Proceedings of the 19th Japan-Korea-France-Canada

Joint Seminar on Geoenvironmental Engineering

May 20-21, 2021

ESITC Caen - Caen National University, France

Organized by
ESITC Caen, France
Kyoto University, Japan
Fukuoka University, Japan
Hokkaido University, Japan
Seoul National University, South Korea
Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
University of Normandy, Caen National University, France
 Front cover photos with the courtesy of Valgo company

Former refinery of Petit-Couronne (France) beyond rehabilitation; the industrial activity

started in 1929 and stopped in 2013. Since 2014, VALGO is dismantling the units
(superstructures up to 170m and underground piping networks), remediating the soils from
the hydrocarbon pollutions and welcoming new industrial activities. Depending of the
subzones, the LNAPL layer is pumped, the soil is cleaned or removed and replaced with
recycled materials. A clean layer of soils coming from Grand Paris’ huge works is
compacted to finalize the new industrial zone.
Proceedings of the 19th Japan-Korea-France-Canada

Joint Seminar on Geoenvironmental Engineering

May 20-21, 2021

ESITC Caen - Caen National University, France

Organized by
ESITC Caen, France
Kyoto University, Japan
Fukuoka University, Japan
Hokkaido University, Japan
Seoul National University, South Korea
Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
University of Normandy, Caen National University, France

With the support of

Centre Français du Littoral Association
Communauté urbaine Caen-la-Mer
Laboratory Morphodynamique Continentale et Côtière - M2C, Caen
SMÉDAR Le Grand Quevilly
VALGO company, Portet-sur-Garonne
Preface

Like anyone, the GEE2021 conference has suffered from the covid19 pandemic.
Originally planned for May 2020, it had to be postponed when the pandemic was at its
worst. Postponed to May 2021 in a less pronounced but still active pandemic situation,
this conference turned into a virtual conference. This is how the GEE2021 conference
came about.

Geo-Environmental Engineering 2021 (GEE2021 or 19th Japan-Korea-France-Canada

Joint Seminar on Geo-Environmental Engineering) was held on May 20-21 at the
ESITC High school for civil and construction engineers of Caen in the campus 2 of
Caen Normandy University. This annual seminar was organized under the auspices of
the French National Center for Scientific Research CNRS, the International
Geosynthetics Society IGS, the Pole Mer which is a French Sea Innovation and
Business Cluster. It was supported by the ESITC Caen for local organization, the Centre
Français du Littoral Association for the editorial work, Caen La Mer Urban Community,
VALGO company (Paris and Petit-Couronne agency near Rouen) and the Laboratory
“Continental and Coastal Morphodynamics - M2C” of Caen.

The first Korea-Japan Joint Seminar took place in Seoul in 2001. Prof. Junboum Park
from Seoul University and Prof. Masashi Kamon from Kyoto University initiated it. For
the fifth seminar in 2005, the Korean Institute of Construction Technology has joined
the seminar group. And the seventh seminar was for the first time held in France, at
University of Grenoble with the cooperation of Prof. Jean-Pierre Gourc. One year after,
in 2008, the joint seminar held in Kyoto University with the Canadian cooperation
through the venue of Prof. Loretta Li from University of British Columbia and then with
the participation of the Prof. Catherine Mulligan of Concordia University. Then, it took
place continuously in these 4 countries Japan-Korea-France and Canada: Nantes (2016),
Seoul (2017), Fukuoka (2018) and Montreal (2019). To ensure the continuity of the
joint seminar, with the both cooperation of Prof. Jean-Pierre Gourc (Grenoble
University) and Prof. Daniel Levacher (Caen University), the 19th joint seminar was the
fourth one held in France, in Caen at ESITC with cooperation of Caen Normandy
University. Previously prepared for May 2020 it was postponed in 2021, May 20-21 as
a virtual conference.

And so far from Japan and Korea, we highly appreciate the papers coming from
overseas and particularly from Brazil and India, these both countries could follow the
GEE in the future. During the 2 days, the symposium has provided interesting
discussions and participants have debated on updated questions relative to the waste and
landfill management, the geotechnical reuse of solid waste, the remediation of
contaminated sites, the environmental risk assessment and about lessons from the field
and case studies. The exchange of ideas on research and experience in these fields was
rich. For these reasons, the Geo-Environmental Engineering 2021 has demonstrated that
the symposium should continue in 2022 and in future.

While the virtual conference was well suited to the pandemic situation, it could not
provide the traditional technical field visits, which participants regretted. But the hope
that the pandemic will end in the near future should reassure all participants for the next
GEE.

The symposium would not have been possible without the full contribution of Em. Prof.
Daniel Levacher (Caen University), member of GEE committee and Dr Mohamed
Boutouil (ESITC Caen) for the local organization. All the GEE committee members,
greatly appreciate their efforts.

Daniel Levacher, Civil Engineering Emeritus Professor, Caen University

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

KEYNOTE LECTURE

1 Remediation of a refinery’s site by LNAPL pumping adapt to the constraints of the matrix and of the pollutant 1
Laurent THANNBERGER, Marius DRAGA, Théo DECLERCQ

ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT

REMEDIATION MANAGEMENT

2 Assessment of marine submersion's risk on the coastal morpho-dynamics of Bejaia, Algeria 23

Cherif AOUDJ, Mokhtar GUERFI, Khoudir MEZOUAR
3 3D geophysical characterization of LNAPL volume extension 29
Théo DE CLERCQ, Laurent THANNBERGER, Abderrahim JARDANI
4 Possibility of well clogging by recharging tunnel seepage in the Kanto region, Japan 49
Sho HASEGAWA 1, Toshifumi IGARASHI
5 Change in groundwater flow in a limestone quarry by drainage tunnel excavation 57
Keisuke INOUE, Kouta FUJIMAKI, Chika UMEDA, Toshifumi IGARASHI
6 Assessment of heavy metal contamination through sediment cores from shallow harbour in Quebec, Canada 69
Masoumeh JAVID, Catherine N. MULLIGAN
7 A new prediction method for the rainfall-induced landslides and debris flows 81
Sangseom JEONG, Moonhyun HONG
8 Development of a model to quantify dust emissions from truck traffic on earthmoving sites - Approach and 87
preliminary results
Mickael LE VERN, Ouardia SEDIKI, Andry RAZAKAMANANTSOA, Frédéric MURZYN, Frédérique
LARRARTE, Pascal INSENGA, Philippe GOTTELAND
9 Leaching behaviour of arsenic from excavated rock under anaerobic conditions 95
Yusuke MASAKI, Tomohiro KATO, Lincoln Waweru GATHUKA, Atsushi TAKAI, Takeshi KATSUMI
10 Oral bio-accessibility of Pb and Zn from playground soils in Kabwe, Zambia 103
Walubita MUFALO, Pawit TANGVIROON, Toshifumi IGARASHI, Mayumi ITO, Tsutomu SATO, Meki
CHIRWA, Imasiku NYAMBE, Hokuto NAKATA, Shouta NAKAYAMA, Mayumi ISHIZUKA
11 Desorption parameters to evaluate arsenic leaching behaviour 111
Torataro NASAHARA, Jiajie TANG, Tomohiro KATO, Lincoln Waweru GATHUKA, Atsushi TAKAI, Takeshi
KATSUMI
12 Serial batch tests and up-flow column tests to evaluate the sorption performance of soil amended with a 119
stabilising agent
Takaomi OKADA, Tomohiro KATO, Lincoln Waweru GATHUKA, Atsushi TAKAI, Takeshi KATSUMI
13 Removal of heavy metals using tire derived activated carbon (TAC) vs commercial activated carbon (CAC) 131
Rahim SHAHROKHI, Junboum PARK
14 Arsenic stabilization by oyster shell, zeolite and the mixture of them as binders evaluated in an As- 139
contaminated soil and an As-aqueous solution
Cecilia TORRES QUIROZ, Junboum PARK

REUSE OF SOLID WASTE & WASTE ENGINEERING

15 Characterization and mechanical proprieties of soil-vegetal fibre material 147

Athmane AZIL, Tuan Anh PHUNG, Malo LE GUERN, Nassim SEBAIBI
16 Mechanical and leaching characteristics of carbonated MSW IBA using exhaust gas and CO 2 discharged from 153
 waste incineration facilities
Takuro FUJIKAWA, Kenichi SATO, Chikashi KOGA, Hirofumi SAKANAKURA, Hiroshi KUBOTA, Yosuke
NAGAYAMA
17 Effect of fine and water contents of soil on effective separation of mixed wastes generated by huge disasters 163
Kansei HIRAOKA, Junichiro SHIOIRI, Shogo NAKAGAWA, Atsushi TAKAI, Takeshi KATSUMI
18 Analysis of sediment-based fired bricks strengths: A case study of fluvial sediments from Mexico 171
Mazhar HUSSAIN, Daniel LEVACHER, Nathalie LEBLANC, Hafida ZMAMOU, Jean-Baptiste BESNIER,
Irini DJERAN-MAIGRE, Andry RAZAKAMANANTSOA
19 Grain size characterisation - Study of the sediment dynamics of Monastir bay, Tunisia 179
Nouha KHIARI, Abdelfattah ATOUI, Nadia KHALIL, Abdelkrim CHAREF
20 Comparative study of the compressive strength of hollow concrete blocks made in two factories in the city of 185
Yaoundé based on local and imported cement
Bertille Ilalie K. MANEFOUET
21 Mechanical properties of the biomass ash-based binder 201
Désiré NDAHIRWA, Hélène LENORMAND, Hafida ZMAMOU, Nathalie LEBLANC
22 Valorization of sunflower bark in agropellets 213
Anaelle REIX, Hafida ZMAMOU, Hélène LENORMAND, Nathalie LEBLANC
23 A case study of solidification technology applied to soft soils and sediments: Construction of a railway 221
platform in Ningde (China)
Xiao WANG, Daniel LEVACHER, Tianxue ZHONG
24 Cartography of agricultural by-products available in the World for a potential use in building materials 229
Hafida ZMAMOU, Hélène LENORMAND, David ABOUZEID, Nathalie LEBLANC

GROUND AND CONSTRUCTION IMPROVEMENT TECHNOLOGIES

GEOSYNTHETICS & SUSTAINABLE GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

25 Influence of fiber crushing on light earth hygrothermal properties 237

Farjallah ALASSAAD, Karim TOUATI, Daniel LEVACHER, Nassim SEBAIBI
26 Reinforcement design using geosynthetics for foundations on karstic zones: analytical calculation and 247
numerical stress-strain model
Paulo CASTRO, Isabelle SILVA, Paula MARTINS, Filipe XAVIER, Rodrigo FONSECA
27 Management of harbor sediments to reuse as backfill 257
Ali HUSSAN, Daniel LEVACHER, Salim MEZAZIGH
28 Dewatering cone tests: Evaluation of chemical conditioning and geotextile efficiencies for a water treatment 265
plant sludge
Matheus MÜLLER, Gabriel L. A. de OLIVEIRA, Delma VIDAL
29 Evaluating geotechnical properties and hydraulic performance of soil-bentonite cutoff wall using in situ 277
samples
Kazuki NISHIMURA, Yan TIAN, Atsushi TAKAI, Toru INUI, Takeshi KATSUMI
30 Pilot-scale heating of soft clays using solar collectors for the thermal acceleration of consolidation: 289
experimental and numerical studies
Mohammed Tarek Sayed SAKR, Shuhei NISHI, Atsushi OGAWA, Atsushi TAKAI, Takeshi KATSUMI
31 Towards low carbon binders: binder’s evolution and use of wood ash as mineral filler 297
Léo SAOUTI , Daniel LEVACHER, Hafida ZMAMOU, Nathalie LEBLANC, Louis JARDIN
32 Oyster shell powder, zeolite and red mud as a binder stabilizer to remediate heavy metal contaminated soil 305
Cecilia TORRES QUIROZ, Junboum PARK
33 Studies on the use of polymer blended MSW as a structural fill material in embankments 315
B.V.S. VISWANADHAM, Ankit KUMAR
34 Studies on verification of dynamic compaction induced densification of MSW landfills using shear wave 331
velocity profiling
B.V.S. VISWANADHAM, Saptarshi KUNDU
35 Economic viability of using iron ore tailings to make blocks to be reinforced with geosynthetics 341
 Geo-Environmental Engineering GEE2021
ESITC-UniCaen, Caen, France, May 20-21, 2021

Comparative study of the compressive strength of hollow

concrete blocks made in two factories in the city of Yaoundé
based on local and imported cement

Bertille Ilalie K. MANEFOUET

1. University of Dschang, Department of Earth science, BP 96, Dschang, Cameroon.

Bertille.manefouet@univ-dschang.org

Abstract
This article is the comparative study of mechanical properties of perforated concrete
blocks manufactured in two factories in the city of Yaoundé. It has two goals: (1) the
study of compressive strength of 28 days old hollow concrete blocks and (2) the better
understanding of the effect of this on the sustainability and workability of constructions.
Based on the combination of particle size analysis, identification tests and mechanical
tests performed on samples taken, the following results were obtained: (1) chipboard
concrete manufactured in factories are more favourable to workability than sustainability;
(2) the dosage D7 (Pm = 10.8 %; E/C = 1.5) may be recommended to the leaders of
factories due to its high resistance. Otherwise, it is advisable to obtain a workability and
durability while avoiding cement wastage, using dosage from D4 while increasing the
thickness of the cover.

Keywords:
Hollow concrete block, Yaoundé, Dosage, Compressive strength, Durability,
Workability.

Corresponding author mail: Bertille.manefouet@univ-dschang.org

1. Introduction
Yaoundé, Capital of Cameroon, is both the capital of the Center region and the Mfoundi
division. Located on the southern Cameroonian plateau, in the middle of the equatorial
forest, it is about 200 km from the Atlantic coast. It stretches for 23.4 km on its main axis
(EW) and covers an urbanized area of nearly 18,000 ha.
According to Cameroon's national contribution report to the 3rd conference (2015) on
housing and sustainable development in urban areas (habitat III), the growth rate of the
Cameroonian population has been 2.6 % since 2010. 67 % of Cameroon's urban
population live in slums. The latter are experiencing an annual growth of 5.5%.
According to UN-Habitat (2007), the population of Yaoundé is estimated at 1.5 million
inhabitants, with the average annual growth rate in sharp decline, which stabilizes around
5.8 %. According to the urbanistic audit report of the city of Yaoundé (2001), the annual
growth rate was 9% in 1980, 6.7 % until the 1990s and 5.4 % in 2001. In 2003, 50 % of
Cameroon's population lived in urban areas. Among them, about 67 % live in so-called
spontaneous neighbourhoods. In Yaoundé, this proportion is between 70 and 80 %. These
neighbourhoods are characterized by an "over densification" of space.
With more than 500,000 settlements, the habitat survey in urban areas (1989) reveals that
56.9 % of houses are built with perforated concrete blocks against 21.8 % for mud brick
houses. In 1990, a study by the International Research Group Consultancy (IRGC, 1990)
noted the mediocrity of the construction industry in all cities in Cameroon. As part of a
study in concrete factories in Yaoundé, LIKIBY et al., (2009) corroborate this
observation by highlighting the inadequacies in the typology and quality of prefabricated
concrete blocks. In general, the production of concrete blocks is neither regulated nor
controlled; the dosages applied to date do not meet any established standard.
The strength of concrete - an artificial stone obtained by hardening a mixture of binders,
water and aggregates (sand, crushed rock or gravel) - depends on its formulation. This is
why many countries have established standards governing manufacturing based on their
climatic and socio-economic environment. In Cameroon, where no known standard is
applied, it is necessary to establish an endogenous one to govern this sector which is very
determining on the quality of housing. This study aims at contributing towards
establishing this standard by studying the mechanical resistance of perforated concrete
blocks manufactured in two sand pits in the city of Yaoundé.
The quality of concrete blocks depends on both the ingredients used and the working
environment. Thus, a postulate can be made by linking its resistance to three conditions
of realization: (1) setting time and the fineness of grinding of the cement, (2) the evolution
of the granularity and (3) the cement/sand (C/S) ratio in mixtures. In the event that one of
these parameters is not respected, the manufactured concrete easily undergoes shrinkage
and desiccation quickly leading to its destruction.
Of the two sand pits studied, a set of 28 concrete blocks was treated in order to obtain the
evolution of grain size, setting time, fineness of grinding and compressive strength of the
186
concrete blocks. The samples were obtained in 2 steps. The first is to obtain ranges by
considering the use of two types of cement: CPJ 35 and CPA 42.5R. The second step is
the dosage by varying the amounts of cement in the manufacture.
This work will be presented in two parts: methodology and results.

2. Methodology

2.1 Study area

Yaoundé, a metropolitan city in full urbanization, is between latitudes 3 ° and 5 ° North
and longitudes 11 ° and 12 ° East (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Yaoundé geological location map: (a) Ntem complex, (b) Yaoundé group.

It is part of the vast South Cameroonian plateau (BITOM, 1982; MBARGA BINDI, 1992;
ONGUENE MALA, 1993; YONGUE FOUATEU, 1986). The geology of the region
under consideration consists of Precambrian metamorphic rocks (migmatites) para and

187
ortho derivates (CHAMPETIER DE RIBES & AUBAGUE, 1956; NZENTI, 1987;
OWONA, 1998). The quarry sands used in construction come from the crushing of
paramigmatite massifs (Nkomkana, Nkomtou). The Yaoundé region, whose
hydrographic regime is of equatorial type (ONGUENE MALA, 1993) and the dendritic
hydrographic network, is made up of two large watersheds: the Nyong basin in the
southern part and the Sanaga basin in the northern part. The so-called Sanaga sand, sand
used in construction sites originates from the Mbam-Sanaga confluence in the locality of
Ebebda. The lithological substratum of this confluence consists of migmatite with
embrechitic facies (DUBREUIL et al., 1975). The fine sand used in the sites comes from
the localities of Monatélé and Olembé. The soil profile in these villages is made up of
three horizons. So, from bottom to top: gravels, sands and clays.

2.2. Materials and method in construction sites

2.2.1. Used materials

After a preliminary investigation in the city of Yaoundé, two sand pits (concrete factory
site) were selected: one in Mvan and the other in Obili. Subsequently, the concrete blocks
were manufactured according to a range of seven different dosages, including the D3
dosage used by the manufacturers on the construction site (Table 1). The concrete mixes
are obtained with a mixture of sand (Sanaga sand + quarry sand + fine sand), cement
(imported or from Cimencam) and water. The imported cement has the following
characteristics: Ordinary Portland Cement, grade 42.5R: CPA, china standard GB175, net
weight: 50 kg. The cement from the cement factories of Cameroon (CIMENCAM) has
the following characteristics: Portland cement CPJ35, 35-NF, average P15-301, weight:
50 kg.

2.2.2. Manufacture of concrete blocks

On site, in addition to the dosages of the mixes used on site, concrete blocks of 15 (20 x
15 x 40 cm) were manufactured with six different dosages and in two different sets of
cement.
- The technicians at Mvan, to produce 60 blocks of 15, make the following D3 dosage:
2 wheelbarrows of Sanaga sand + 1 wheelbarrow of quarry sand + 1 wheelbarrow of
fine sand + 10 buckets of 10L of water + 1 bag of cement. That means: 600 kg (400
L) of sand + 100 kg (100 L) of water + 50 kg (20L) of cement.
- The technicians in Obili, to produce 75 blocks of 15, make the following D3 dosage:
2 wheelbarrows of Sanaga sand + 2 wheelbarrows of quarry sand + 1 wheelbarrow of
fine sand + 10 buckets of 10L of water + 1 bag of cement. That is: 750 kg (500L) of
sand + 100 kg (100L) of water + 50 kg (20L) of cement.
To manufacture the ranges of concrete blocks with local cement or with imported cement,
the dosages according to the following formulas were used:
188
Mc = Pm.Ms (1)
Vc = Pv.Vs (2)
with Mc = mass of cement, Vc = volume of cement, Pm = mass percentage, Pv =
volumetric percentage, Ms = mass of sand, Vs = volume of sand. The quantities of water
and sand in our samples were set respectively at: Mvan: 2.1 L and 8.4 L; Obili: 1.68 L
and 8.4 L. Subsequently, the amounts of cement varied according to the dosages in Table
1, with E = water; C = cement; W/C = water to cement mass ratio; Di = dosage numerated
i; the other parameters are defined in the text. The fresh breeze blocks are wetted from
time to time to avoid shrinkage after drying. The 28 perforated concrete blocks
manufactured, as well as the cements and sands used were transported to laboratory
LABOGÉNIE (National Laboratory of Civil Engineering, Yaoundé) for testing.

Table 1. Presentation of the different dosages.

Mvan Obili
Dosage

Vc (L) Mc (kg) Pv (%) Pm (%) E/C Vc (L) Mc (kg) Pv (%) Pm (%) E/C
D1 15.6 39 3.9 6.5 2.7 16 40 3.2 5.3 2.5
D2 18.21 45.5 4.6 7.6 2.2 19.2 48 3.8 6.4 2.1
D3 20 50 5.0 8.3 2 20 50 4 6.7 2
D4 20.8 52 5.2 8.7 1.9 22.4 56 4.5 7.5 1.8
D5 22.1 55.3 5.5 9.2 1.8 25.6 64 5.1 8.5 1.6
D6 23.4 58.5 5.9 9.8 1.7 28.8 72 5.8 9.6 1.4
D7 26 65 6.5 10.8 1.5 32 80 6.4 10.7 1.25

2.3. Laboratory work

As the study was based on the strength of perforated concrete blocks, the work took place
in concrete manufacturing sites and at the National Civil Engineering Laboratory
(LABOGÉNIE). In the laboratory, four series of tests were carried out.

2.3.1. Particle size analysis of sands by sieving and sedimentometry

In order to know the ranges of variation of the diameters of the grains of sand and their
weight, particle size analyzes by sieving and by sedimentation were carried out according
to standards NF P 18 - 560 and NF P 94 - 093 respectively.

2.3.2. Sand equivalent (ES)

The sample washed under standard NF P 18 - 598 conditions is left at rest. Subsequently,
the heights H1 and H2 of the clean sand containing fine elements and only clean sand
respectively are measured. By definition:
ES = (H2 / H1) x 100 (3)

189
2.3.3. Tests on cements
The setting test was carried out using the Vicat apparatus and a cement paste of normal
consistency according to standard EN 196 - 3. Identification tests are used to acquire data
on particle size analysis (GA), Blaine specific surface area (SSB, standard EN 196 - 6),
specific weight (PS) and bulk density (DA). The different values obtained are shown in
Table 2.

2.3.4. Simple compressive strength test on concrete blocks and cements

The compressive strength of the concrete blocks or hardened cement samples was carried
out using a press according to standard EN 196 - 1.

3. Presentation and interpretation of the results

3.1. Cements
3.1.1. Setting time
The start of setting corresponds to the moment when an increase in the viscosity or
stiffening of the cement paste is observed. It is 2h 45mn for the CPJ 35 cement and 2h
55mn for the CPA 42.5R cement. The mixture sets when after a while the hydrate crystals
become more and more important. The mixture having changed viscosity stiffens. The
CPJ 35 cement end of setting time is 4h 07mn, and of CPA 42.5R cement it is 4h 33mn.
The setting times of the cements used for making the blocks are therefore 1h 22mn for
the CPJ 35 cement and 1h 38mn for the CPA 42.5R cement.
It is necessary to know the beginning and the end of setting of the cement pastes, in order
to be able to assess the time available for the correct placement of the mortars or
concretes. Depending on their resistance class (VENUAT, 1989), the standards specify a
minimum setting time, which at a temperature of 20 ° C, is 1 hour 30 minutes for class
35 and 45 cements. The cements are more or less close (1h 30 ± 8mn) from the minimum
value. In general, the setting time for cements is up to 2h 30mn and 3h. Knowing on the
one hand that heat accelerates the hardening and that the hardening promotes desiccation,
and on the other hand that cold tends to stop the process of hydration of the cements, the
setting times obtained from these cements are acceptable for the manufacture of sand
concrete, even more that of CPA 42.5R cement.

3.1.2. Fineness of grinding

The cement identification tests gave the results in Table 2.

Table 2. Identification test data.

Type of cement AG (% 80µm) PS (T/m 3) SSB (cm 2/g)
CPJ 35 3,8 3,05 3038
CPA 42,5R 4,1 2,95 3177

190
The SSB characterizes the fineness of the grind. The domain of definition of this varies
according to the authors. According to NEIL & REVINDRA (1996), practical values are
between 3250 and 3850 cm2/g. VENUAT (1989) proposes values between 2900 and 3500
cm2/g. The values of SSB are included in the range of values according to the
classification of Venuat and close to the lower limit according to Neil and Rev Will. CPA
42.5R cement is a little better than other cement.
3.1.3. Mechanical properties of cements
The summary of the results of the mechanical tests is given in Table 3.
Table 3. Average data of the mechanical strengths of cements at 28 days.
Type of cement Flexural strength (MPa) Compressive strength (MPa)
CPJ 35 6.3 80.2
CPA 42.5R 6.9 78.7

According to British Standard requirements for strength of the principal Portland cements
(NEIL & REVINDRA, 1996), the values of the minimum strengths at 28 days are variable
according to their class. Class 35 has nominal values of 35 MPa and 55 MPa for the lower
and upper limits respectively. The 42.5R class has values of 42.5 MPa and 62.5 MPa
respectively for lower and upper nominal limits.
According to the NF P 18-360 standard, current directives require minimum 28-day
strengths of 4 MPa in flexural tension and 30 MPa in compression. The values of tensile
and compressive strengths of the cements used to make our concretes are much higher
than these minimum values. This gives these cements (CPJ 35 and CPA 42.5R) a very
good ability to consolidate the granular skeleton of concretes. They are therefore likely
to have a good influence on the quality of concrete resistance.

3.2. Sands

3.2.1. Sand equivalent

The degree of cleanliness of sand is characterized by a visual (ESv) or piston (ESp)
numerical value. This degree influences the quantities of water in the dosages, hinders
the adhesion of the binder and thus creates the risk of cracks in hardened concrete. In the
present case, its values are recorded in table 4.

Table 4. Sand equivalent values (ES).

Fine sand Sanaga sand Quarry sand
ES
Mvan Obili Mvan Obili Mvan Obili
ESv 80.7 80.7 95.8 91.6 96.9 95
ESp 71 71 91 88.7 99.5 97.5

DREUX (1985) qualifies concretes according to the degree of cleanliness of the sands
used. In view of its qualifications, these sands are fine, clean, with a low percentage of
191
fine clayey (75 ≤ ESv < 85) and perfectly suitable for quality concretes, meaning common
concretes of relatively high resistance (ESV ≥ 75). The Sanaga and quarry sands are very
clean sands (ESv ≥ 75), suitable for high-strength quality concretes, meaning exceptional
concretes (ESv ≥ 80).

3.2.2. Granulometry
The results of the particle size analysis have been graphically translated by the particle
size curves in Figures 2, 3 and 4 (Note: X and Y-axes legend are in French).
Sieving Sedimentation
Gravel Coarse Sand Fine sand Silt Clay
Cumulative sieve (%)

Aggregate dividing
line

Granular reference
curve

0.1 0.01 0.001

Particle diameter (mm)

Figure 2. Grain size curves of the sands from Mvan quarry.

Cumulative sieve (%)

Aggregate dividing
line

Granular reference
curve

0.1 0.01 0.001

Particle diameter (mm)

Figure 3. Grain size curves of the sands from Obili sand pit.

192
 Cumulative sieve (%)

0.1 0.01 0.001

Particle diameter (mm)

Figure 4. Particle size curves of the different sands.

OAB reference particle size compositions are plotted there. According to Simonnet's rule
(BAUDIN, 1986), the coordinates of these different points are:
- 0 % on the ordinate and 0.08 mm on the abscissa for point O.
- 100 % on the ordinate and Dmax on the abscissa for point B.
- For point A, the coordinates are defined as follows: x = Dmax / 2 if Dmax ≤ 20 mm
and y = 50 - √Dmax + Ks (with Ks = 8 for normal rolled sand; Ks = 6 for crushed
normal sand).
The values of the maximum diameter (Dmax) correspond to the diameter of the sieve at
D closest to 92 % of the particle size of the largest aggregate. The diameter d of the
particle size classes corresponds to the diameter of sieve at d closest to 8 % of the fine
particle size. Thus, from the shape of the grain size curves, the following information can
be drawn:
- The different granular classes (D / d) of sands used for concrete are as follows:
SF-Mv : 1,25/0,05 SF-Ob : 2,5/0,01
SS-Mv : 2,5/0,315 SS-Ob : 5/0,63
SC-Mv : 2,5/0,02 SC-Ob : 5/0,005
This allows us to obtain the values of the coordinates of A: (1.25; 55.9) at Mvan and (2.5;
55.3) at Obili.
- Through the dividing line of the aggregates (95 % - 5 %), we have the greater or lesser
proportion of the elements of the different granular classes: 40 % fine sand and 60 %
coarse sand at Mvan; 34 % fine sand and 56 % coarse sand in Obili.
- The granulometry of the sands is continuous and increasing in the case of sands and
more or less static in the case of silts and clays.
These different results make it possible to retain that the sands used are suitable for the
manufacture of micro-concretes. According to DREUX (1985), they should be used for

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making small construction parts. As for the fineness modulus (MF), below 2.2, sand has
a majority of fine and very fine elements. Above the value of 2.8 there is a lack of fine
elements. Between 2.2 and 2.8, the MF defines a good concrete sand. The fine sands used
at Mvan (MF = 1.658) and at Obili (1.792) mainly have fine elements. Mvan Sanaga sand
(MF = 2.887), Obili Sanaga sand (MF = 3.521) and Obili quarry sand (2.854) lack fine
elements. Only the Mvan quarry sand (MF = 2.49) seems to suit as a good concrete sand.

3.3. Compressive strength Rc28 of perforated concrete blocks

The compressive strength measured at 28 days of age (Rc28) of the blocks guides the
choice of dosage (see APPENDIX 1) in the best indicated mixtures [sand (S) + cement
(C) + water (E)].

3.3.1. Rc28 depending on C/S

Figures 5 and 6 respectively show the change in Rc28 as a function of volumetric and
mass percentages. We observe an increasing parallelism of the resistance curves. The
curves of CPJ 35 cement are above those of other cement regardless of location. Likewise,
the curves of the Mvan samples are above those of Obili. The crossing point being due to
the fact that the dosages on site (D3) are different in the two sand pits. We can deduce:
- The CPJ 35 cement is better in this respect than the CPA 42.5R cement;
- The on-site dosages D3 at Mvan (Rc of CPJ 35 = 2.93 MPa and Rc of CPA 42.5R =
2.97 MPa) are better than those of Obili (Rc of CPJ 35 = 2.42 MPa and Rc CPA 42.5R
= 2.15 MPa).
- The compressive strength increases with the C/S ratio, i.e. with increasing cement. In
the present case, the maximum value (5.50 MPa) is that of the D7 dosage (Pv = 6.5
%, Pm = 10.8 %, W/C = 1.5) with the CPJ 35 cement at Mvan.
Rc (MPa)

Figure 5. Rc28 according to the volumetric percentage.

194
 Rc (MPa)

Figure 6. Rc28 as a function of mass percentage.

3.3.2. Rc28 according to the mass ratio E/C

Figure 7 shows the compressive strength as a function of the W/C mass ratio. It reveals
the parallelism of the curves as well as the decrease in Rc as a function of the E/C ratio.
Once again, the curves of CPJ 35 cement are slightly above those of CPA 42.5R cement.
We can deduce that:
- CPJ 35 cement is better in this respect than CPA 42.5R cement;
- the Rc decreases with the evolution of the E/C ratio; in other words, the compressive
strength decreases when the amount of water increases compared to the cement. In
the case of this study, the minimum value (1.16 MPa) is that of the D1 dosage carried
out in Obili (W / C = 2.5; Pv = 3.2 %; Pm = 5.3 %) with the CPA cement 42.5R.
Rc (MPa)

1.5 2.5

Figure 7. Rc28 as a function of the E/C mass ratio.

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3.3.3. Dosage of cement, water and aggregate
The results obtained pose the problem of the most suitable dosage likely to be fixed. With
the above, we realize that the greater resistance corresponds to the greater dosage of
cement, that is, per 100 L of water, 600 kg of sand and 80 kg of cement. This is in line
with the experiences of DREUX (1985) and BERGA et al., (1994). Thus, for a defined
quantity of cement, the Rc will be low or high depending on whether the quantity of
aggregates is respectively large or low, and depending on whether the quantity of water
is high or not respectively.
As a practical matter, it is advisable to use the following mixture whenever possible in
concrete factory sites:
5 wheelbarrows of sand [(2 of Sanaga sand + 2 of quarry sand + 1 of fine sand) + 1 and a
half and ¼ of a 10L bucket of cement + 12*10L buckets and 2 L of water]. Mixing the
sands helps reduce the pores in the concrete.

3.3.4. Resistance, workability and durability

The study of the composition of concrete almost always involves jointly investigating its
two essential qualities of strength and durability. In fact, the workability of concrete is its
quality based on its tightening in good conditions. It depends on the quality of the
aggregates and the cement dosage (C/E). Durability, on the other hand, expresses the
quality of concrete to be durable. According to DREUX (1985), DREUX & FESTA,
(1998) and VENUAT (1989), the latter are closely related, but they vary in the opposite
direction. So according to APPENDIX 2, we can conclude that:
- experienced concretes are more suitable to workability than to durability;
- to improve resistance, it would be necessary either to:
- increase the cement dosage;
- increase the G/S ratio (gravel/sand);
- slightly increase the discontinuity of the granularity;
- increase the maximum diameter (Dmax) of the aggregates.
On the other hand, durability evolves with resistance. Usually the choice of concrete type
is influenced by durability. NEIL & RAVINDRA (1996) propose the minimum durability
qualities of perforated concrete blocks. According to them, the latter must have at least a
minimum compressive strength of 3.5 to 7 MPa for the walls of buildings. Compared to
this value, the Rc of the materials of the sandpits studied (D3) are well below the required
durability threshold. It would be necessary to have at least the Rc of D7 at Mvan (5.50
MPa for the CPJ 35 cement and 5.33 MPa for the CPA 42.5R cement) to be at the lower
limit. Owners of sand pits who complain about the high blow of the cements, can increase
the Rc as shown above. But this method is less favourable to workability.
The problem thus posed can be solved in another way by considering the alterability of
the components. In general, it can be assumed that the aggregates are inert and that it is
the cement that risks being altered in the long or short term depending on climatic
196
conditions (humidity and temperature). To overcome this handicap, masons can improve
durability by increasing the quality and thickness of the facing concrete during plastering.
In accordance with the statements of Professor Campus in the work of DREUX (1985),
it is proposed to improve durability by making a cover of minimum thickness:
- e ≤ 1 cm, for any structure not exposed to bad weather;
- e ≤ 2 cm, for any structure exposed to bad weather.
At this level, complaints of an economic nature would emanate much more from the
consumer.

4. Conclusion
The objective of this study as defined at the beginning was to better identify the dosages
of the components of the concrete manufactured in the city of Yaoundé, with the intention
of improving the durability of the concretes manufactured at a lower cost. Thus, the
results obtained made it possible to retain that:
- CPJ 35 and CPA 42.5R cements according to the setting time values (2h 45mn and 2h
55mn), SSB grind fineness (3038 cm2/g and 3177 cm2/g) and compressive strength (80.2
MPa and 78.7 MPa) are good for concrete. A low shrinkage tendency is noted, which is
why it is always advisable to sprinkle the manufactured concrete blocks.
- Granular classes are of the order of 2.5/0.01; 5/0.063; 5/0.005, respectively for fine sand,
Sanaga sand and quarry sand. Depending on the fineness modulus, no sand alone
constitutes good concrete sand. That’s why they have to be mixed.
Regarding perforated concrete blocks (breeze blocks):
- The compressive strength of the dosages (D3) generally carried out in sand pits (< 3
MPa) hardly testifies to a good durability.
- The best indicated dosage for the concrete of the walls of buildings is that of D7 to
Mvan: Pv = 6.5 %; Mp = 10.8 %; E/C = 1.5. This dosage gives the concrete blocks a
compressive strength of 5.50 MPa and 5.33 MPa respectively for the cement CPJ 35
and CPA 42.5R. It is therefore a question of advising the owners of sand pits to use
mixtures with at least the following quantities: 5 wheelbarrows of sand (2 of Sanaga
sand + 2 of quarry sand + 1 of fine sand) + 1 bag and half and ¼ bucket of 10L of
cement + 12 buckets of 10L and 2L of water.
Owners of sand pits who complain about the high cost of cements will be able to improve
strengths, durability and workability: either by slightly increasing the gravel/sand ratio,
or by increasing the cement dosage to D4 Mvan (Pm = 8.7 %; Pv = 5.2%; W/C = 1.9; RC
28 = 4.18 MPa with CPJ 35 cement), but in this case the level of durability decreases;
masons will be able to overcome this handicap by increasing the thickness of the
plastering (e ≤ 2 cm). This resulted in good durability and good workability. Thus, in
concrete block factories, owners must never go below the following formulation: 5
wheelbarrows of sand (2 of Sanaga sand + 2 of quarry sand + 1 of fine sand) + 1 bag and
2.5L of cement + 10 buckets of 10L and 1.25 L of water.
197
These dosages thus proposed are indicated for hollow blocks of walls elevation.
Formulations from strength D7 are the most suitable. But if the means are more limited,
we could go down to D4 and increase the thickness of the blanket.
However, to obtain these dosages, the amounts of water and sand were fixed. Work on
the variation of water within a known cement/sand dosage has not been done. Doing so
would be necessary to improve strength in the dosages offered and possibly lead to better
durability at lower cost.

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6. Appendices

Note: abbreviations used in the paper: SF = Fine Sand; SS = Sanaga sand; SC = Quarry
sand; Mv = Mvan; Ob = Obili.

APPENDIX 1. Compressive strength (in MPa) depending on the dosage.

Mvan Obili
Dosage
CPJ 35 CPA 42,5R CPJ 35 CPA 42,5R
D1 2 1,63 1,36 1,16
D2 2,33 2,16 1,88 1,62
D3 2,97 2,93 2,42 2,15
D4 4,18 4,16 3,01 2,93
D5 4,63 4,55 3,91 3,78
D6 5,10 4,93 4,43 4,25
D7 5,50 5,33 4,87 4,60

APPENDIX 2. Quality of various parameters depending on workability and strength

researched for concrete, (DREUX, 1985).
Concrete composition For good
For good resistance
factors workability
Finesse of sand Rather fine Rather coarse
G/S ratio To decrease To increase
Water dosage To increase To decrease
Continuous Discontinuous slightly
Granularity
preferable preferable
Maximum size of
Rather small Rather strong
aggregates
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