intubation to attempt to aspirate
meconium below the cords; NRP recommendations (7th edition) no
longer support this practice. If an infant is born through meconium-
stained amniotic fluid, it does not matter whether they are vigorous or
nonvigorous; the infant should receive the same initial steps of basic
resuscitation and should be assessed as any other infant. Tracheal
intubation may delay the initiation of effective PPV, which will help
the baby to breathe and achieve effective gas exchange.
Placental Abruption
Placental abruption (abruptio placentae) at birth can lead to massive
fetal blood loss and a hypovolemic, anemic infant at delivery. Infants
can present pale and apneic with poor tone, decreased perfusion, and
bradycardia. In addition to performing routine neonatal resuscitation,
when an infant is suspected to be symptomatic from a placental abruption,
an emergency low-lying umbilical venous catheter (UVC) should be
placed and emergent type O Rh-negative blood should be obtained. In
acute blood loss, the blood should be administered as quickly as possible
in 10 mL/kg aliquots in the delivery room. Adequate communication
between obstetrics and pediatrics regarding suspected abruption is
crucial to early recognition and treatment of the infant.
Neonatal Encephalopathy
Infants with neonatal encephalopathy are born with abnormal neurologic
function, including level of consciousness, muscle tone, and reflexes.
Although there are many possible etiologies, when symptoms are
accompanied by a defined perinatal event such as cord prolapse or
placental abruption, hypoxic-ischemic brain injury is the presumed
cause. These infants are often born with impaired respiratory drive. In
addition to routine neonatal resuscitation, term infants with concern
for neonatal encephalopathy should be passively cooled in the delivery
room by not turning on the warmer bed. After initial resuscitation
and stabilization, a more thorough neurologic examination can be
performed to assess if the infant meets formal criteria for moderate to
severe encephalopathy in order to proceed with whole body cooling
(see Chapter 120.4).
Airway Obstruction
Hypoplasia of the mandible with posterior displacement of the tongue
may result in upper airway obstruction (Pierre Robin, Stickler, DiGeorge,
and other syndromes; see Chapter 337). Symptoms may sometimes be
temporarily relieved by pulling the tongue or mandible forward or
placing the infant in the prone position. Other rare causes of upper
airway obstruction at birth include laryngeal atresia or stenosis, teratomas,
hygromas, and oral tumors. Critical fetal and then neonatal airway
obstruction represents an emergency in the delivery room. High-risk
perinatal care has led to the more frequent prenatal diagnosis of these
disorders. When diagnosed prenatally, planning can identify the location
of delivery and interventions available at delivery. The ex utero intra-
partum treatment (EXIT) procedure allows time to secure the airway
in an infant known prenatally to have critical airway obstruction, before
the infant is separated from the placenta (Fig. 121.4). Uteroplacental
gas exchange is maintained throughout the procedure.
Respiratory Distress
Both congenital abnormalities and iatrogenic causes secondary to
required resuscitation can contribute to respiratory distress in the
neonate. A scaphoid abdomen suggests a diaphragmatic hernia, as
does asymmetry in contour or movement of the chest. An infant with
a known diaphragmatic hernia should be immediately intubated in the
delivery room and an orogastric tube placed to avoid gaseous distention
of the bowel from crying or PPV. The infant should then be transferred
to a tertiary referral center for surgical evaluation and treatment
(see Chapter 122.1).
In infants with a prenatal diagnosis of hydrops, pleural effusions
may be present at delivery, preventing adequate lung expansion and gas
exchange. Similarly, infants requiring PPV in the delivery room are at
risk for developing a pneumothorax. Infants with pulmonary hypoplasia
or meconium-stained fluid are at increased risk of this complication.
Clinically, infants with a pleural effusion or pneumothorax present with
respiratory distress and hypoxia, with diminished breath sounds on the
affected side. Transillumination may be helpful to confirm the diagnosis.
Emergency evacuation of a pneumothorax or pleural effusion without
radiographic confirmation is indicated in an infant who is unresponsive
to resuscitation efforts and has asymmetric breath sounds, bradycardia,
and cyanosis. An angiocatheter attached to a stopcock and syringe should
be used for evacuation. For a pneumothorax, an angiocatheter should
be inserted perpendicular to the chest wall above the rib in the 2nd
intercostal space in the midclavicular line and air evacuated. For a pleural
effusion, with the infant in the supine position, the angiocatheter should
be inserted in the 4th or 5th intercostal space in the anterior axillary
line and directed posteriorly to evacuate the fluid (see Chapter 122).
Abdominal Wall and Neural Tube Defects hypotension, tachycardia, or poor urine output. Regardless of the severity
Appropriate management of patients with abdominal wall defects of neonatal encephalopathy or the response to resuscitation, asphyxiated
(omphalocele, gastroschisis) in the delivery room prevents excessive infants should be monitored closely for signs of multiorgan hypoxic-
fluid loss and minimizes the risk for injury to the exposed viscera. ischemic tissue injury (see Chapter 120.4).
Gastroschisis is the more common defect, and typically the intestines
are not covered by a membrane. The exposed intestines should be gently Bibliography is available at Expert Consult.
placed in a sterile clear plastic bag after delivery. A membrane often
covers an omphalocele, and care should be taken to prevent its rupture.
A nasogastric tube should be placed and the infant transferred to a
tertiary referral center for surgical consultation and evaluation for
associated anomalies (see Chapter 125).
Similarly, infants born with neural tube defects such as a myelome-
ningocele need special care at delivery to protect the exposed neural
tube tissue from trauma and infection; infants should be placed on
their side or abdomen for resuscitation. The site of the neural tube
defect should be covered with a moist sterile dressing to prevent drying
and infection. The infant should then be transferred to a tertiary referral
center for surgical evaluation and treatment.

INJURY DURING DELIVERY

Central Nervous System
Both extracranial and intracranial birth injuries can be seen in infants
after birth. Extracranial lesions include cephalohematoma, caput suc-
cedaneum, and subgaleal hemorrhage. Intracranial birth injuries include
subdural hemorrhage, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and epidural hematoma.
The most common intracranial injury experienced at birth is subdural
hemorrhage, with increasing incidence seen with instrument-assisted
vaginal deliveries (see Chapters 120.1 and 120.2).

Fractures
The clavicle is the most frequently fractured bone during labor and
delivery. It is particularly vulnerable to injury with difficult delivery of
the shoulder in the setting of shoulder dystocia, as well as with extended
arms in breech deliveries. In the treatment of shoulder dystocia, the
obstetrician may intentionally fracture the clavicle so that delivery can
proceed. Symptoms of a clavicular fracture include an infant not moving
the arm freely on the affected side, palpable crepitus or bony irregularity,
and asymmetric or absent Moro reflex on the affected side. The prognosis
for this fracture is excellent. Often, no specific treatment is needed,
although in some cases the arm and shoulder on the affected side are
immobilized for comfort.
Fractures of the long bones are fairly rare. Injuries often present with
absent spontaneous movement of the extremity. Associated nerve
involvement may also occur. Treatment involves immobilization of the
affected extremity with a splint and orthopedic follow-up.

Brachial Plexus Injuries

Brachial plexus injuries result from stretching and tearing of the brachial
plexus (spinal roots C5-T1) at delivery. Although shoulder dystocia is
associated with an increased risk of brachial plexus injury, it can also
occur during a routine delivery (see Chapter 120.6).

ONGOING CARE AFTER RESUSCITATION

The “golden hour” after a baby’s birth should emphasize effective neonatal
resuscitation, postresuscitation care, prevention of hypothermia, immedi-
ate breastfeeding if able, prevention of hypoglycemia, and therapeutic
hypothermia for cases of moderate to severe neonatal encephalopathy
(birth asphyxia). After supportive measures have stabilized the infant’s
condition, a specific diagnosis should be established and appropriate
continuing treatment instituted.
After initial resuscitation and stabilization, an infant with a significant
metabolic acidosis may potentially require further treatment with sodium
bicarbonate and/or 10 mL/kg of volume expander. If infection is sus-
pected, appropriate antibiotics should be started as soon as possible.
Severe neonatal encephalopathy may also depress myocardial function
and cause cardiogenic shock despite the recovery of heart and respiratory
rates. Fluids and dopamine or epinephrine as a continuous infusion
should be started after initial resuscitation efforts, to improve cardiac
output in an infant with poor peripheral perfusion, weak pulses,