Case Study

Deterioration of Concrete Caused by Complex Attack

in Sewage Treatment Plant Environment
Masoud Moradian1; Mohammad Shekarchi2; Farhad Pargar3; Aboozar Bonakdar4; and Mahdi Valipour5

Abstract: One of the most severe exposure conditions for concrete structures is a sewage environment where various kinds of chemical and
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biological aggressive ions exist. These substances react with concrete through different mechanisms and lead to the deterioration of concrete
and corrosion of the reinforcement. Most of the publications have focused on a biogenic sulfuric acid attack on concrete exposed to sewage,
and not many authors have considered other aggressive phenomena, such as chloride diffusion and carbonation in a sewage environment.
In this paper, the level of damage in concrete structures of a sewage treatment plant was assessed by a comprehensive set of experiments. The
test results showed that a complex attack occurred in poorly constructed structures, which deteriorated concrete and caused cement paste
decomposition, efflorescence formation, spalling of concrete, the occurrence of cracks, and considerable chloride penetration in concrete
resulting in the corrosion of the reinforcement. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000189. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Bacteria; Chloride; Concrete; Durability; Gypsum; Sewage; Waste treatment plants.
Author keywords: Bacterial corrosion; Chloride diffusion; Concrete durability; Ettringite; Gypsum; Sewage environment.

Introduction Formation of both gypsum and ettringite causes expansion, which

Concrete is widely used in the construction of sewage treatment
plant facilities. This highly aggressive environment can put the
durability of concrete in danger. One of the most important causes
for the failure of concrete in this environment is a biogenic sulfuric
acid attack (Parker 1945; Mori et al. 1992). In anaerobic conditions,
sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) reduce sulfur available in waste-
water to H2 S. This gas by itself is not a threat for the deterioration
of concrete. However, it is released into the atmosphere because
of turbulence or a pH decrease of the liquid, then it is absorbed by
concrete or the biofilm above the water level. The H2 S reacts with
oxygen in the presence of aerobic bacteria, such as Thiobacillus, to
form sulfuric acid (Kelly 1982). In this case, the concentration of
sulfuric acid could result in a pH of 0.5 (Islander et al. 1991).
Sulfuric acid reacts with calcium hydroxide (CH) (or portlandite)
to form gypsum (CaSO4 • 2H2 O); then the reaction of gypsum
and C 3 A (present in cement) leads to formation of ettringite
3CaO • Al2 O3 • 3CaSO4 • 32H2 O (Clifton and Ponnersheim 1994).
Ettringite could be formed by the reaction of sulfate with monosulfate
and CH (present in concrete) as well (Mehta and Monteiro 2006).
1
Research Assistant, Construction Materials Inst. (CMI), School
of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Tehran, Tehran, Iran (corresponding author).
E-mail: mmoradian@ut.ac.ir
2
Associate Professor, Director of Construction Materials Inst. (CMI),
School of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
3
Research Assistant, Construction Materials Inst. (CMI), School of
Civil Engineering, Univ. of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
4
Postdoctoral Research Associate, School for Engineering of Matter,
Transport and Energy, Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering, Arizona State
Univ., Tempe, AZ.
5
Research Assistant, Construction Materials Inst. (CMI), School of
Civil Engineering, Univ. of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 27, 2010; approved on
November 18, 2010; published online on November 20, 2010. Discussion
period open until July 1, 2012; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, Vol. 26, No. 1, February 1, 2012. ©ASCE, ISSN
0887-3828/2012/1-124–134/$25.00.
results in the cracking of concrete (Bonakdar and Mobasher
2010). The sulfate attack deterioration depends on the concentration
of sulfate ions, ambient temperature, cement type, water-to-cement
ratio, porosity, and presence of admixtures (Tumidajski 1995). The
induced cracks and consumption of CH by sulfate attack, which in-
creases the porosity and permeability of concrete, accelerate the
ingress of aggressive ions to the concrete (Mindess et al. 2003; Silva
and Rosowsky 2008). One of the most aggressive ions is the
chloride ion, which penetrates concrete through pores and causes
the corrosion of the reinforcement. The rebar surface is protected
by an oxide passive film, which is formed in an alkaline environment
in concrete (Page 1975); various types of chloride penetration
mechanisms are presented in several reports (Mehta and Monteiro
2006; Collerpardi et al. 1972; Oh and Jang 2007). Thus, the in-
vestigation of the interaction between different types of attacks
requires more research.
In this paper, a sewage treatment plant in Ahwaz, in the south-
west of Iran, has been studied for the assessment of the level of
damage.
In this work, which was done in 2009, an extensive experimen-
tal program was performed, including chloride content measure-
ment, water absorption, compressive strength determination,
an x-ray diffraction (XRD) test, half-cell potential method, and
carbonation depth measurement on site at the sewage treatment
plant and in the laboratory to evaluate the extent and causes of
deterioration.
Background
Most of the investigations about concrete in a sewage situation have
been limited to laboratory studies that simulate a harsh environment
with some limited variables while keeping other parameters
constant. Less in situ investigations are available in the literature
(Leemann et al. 2010). Deterioration of the sewage treatment plant
structures in the state of Florida, New Orleans, Louisiana, and Los
Angeles, California was reported by the U.S. EPA (U.S. EPA
1991). Approximately 50–100 mm of the side walls at the effluent

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 channel in the primary clarifiers of the Hooker’s Point Advanced
Wastewater Treatment Plant in Florida had failed because of cor-
rosion after 40 years. Corrosion had degraded the sidewalls on the
grit chamber to a depth of 25–40 mm at the West Bank wastewater
treatment plant of the city of New Orleans. The areas of high tur-
bulence had more severe corrosion. In some places in the Hyperion
Wastewater Treatment Plant in Los Angeles, corrosion of concrete
was severe, with penetration to at least 300 mm at the water line.
The extent of corrosion below the water line was described as minor
(less than 25 mm). These reports only considered H2 S cor-
rosion, and there is no information about other aggressive mech-
anisms, such as carbonation and chloride diffusion in the sewage
environment.
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tank, and the aeration tank (Fig. 1). The investigated tanks have
been empty since 2000; therefore, they worked for less than
10 years, although the entrance channel has been working since
the beginning of operation of the sewage treatment plant to the
present.
In 2002, observations revealed signs of concrete deterioration.
To repair the damaged parts, the consultant decided to use a
polymer-modified mortar applied to the wall of the entrance chan-
nel, without removing corroded concrete. Deep longitudinal and
transverse cracks, efflorescence formation, spalling of concrete, ce-
ment paste decomposition, and corrosion of reinforcement are signs
of different types of severe damage to structures.

There exists a need for comprehensive investigation of

sewage treatment plants concrete deterioration for obtaining more
detailed information about deleterious mechanisms in this environ-
ment. Many cities in the world suffer from degradation in
sewage treatment facilities, and this information could help in min-
imizing the deterioration of future constructions.
General Description
The Ahwaz sewage treatment plant was built in the period of
1969–1993 and operated at 25% capacity until 2000. In 2000, the
plant was shut down for rehabilitation; in 2001, it began working
again at 50% capacity. Three main parts of the structures were
studied: the entrance sewage channel, the primary sedimentary
Exposure Condition
According to 54 years of statistics from the Iran Meteorological
Organization, the average temperature of the region in the summer
is 36°C, and the average relative humidity is 43%. Chemical analy-
sis for inlet and outlet waste water, which was performed by a local
laboratory and reported monthly over a 2-year period, is presented
in Table 1.
The local soil contains considerable amounts of sulfate and
chloride; the sulfate and chloride content of soil varies in different
parts of the site. Soil chemical analysis was performed at three
points in the treatment plant; at each point, three separate samples
were taken for chemical analysis, and the results are presented in
Table 2.

Fig. 1. Site plan of sewage treatment plant

Table 1. Chemical Analysis of Waste Water during 2 Years

2008 2009
Spring and summer Fall and winter Spring and summer Fall and winter
Factor Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
pH 7.3 7.1 7.35 7.2 7.4 7.2 7.25 7.2
Ammonium (mg=L) 25.7 1.52 29.3 9.4 28 3.5 31.4 10.36
Sulfate (mg=L) 1,250 1,135 1,044 842 1,152 965 881 700
Chloride (mg=L) 959 862 993 852 1,233 1,008 1,086 991

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 Table 2. Chemical Analysis of Soil This qualitative method could help in designing the investigation
Sulfate content Chloride content strategy and optimizing the efforts needed in investigations (Tay
Sample number (% by weight of soil) (% by weight of soil) pH and Tam 1996).
1 0.2884 0.0816 7.25 Water Absorption and Compressive Strength
0.2058 0.1280 7.12
0.2586 0.1069 7.56
Concrete cores with a diameter of approximately 93 mm were
drilled from different parts of the plant. Deteriorated parts of cores
2 0.2844 0.4060 8.30
that were detectable by the eye were cut, providing two parts; one
0.2210 0.2589 8.41
part is affected by aggressive ions (exterior part), and the other is
0.2539 0.3692 8.16 original concrete, which is sound (interior part). Both 30-min and
3 0.2802 0.2252 7.31 24-h water absorption tests were performed for both parts of the
0.3521 0.1563 7.89 concrete, according to BS 1881-122 [British Standards Institution
0.2986 0.1269 7.55 (BSI) 1983]. Also, the compressive strength of cores was deter-
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Average 0.2714 0.2065 7.73
Standard deviation 0.0434 0.1172 0.48
Materials
According to the documents available from the construction,
250 kg=m3 type V (ASTM C150) portland cement and river natural
aggregate were used. The XRD test showed that the aggregates
are primarily siliceous. Neither chemical nor mineral admixtures
were used in the concrete. The concrete cover for steel reinforce-
ment was measured, and the results indicate that the cover thickness
varies from approximately 10 to 85 mm (Fig. 2). For splash and
atmospheric zone exposure conditions, a minimum concrete cover
of 90 mm should be used [American Concrete Institute (ACI)
357R-84] (ACI 1997b). However, there is no specific criterion
for the sewage environment.
The average reinforcement cover in a primary sedimentary tank
is approximately 55 mm with standard deviation of 17 mm, and the
value in an aeration tank is approximately 40 mm with standard
deviation of 18 mm. Thus, in most parts of the structure, cover is
insufficient for this aggressive condition, and also, the variation and
high amount of standard deviation of cover implies poor quality
control during construction.
Methods
Visual Inspection
Careful visual inspection could be helpful for investigation
of deterioration, and in some cases, it can characterize the causes.
mined according to ASTM C42 (ASTM 2003a).
Carbonation Test
Carbonation is known as the chemical reaction of CaðOHÞ2 and
calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) with CO2 to form CaCO3 and
water (Johannesson and Utgenannt 2001). Carbonation reduces the
alkalinity in the pore solution, destroying the passivity of the
embedded rebars (Papadakis et al. 1991).
The depth of carbonation was measured by spraying 1% phenol-
phthalein, which changes its color in a certain pH (RILEM CPC-18
1988). A purple coloration indicates concrete unaffected by car-
bonation, and no coloration shows carbonation occurrence in the
concrete.
X -Ray Diffraction Analysis
XRD analysis was employed for determination of the crystalline
component in materials. For sampling, concrete was drilled
85 mm horizontally, in six different steps, each time collecting a
powder sample. The XRD test was performed by using a Philips
device with the following condition: 40 kV, 40 mA, and Cu-Kα
radiation. The XRD patterns in six different depths of concrete
were prepared for comparing the concrete crystalline component at
different depths.
Half-Cell Potential Method
The half-cell potential method (ASTM 2003c) is a common electro-
chemical method for evaluating the corrosion activity in the
reinforcement of concrete. It is a nondestructive means for lo-
cating areas of corrosion for monitoring and condition assessment
and in determining the effectiveness of repair work (Shekarchi
et al. 2011).
Half-cell potentials were measured versus a silver/silver
chloride electrode (SCE), which is more stable, easily pre-
pared, and has long been used in electrochemistry. The pro-
bability of corrosion was interpreted by ASTM C876-91 (ASTM
2003c). Because the used reference electrode was silver/silver
chloride and the ASTM standard is based on a copper/
copper sulfate electrode (CSE), the conversion from SCE to
CSE was conducted by the following equation (Leelalerkiet et al.
2004):

Ecu ¼ E Ag
120
1:1 × ð25
TÞ ð1Þ

where Ecu and EAg = half-cell potentials of copper sulfate and silver
chloride reference electrodes in mV, respectively; and T = ambient
temperature. Table 3 presents the corrosion probability criteria for a
Fig. 2. Cover thickness in different parts of structures
silver/silver chloride electrode.

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 Table 3. Evaluation of Corrosion Activity versus Silver/Silver Chloride Results
Electrode
Potential versus Interpretation Visual Inspection
E Ag >
83 mV More than 90% probability that 1. Entrance channel: Raw wastewater enters different parts of
no corrosion is occurring the sewage plant from the entrance channel. This part has

233 mV < EAg <
83 mV Corrosion activity is uncertain been in contact with an aggressive environment more than
E Ag <
233 mV More than 90% probability that other parts of the plant; thus, the level of damage is com-
corrosion is occurring paratively higher than other parts. Five-mm polymer-modified
repair mortar had been applied to the surface of the walls to
repair damaged parts and prevent future deterioration. Unfor-
Chloride Diffusion Profiles tunately, the deteriorated concrete was not removed before re-
pair, and mortar was shotcreted to the damaged concrete
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One of the most important parameters in assessing structures in
severe conditions is the chloride content of concrete. The method
for measuring the chloride content of concrete powder is ASTM
C114 (ASTM 2003b). This was performed at six different depths
of concrete. The chloride concentration in concrete at which cor-
rosion of reinforcement is started is called the chloride threshold
value. This value depends on several parameters, such as concrete
mixture proportions, cement type, C 3 A content of cement, water-
to-cement ratio, temperature, relative humidity, steel surface con-
ditions, the source of chloride penetration, and others (Shekarchi
et al. 2011). Scarce data exist in the papers on how to determine
this parameter, especially in special structures like the sewage envi-
ronment, and no general agreement on the threshold value has been
achieved (Angst et al. 2009; Mohammed and Hamada 2001). Angst
et al. (2009) reported the published chloride threshold values, from
real structures, between 0.1 to 1.96% of the cement weight
(~0.015–0.3% of the concrete weight).
surface; thus, the bond between the concrete and repair mortar
was not sufficient. As a result, a delamination was formed
between the new layer and old concrete, which contained
enough oxygen and humidity for deleterious reactions. In
most parts of the surface, deep longitudinal and transverse
cracks were observed. By removing the repair mortar layer,
the surface concrete, in most places, decomposed and de-
bonded from the substrate. Moreover, efflorescence formation,
reinforcement corrosion, and spalling of concrete are other ob-
servable signs of severe deterioration of the structure
[Fig. 3(a)].
2. Primary sedimentary tank: The severity of deterioration above
the water level, where the biogenic sulfuric acid formation oc-
curs, was obviously higher than in submerged areas. All signs of
damage in the entrance channel are also visible in the primary
sedimentary tank. Rebar corrosion causes deep vertical cracks,
suggesting the existence of a sulfate and chloride attack on the
concrete [Fig. 3(b)].

Fig. 3. (a) Reinforcement and paste decomposition in the entrance channel wall; (b) concrete spalling induced from the rebar corrosion and concrete
decomposition in the primary sedimentary tank; (c) long and deep crack above water level in the aeration tank; (d) paste decomposition and exposed
reinforcement in the aeration tank (Photos by M. Moradian)

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 Table 4. Water Absorption Values (%)
Base concrete Surface concrete
30-min 24-h 30-min 24-h
Sample water water water water
code Location absorption absorption absorption absorption
A2L Entrance channel 2.8 4.5 4.1 5
A2R 1.6 3.6 — —
A3R 4 7.1 5 7.1
A7R 2.3 4.8 — —
A8R 2.3 5 — —
PS14 Prime 1.3 2.6 — —
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PS17 sedimentary tank 2.7 4.8 3.2 4.3

PS23 1.9 4.1 — —
PS32 1.5 4.1 4.1 4.6
AT1 Aeration tank 1.5 3.6 — —
AT3 1.6 3 — —
Fig. 4. XRD pattern for yellow material present in some cracks in the AT4 2 3.8 4.6 5.1
primary sedimentary tank
AT26 2 4.6 5.8 6.1
AT27 2.1 4.6 — —
AT33 2.4 3.7 3.2 5.2
In a large area, the degradation of concrete was detectable
by knocking a hammer on the concrete surface. A sample of Average 2.1 4.3 4.3 5.3
yellow material that permeated through some cracks was taken Standard deviation 0.68 1.04 0.94 0.96
for XRD analysis. The major phases were gypsum and halite
(Fig. 4). This might support the existence of a sulfate attack on
the concrete in the structures.
3. Aeration tank: Similar to the primary sedimentary tank, the
rate of deterioration in the aeration tank above the water level
was more than in submerged surfaces. The damage was exten-
sive, considering the short period of operation (less than
10 years), especially in middle walls that were in contact with
sewage on both sides [Fig. 3(c)]. The severe corrosion of rein-
forcement resulted in an expansion of the corrosion products,
causing great delamination in this wall. In some parts, the rebar
concrete cover was completely destroyed, and corroded reinfor-
cement was exposed [Fig. 3(d)]. On the other hand, the outside
wall that was in contact with soil on the back side seems to have
behaved better. However, the deterioration rate was consider-
Fig. 5. Compressive strength of concrete in different parts of sewage
able, and efflorescence formation, longitudinal and transverse
treatment plant
cracks, spalling, and rebar corrosion were other signs of damage
on this part.
Table 5. Carbonation Depth Results
Water Absorption and Compressive Strength
Test number Location Carbonation depth (mm)
The results of 30-min and 24-h water absorption tests of cores with
1 Entrance channel 45
a diameter of 93 mm are presented in Table 4. The water absorption
results of concrete cores show the average water absorption of ap- 2 53
proximately 4.3% and a standard deviation of 1.04%. As expected, 3 90
the corroded surface concrete absorbed more water; the average 4 55
amount of 30-min water absorption of surface concrete was twice 5 45
the base concrete, and the average 24-h absorption was 20% greater 6 40
for the surface concrete. Different deleterious attacks on concrete
7 Primary sedimentary tank 55
caused an increase in the porosity of the concrete in the outer depth;
8 80
thus, faster penetration of aggressive ions existing in this environ-
ment was expected. The results of compressive strength of the cores 9 55
taken from walls (damaged part removed) are presented in Fig. 5. 10 59
The test results revealed a low concrete strength, in spite of the 11 80
harsh environment. The average value was approximately 23 MPa 12 77
with a standard deviation of 8.8 MPa, which is not acceptable in 13 Aeration tank 65
these aggressive environments; also, the high standard deviation
14 37
implies poor quality control during the period of construction.
15 55
On the basis of ACI 211 (ACI 1997a), the water-to-cement ratio

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 is estimated to be approximately 0.6, which indicates the excessive
use of water to reach a desirable workability in the absence of a
common plasticizer. It seems that this is the main factor affecting
the concrete durability in this case study.
Carbonation Test
The carbonation test results for different parts of the sewage
plant are presented in Table 5. The concrete deterioration depth
somehow could be deduced from this simple test. However, this
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is only an initial approximation, and other tests, such as XRD
analysis, could be more accurate. As discussed previously, the con-
crete quality is varied in different parts of the structures. However,
in all parts, the carbonation depth was quite high—the average
amount is 59 mm with a standard deviation of 15.9 mm; this in-
dicates that at least 60 mm of concrete depth was seriously affected
by carbonation. The origin of carbonation may be dissolved CO2 in
sewage or air (where the structures were exposed to ambient
conditions).

Fig. 6. XRD pattern of samples taken from: (a) entrance channel; (b) primary sedimentary tank; (c) aeration tank

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 X -Ray Diffraction Test
One point from each different investigated part of the sewage plant
was chosen to perform this test. The XRD patterns are presented
in Fig. 6; each step represents the depth from which the sample
powder was taken. The major phase in all patterns is quartz, which
is the main component of the aggregate and is basically the same in
all the samples.
In Steps 1 and 2 of the XRD patterns of the primary sedimentary
tank, no portlandite was detected; however, this compound exists at
deeper depths (Steps 3–6). Most of the CH in the first 25 mm depth
of the concrete was consumed by aggressive agents such as
sulfate ions. In the first 10 mm of the primary sedimentary tank,
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samples of gypsum, which is a sign of a sulfate attack, were found,

and no evidence of portlandite was detected. In the aeration tank
samples, there were gypsum peaks in the first 40 mm depth from
the surface and ettringite in deeper samples. No sign of portlandite
was observed, implying the extension of deterioration of the con-
crete at the tested point; visual inspection revealed deep deteriora-
tion at that location [Fig. 3(d)].
Chang and Chen (2006) used XRD patterns to investigate car-
bonation in concrete. Detection of the depth of carbonated concrete
by the XRD test may be obtained from the change in CaCO3 (cal-
cite) relative intensity values of samples taken from different depths
of concrete. The CaCO3 has a descending rate in the depth of con-
crete; it is possible that carbonation, which leads to the formation of
calcite, is the reason for this decrease. Indeed, in surface concrete,
more carbonation results in more CaCO3 production. Whereas the
attack of other aggressive agents, such as sulfuric acid, could de-
crease the alkalinity of concrete just like carbonation, a phenol-
phthalein method might give unreliable results about the
carbonation depth. The profiles of the CaCO3 relative intensity
in a major peak against the depth of sampling are presented in
Fig. 7. The transition point where the intensity of CaCO3 ap-
proaches the horizontal is taken as the depth of carbonation. In Fig. 7. CaCO3 relative intensity profile in different parts of plant:
the entrance channel and aeration tank samples, the calcite amount (a) entrance channel; (b) primary sedimentary tank; (c) aeration tank
decreases in the depth of concrete until it reaches a constant value;
however, in the primary sedimentary tank sample, reduction is not
observed. The concrete quality of the sample taken in the tested The concrete quality in different parts of the aeration tank was very
location of the primary sedimentary tank was better than the different. In the wall that was in contact with sewage on one side
two others. It is probable that, at deeper depth, the relative intensity and with soil on the backside, the half-cell potential test on inside
is primarily from the calcite of the concrete aggregate and not be- areas of the tank reveals that no corrosion has occurred, with a
cause of carbonation-induced calcite. Also, it is possible that during probability of more than 90%.
sampling at the fifth and sixth depths, an aggregate that contains
calcite was entered into the sample powder. Chloride Diffusion Profile

Half-Cell Potential Test
The half-cell potential contours in different parts of a sewage treat-
ment plant are presented in Fig. 8. According to the test results and
using ASTM C867-91 (ASTM 2003c), the probability of corrosion
in the back side of the entrance channel surface is more than 90%,
where the tests were performed after removing the repair layer. This
part has worked for a longer time than other parts of the plant. It is
likely that the wall was in contact with the sulfate- and chloride-rich
soil of the site, and now, it is air-exposed. After removing the con-
crete cover, the corrosion signs of the reinforcement were visible,
and it is in accordance with other test results. In the primary sedi-
mentary tank, which, visually, has concrete with better quality than
other structures; most of the points have potential between
83
and
233, which indicates that corrosion activity is uncertain.
However, in some places, especially in the upper left levels, the
possibility of corrosion of the steel reinforcement is more than
90%, according to ASTM C867-91 (ASTM 2003c). This supports
other test results that indicated more deterioration in the upper area.
The chloride profiles at six points of the sewage plant are presented
in Fig. 9. There are places in all three investigated parts at which
the concrete chloride content seems to have an amount greater than
threshold values. The most severe condition was in the entrance
channel, which has worked for a longer period than the two other
investigated parts. In addition, the structures in this part had lower
compressive strength and higher water absorption.
The primary ascending rates of the chloride content with depth,
which exist in some profiles, are the result of a mechanism such as
carbonation or other aggressive reactions (Pargar et al. 2007). As
presented in the chemical analysis (Table 1), the chloride content of
the sewage has a descending rate from the inlet to outlet of a sewage
treatment plant. This could be the cause of less chloride penetration
in the concrete of the aeration tank than in the primary sedimentary
tank. Fig. 10 provides a visual comparison of the reinforcement
corrosion in the inspected parts. The rebars in the entrance channel,
apparently, have lost more cross section than the two tanks. On the
other hand, the reinforcement conditions in the two tanks are not so
different; however, corrosion in the primary sedimentary tank is a

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Fig. 8. Half-cell potential contour (mV): (a) entrance channel; (b) primary sedimentary tank; (c) aeration tank
bit more than the aeration tank, which could be attributed to the
higher carbonated depth in the former tank.
Five years before this study, Ramezanianpour et al. (2004) in-
vestigated this site and measured the value of sulfate at different
depths of concrete; the results are presented in Table 6. The values
of sulfate are quite high, especially in the outer depth of concrete,
which implies the existence of sulfate attack in this environment.
Therefore, in a place such as a sewage environment, the occurrence
of complex attacks such as sulfate and chloride attacks are
probable.
Discussion
The investigated sewage treatment plant has experienced severe
deterioration. The low quality of the concrete is found to be the
primary factor affecting the extent of damage to the structures.
Different types of aggressive ions present in the sewage attack the
concrete, and the first deleterious reaction is usually decomposition
of CH, which reduces the pH value of the concrete. The XRD
patterns revealed that there was no CH in the surface concrete
in extensive areas. This condition could increase the concrete
porosity, which results in raising the coefficient of diffusion. As
presented in Table 1, the chloride content of the sewage is not
as high as in other aggressive environments, such as a marine envi-
ronment. The chloride content of the Persian Gulf is more than
21; 000 mg=L, reported by Moradi et al. (2010). This amount is
nearly 20 times greater than the Ahwaz sewage treatment plant
chloride content; the chloride might originate from the salty soil
JOURNAL OF PERFORMANCE OF CONSTRUCTED FACILITIES © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012 / 131
J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 2012.26:124-134.
of the region. The increase of porosity of concrete facilitates the
ingress of chloride ions into the concrete. Therefore, considerable
chloride diffusion occurred in different parts of structures after a
short period (less than 10 years) and caused the extensive reinforce-
ment corrosion. The local hot climate and inadequate concrete
cover thickness caused the faster corrosion of embedded rebars
as well.
Carbonation, which has occurred in most parts of the structures,
could be another reason for the reinforcement corrosion. Other
aggressive agents, such as sulfate, could decrease the alkalinity of
concrete. However, considering calcite profiles, which were gener-
ated from XRD data (Fig. 7), supports the idea of carbonation
occurrence. The carbonation depths exceeded the concrete rein-
forcement cover in most areas of the tanks and channel. Fookes
(1995) reported that in hot, dry environments, carbonation pene-
trates at approximately 1 mm per year, depending on the concrete.
On the other hand, penetration of CO2 into the saturated concrete
(like submerged areas in tanks) is difficult (Lo and Lee 2002).
Thus, it is probable that the major part of the carbonation process
occurred after the tanks were emptied in 2000, when the concrete
was severely deteriorated after working for less than 10 years.
Carbonation liberates chlorides by causing a breakdown of hy-
drated cement phases that had initially bonded the chloride through
chemical reactions (Haque and Al-Khaiat 1997; Pargar et al. 2007).
Thus, the chloride content at the carbonation front reaches a higher
level than uncarbonated concrete. Therefore, a reason for the high
content of chloride in the investigated sewage treatment plant could
be a carbonation affect.
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Fig. 9. Chloride ion profile: (a), (b) entrance channel; (c), (d) primary sedimentary tank; (e), (f) aeration tank

Fig. 10. Comparison of the reinforcement corrosion in different parts of sewage treatment plant (Photos by M. Moradian)

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J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 2012.26:124-134.

 Table 6. Sulfate Amount in Different Parts of Structures
Sample Depth of Sulfate (% by
number sampling (mm) weight of concrete)
1 13 1.28
26 0.68
2 13 1.6
26 0.98
3 13 2.4
26 0.72
4 13 1.54
26 1.2
5 13 1.82
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26 0.92
6 13 1.87
26 0.98
Half-cell potential contours showed the greater probability of
reinforcement corrosion in the structures with higher chloride
content. Thus, the aeration tank (where chloride penetration into
concrete was less than the two other investigated parts) experienced
lower reinforcement corrosion in the tested areas. The visual in-
spections support this finding (Fig. 10). Moreover, a sulfuric acid
attack could decrease the pH around the rebar by consumption of
CH and result in reinforcement corrosion along with carbonation
and chloride penetration.
The rate of deterioration above water level was obviously more
than in submerged areas. That is similar to the Hyperion Waste-
water Treatment Plant in Los Angeles, where the extent of corro-
sion above the water line was considerably greater than in
submerged parts (U.S. EPA 1991).
Bacteria activities are higher above the water level, and biogenic
sulfuric acid formation occurs there. Other reasons for this exten-
sive damage are the wetting and drying cycle and the oxygen
availability, which lead to more corrosive activity than submerged
areas.
Rehabilitation Strategies
The extent of deterioration in different parts of this sewage
treatment plant is at the level at which destroying and rebuilding
the structures is not economical. In addition, a limited number
of sewage treatment plants and the insufficient budget for construc-
tion of new structures have made that choice undesirable.
The first step in rehabilitation of the structures could be the
removal of the deteriorated and contaminated depth of concrete.
Because the corroded concrete is either mechanically weakened or
contains aggressive agents, such agents could attack concrete and
reinforcement in the future, after repair. The corroded rebars must
be replaced with new ones; moreover, protective coatings for rein-
forcement could delay corrosion.
A compatible and durable concrete with sufficient thickness
should be used for replacement. Concrete properties, such as
water-to-cement ratio (w/c), admixture addition, and aggregate type
significantly affect the durability of concrete in aggressive condi-
tions. Using a lower w/c and including pozzolanic admixtures, es-
pecially silica fume in concrete, improves the resistance of
structures in acidic conditions (Mehta 1992; Torii and Kawamura
1994; Dazko et al. 1997). The dimensional compatibility between
base and repair concrete must be considered. Using polypropylene
fibers could improve plastic shrinkage at an early age and control
JOURNAL OF PERFORMANCE OF CONSTRUCTED FACILITIES © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2012 / 133
J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 2012.26:124-134.
the cracking process in the concrete (Sanjuán and Moragues 1997).
Using calcareous aggregates instead of the siliceous type provides
additional alkalinity of concrete; thus, an increase in the durability
of concrete is expected (Barnard 1967; Thistlethwayte 1972).
Properly applying one type of suitable available coating on
the new concrete could increase the lifetime of structures. Some
researchers propose incorporation of an antibacterial additive into
the coating mix to reach a greater level of corrosion protection
(Haile et al. 2010; Hewayde et al. 2007).
Summary and Conclusions
This paper is the result of the assessment of concrete deterioration
in a sewage treatment plant. The environment is highly aggressive
because of chemical attacks (e.g., sulfate, chloride) and biological
attacks (e.g., biogenic sulfuric acid formation); the backside walls
are in contact with sulfate- and chloride-rich soil as well. Not
enough consideration was devoted during construction, and per-
haps the use of type V portland cement was the only applied
method to prevent future corrosion. Thus, the assessment of the
structures showed deterioration because of the severe decomposi-
tion of the concrete. Four main reasons for the severe deterioration
in a short period (less than 10 years) were found to be: aggressive-
ness of the environment, poor quality of concrete, using inappro-
priate materials for the construction, and the hot climate of the
location, which accelerates the reactions.
The XRD test patterns showed that, in most areas of structures,
the CH is considerably consumed by aggressive agents in the
reinforcement cover. Moreover, the water absorption test showed
that the surface concrete has a higher absorption than base concrete.
These two tests and also the visual inspection of drilled cores in-
dicated a higher porosity of the surface concrete. Additionally, other
parameters (e.g., sulfate or biogenic sulfuric acid attacks) could de-
crease the pH value near the rebar surface and cause corrosion of the
reinforcement. A half-cell potential test revealed the probability of
corrosion in extensive areas of the concrete structures.
Almost all the tests results and visual inspections revealed that
the rate of deterioration above the water level was considerably
higher than in submerged areas. This could be attributed to the pres-
ence of biogenic sulfuric acid and induced decomposition of
concrete.
The removal of deteriorated concrete and rebars and replace-
ment with new, durable ones could be a suitable alternative for
the rehabilitation of the construction.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the Ahwaz Water and Wastewater
Company for its financial support. We are grateful for the technical
support of the Construction Materials Institute (CMI) experts, par-
ticularly Mr. M. Khanzadeh Moradllo.
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