The Cinema of Attraction[s]: Early Film,

e,cided on this term,

and Chase. The State
fol- Its Spectator and the Avant-Garde
of
lst annual FIAF confer_
5. Speaking about shots
he said: ,,Such cases Tom Gunning
are
t: pT" spectacle.,,
[Do_
rn 5lapstick Comedy,,,
rgbl) 52_53.1
Writing in r9zz, flushed with the excitement of seeing Abel Gance's Le RouE,
lstance penley and
An_ Femand L6ger tried to define something of the radical possibilities of the cin-
na L? ry87)
42.
ema. The potential of the new art did not lie in "imitating the movements of
rften combined multi_ nature" or in "the mistaken path" of its resemblance to theater. Its unique
tied by songs that
the power was a "matter of making images seen."' It is precisely this hamessing of
lsp,ectacle. visibility, this act of showing and exhibition, which I feel cinema before 19o6
displays most intensely. [Its] inspiration for the avant-garde of the early decades
of this century needs to be re-explored.
rirrer and Donald
G. Writings by the early modemists (Futurists, Dadaists and Surrealists) on the
cinema follow a pattem similar to Ldger: enthusiasm for this new medium and
its possibilities; and disappointment at the way it has already developed, its
enslavement to traditional art forms, particularly theater and literature. This
fascination with the potential of a medium (and the accompanying fantasy of
rescuing the cinema from its enslavement to alien and pass6 forms) can be un-
derstood from a number of viewpoints. I want to use it to illuminate a topic I
have [also] approached before [...], the strangely heterogeneous relation that
film before t9o6 (or so) bears to the films that follow, and the way a taking
account of this heterogeneity signals a new conception of film history and film
form. My work in this area has been pursued in collaboration with Andr6 Gau-
dreault.'
The history of early cinema, like the history of cinema generally, has been
written and theorized under the hegemony of narrative films. Early filmmakers
like Smith, M6lids and Porter have been studied primarily from the viewpoint of
their contribution to film as a storytelling medium, particularly the evolution of
narrative editing. Although such approaches are not totally misguided, they are
one-sided and potentially distort both the work of these filmmakers and the
actual forces shaping cinema before ryo6. A few observations will indicate the
way that early cinema was not dominated by the narrative impulse that later
asserted its sway over the medium. First there is the extremely important role
that actuality film plays in early film production. Investigation of the films
copyrighted in the US shows that actuality films oukrumbered fictional films
until 19o6.3 The Lumidre tradition of "placing the world within one's reach"
 382 The Cinema of Attractions Reloaded

through travel films and topicals did not disappear with the exit
of the Cirre:;.
tographe from film production.
But even within non-acfuality filming - what has sometimes been referrec
:i*
as the "M6lids tradition" - the role narrative plays is quite different
than in :p
ditional narrative film. Mdlias himserf declared in discussing his working
m€T_
oo:

As for the scenario,the "fable," or "tale," I only considerit at the end. I

can staie -:;::
the scenarioconstructed in this manner has no importance,since I use it
merel.- :-. ,
pretext for the "stage effects,"the "tricks," or for a nicely arrangedtabreau.a

\rvhatever differences one might find between Lumiirre and Mdlies,

they sh:- ;
not represent the opposition between narrative and non-narrative filmmak::,
at least as it is understood today. Rather, one can unite them in a conception -rdl
sees cinema less as a way of telling stories than as a way of presenting
a series :r
views to an audience, fascinating because of their illusoryrpower (whether
::*e
realistic illusion of motion offered to the first audiences by Lumiere,
or the r..r*
gical illusion concocted by M6lids), and exoficism. In other words, I
belier.e -:.er
the relation to the spectator set up by the films of both Lumidre and
M6lies
many other filmmakers before 19o6) had a common basis, and "r:
one that dl-::ri
from the primary spectator relations set up by narrative film
after 19o6. I -,,,11
call this earlier conception of cinema, "the cinema of attractions.,, I
belier.e r.m"
this conception dominates cinema until about Although diiterer.
from the fascination in storytelling exploited by '9o6-19o7.
the cinema from the tiaq. :".
Griffith, it is not necessarily opposed to it. In fact the cinema of
attractio:::
does not disappear with the dominance of narrative, but rather
goes ur.i.r-
ground, both into certain avant-garde practices and as a component
of narre:*, *
films, more evident in some genres (e.g., the musical) than irrothers.
\Atrhatprecisely is the cinema of attraction[s]? First it is a cinema
that t,:-,ey.
itself on the quality that L6ger celebrated: its ability to show something.
C:,:*
trasted to the voyeuristic aspect of narrative cinema analyzed
by chris:a.r
Metz,s this is an exhibitionist cinema. An aspect of early cinema
which I h:, r
written about in other articles is emblematic of this different relationshi: .:'r
cinema of attractions constructs with its spectator: the recurring look
at the c.:r"
era by actors. This actiory which is later perceived as spoiling the realistic :
_,,:.."
sion of the cinema, is here undertaken with brio, estatrilshing contact
with :*
audience. From comedians smirking at the camera, to the constant
bowins i:r:
gesturing of the conjurors in magic films, this is a cinema that displays
its ir:
lity, willing to rupture a self-enclosed fictional world for a chance
to solicit :,*.
attention of the spectator.
Exhibitionism becomes literal in the series of erotic films which
play ar :::,."
portant role in early film production (the same path6 catalogue would
adr.er::a
 Film, lts Spectator and the Avant-Garde

of the Cindma- the Passion Play along with "scdnesgrivioses d'un caractdrepiquanf,, erotic
films often including full nudity), also driven underground in laier years. As
eerr referred to NoEl Burch has shown in his film ConnrcrroN, prEasr on How wn Gor rNro
Ent than in tra- Prcrunrs Ggzil, a film like THn Bnrns Rrrrnss (France,rgoz) reveals a funda-
n-orking meth- mental conflict between this exhibitionistic tendency of early film and the crea-
tion of a fictional diegesis.A woman undressesfor bed while her new husband
peersat her from behind a screen.F{owever,it is to the cameraand the audience
L trcan state that
that the bride addressesher erotic striptease,winking at us as she facesus, smil-
re it merely as a
ing in eroticdisplay.
hleau,+
As the quote from Mdlids points out, the trick film, perhaps the dominant
x" ffire1'should non-actuality film genre before t9o6, is itself a series of displays, of magical
re frJrnmaking, attractions, rather than a primitive sketch of narrative continuity. Many trick
mreption that films are, in effect,plotless,a seriesof transformationsstrung togetherwith little
ting a series of connectionand certainly no characterization.But to approach even the plotted
r nr.hether the trick films, such as Ls vovacr DANSLA ruNr (r9oz), simply as precursors of
hr" or the ma- later narrative structuresis to miss the point. The story simply provides a frame
; I heiieve that upon which to string a demonstrationof the magical possibilitiesof the cinema.
td \{elids (and Modes of exhibition in early cinema also reflect this lack of concem with
rre that differs creating a self-sufficientnarrative world upon the screen.As Charles Musser
er 19o6. I will has shown,6 the early showmen exhibitors exerted a greatdeal of control over
'I helieve that the shows they presented,actually re-editing the films they had purchasedand
rrefi di-tferent supplying a seriesof offscreensupplements,such as sound effectsand spoken
rr tfu time of commentary. Perhaps most extreme is the Hale's Tours, the largest chain of
f attraction[s] theatersexclusively showing films before 19o6.Not only did the films consistof
r goes under- non-narrative sequencestaken from moving vehicles (usually trains), but the
t of narrative theater itself was arranged as a train car with a conductor who took ticketg and
IS sound effectssimulating the click-clackof wheels and hiss of air brakes.zSuch
ma that bases viewing experiencesrelate more to the attractions of the fairground than to the
nddng. Con- traditions of the legitimate theater. The relation between films and the emer_
t'v Christian gence of the great amusementparks, such as Coney Island, at the fum of the
lr-hich I have century provides rich ground for rethinking the roots of early cinema.
h'anship the Nor should we ever forget that in the earliest years of exhibition the cinema
ok at the carn- itself was an attraction. Early audienceswent to exhibitions to see machines
r realistic itrlu- demonstrated(the newest technologicalwonder, following in the wake of such
ffict nith the widely exhibited machinesand marvels as X-rays or, earlier, the phonograph),
Gb'olrirrg and rather than to view films. It was the Cin6matographe,the Biograph or the vita-
[ar-= its r-Lsihi- scopethat were advertisedon the variety bilts in which they premiered,not
[LE
: to scrliit the DfpuNrn nu n6nf,] or Trrs Bracx Dravroxn Expnrss. After the initial novelty
period, this display of the possibilitiesof cinema continues,and not only in ma-
h p.]- an irn- gic films. Many of the close-upsin early film differ from later usesof the techni-
ruld adrerfi--e que precisely becausethey do not use enlargement for narrative punctuatior;
 The Cinema of Attfactions Reloaded

but as an attraction in its own right.

The close-up cut into porter,s T,,r
srror Crnnx ogoi may anticipatiater Gay
*.",t:il? ,"chniques, but its principal
motive is again pure exhibitio.,ir-,
as the rady rifr her rti'ritr"-, exposing
ankle for alr to see.Biograph films her
such as pnorocnapHrNc a Fnuarr
(tgo+) and HoorrcaN rN Cnoox
Jarr ogo., consistof a singreshot in which the
is brought croseto the main camera
until they aL in mid_shot.The enrarge_
ment is not a device expressive"t,u.u"tur,
of narrative tension; it is in ibelf
and the point of the film.s an attraction
[To summarize, the cinema of attractir
incitinsvisuatcuriosity,andsupplyi"rJ,Hrl'fi
itl.::X':'::tff
a unique evenf whether fictionif or do'cumentarythatls
:;::::n1
attraction to be displayed may also of interest in itself. The
be of a cinematic natury-such as
close-upsjust described,or trick films the earry
in which a cinematicmanipuration
motion' reversemotion, substirution, (slow
murtipre the firm,s
velty. Fictionar situations tend to no_
be restricted".p.r;;;t;;;;;",
to gags, vaudevilre numbers or
recreations of shocking or curious
incidents 1"*u.t.rtiorrr,current events).
the direct addressof the audience, It is
in which an attraction i" oliur"a
tator by a cinema showman, that defines to the spec_
this approach to filrnmaking. Theatri_
cal display dominates over narrative
absorption, emphasizing tt" diru"t
lation of shock or surprise at the stimu_
of unfording u ,iory or creating
diegetic universe. The cinema of attractior
"*p".,." a
acterswirhpsvchorogicarmorivations".Hi;fi ;:i;:;[ffi fl;:?,rur"::";
both fictionar and non-fictional
attractions, its energy moves outward an ac_
knowledged spectator rather than
inward towards the character_based
tions essentialto classicalnarrative.] sifua_
The term "attractions" comes,of
co..r"e, from the young sergei Mikhailovich
Eisensteinand his attempt to find
a new moder and or-u.alysis for the
theater' In his search "unit of impression" of theatricar
-oiu art, the founda-
f:..rn"
tion of an anarysiswhich wourd .r.rder*ir," rearistic representational
Eisensteinhit upon the term " attraction.,,e theater,
An attraction aggressiverysubjected
the spectator to "sensual or psychological-
impact." accoraing to Eisensteiry
theater shourd consist of u *tr,tug"
or"r.r"r, a reration to
the spectatorentirely different rrori "*""tro.,r,-"."",iig
hi" absorption in ,,inusory [depictionsJ.,,,oI
pick up this term partly to
[underscore] the relati"" to til-:;tator that this
later avant-gar'depractice shares
with early cinema: that of exhibitionist
frontation rather than diegetic absorption. con_
of course the ,,experimentalryregu_
lated and mathematically carculated;
montage of attractions demanaed
senstein differs enormousry from by Ei_
these eJy fihs (;,
oppositional mode of practice will and
from a popular one;.;, Ho#u*r,";;-;""scious
tant to rearize the context from it is impor_
which Eisensteinserectedthe term.
now' the "attrachon" was a term Then, as
of the fairground, and for Eisenstein
and his
 The Cinema of Attraction[s]: Early Film, lts Spectator and the Avant-Garde 38s

E' Tru Cry friend Yutkevich it primarily represented their favorite fairground attraction,
d :::. :rnci,ual the roller coaster, or as it was known then in Russia, the American Mountains."
" gr:tr-1s=.Eher The source is significant. The enthusiasm of the early avant-garde for film
s&{*qi Cnoox was at least partly an enthusiasm for a mass culture that was emerging at the
[* -:,r. iEIf[efA beginning of the century, offering a new sort of stimulus for an audience not
acculturated to the traditional arts. It is important to take this enthusiasm for
iar ::;ac:ol-, popular art as something more than a simple gesture of epater les bourgeois.The
enofinous development of the entertainment industry since the rgros and its
dirr :-lm- rr growing acceptance by middle-class culture (and the accommodation that
ltilF<ru-:-:- made this acceptance possible) have made it difficult to understand the libera-
il'i:=-:; The tion popular entertainment offered at the beginning of the century. I believe that
h l* :c ee-ri.- it was precisely the exhibitionist quality of tum-of-the-century popular art that
rourlaLnr:n-.i -rt made it attractive to the avant-garde - its freedom from the creation of a dieg-
r t f k : ,:1 -r : : t , i- esis, its accent on direct stimulation.
g nur:::le:s :r Writing of the variety theater, Marinetti not only praised its aesthetics of as-
i e*,er-:s. ]: s tonishment and stimulatioo but particularly its creation of a new spectator who
d fi.: ::*: ::e;- contrasts with the " static," "stupid voyeur" of traditional theater. The spectator
&ur,g ;":r*::- at the variety theater feels directly addressed by the spectacle and joins in, sing-
r di:ui'y:: s--i::, - ing along, heckling the comedians.'3 Dealing with early cinema within the con-
ffi :Li:i-.,a i text of archive and academy, we risk missing its vital relation to vaudeville, its
[m&,fi][:]rjE :iil- primary place of exhibition until around r9o5. Film appeared as one attraction
f,djr;ulrre :.:*ci* --ri on the vaudeville program, surrounded by a mass of unrelated acts in a non-
fui'@l; tr fl,:- narrative and even nearly illogical succession of performances. Even when pre-
Fftmse"c sli:;;* sented in the nickelodeons that were emerging at the end of this period, these
short films always appeared in a variety format, trick films sandwiched in with
fiMliiitt[lrtilt l.'nttr'* farces, actualities, "illustrated songs," and, quite frequently, cheap vaudeville
nlmw* r:rr fc acts. It was precisely this non-narrative variety that placed this form of enter-
fi"dfirru*
::rl:urr.1in*' tainment under attack by reform groups in the early 191os. The Russell Sage
funi,au.:tnr,r:nn*r Survey of popular entertainments found vaudeville "depends upon an artificial
dllf,r ,r.uulmyne'r rather than a natural human and developing interest, these acts having no nec-
b [r.r'lmnrr'grr, essary, and as a rule, no actual connection."'a In other words, no narrative. A
;,iD illlgllrilllilil;YI 1 i night at the variety theater was like a ride on a streetcar or an active day in a
pEfUtnn"rsl " l crowded city, according to this middle-class reform group, stimulating an un-
ffir 1tr"m:lfnurs healthy nervousness. It was precisely such artificial stimulus that Marinetti and
ffiinunrusr:rm'- Eisenstein wished to borrow from the popular arts and inject into the theater,
6r{rnLlllilrrelguL- organizing popular energy for radical Purpose.
mrdeim urn,iil;- What happened to the cinema of attraction[s]? The period from r9o7 to about
mffinsrnxullh'iEll]|d 1913 represents the tnte narratiaization of the cinema, culminating in the appear-
fi, :rlt lp, :mrilmnml- ance of feature films which radically revised the variety format. Film clearly
[M' Tifinus'n,.tilrr. took the legitimate theater as its model, producing famous players in famous
t&mm ,rltliudrfrllt|ii plays. The transformation of filmic discourse that D.W. Griffith typifies bound
 The Cinema of Attractioni Reloaded

cinematicsignifiers to the narration of storiesand the

creation of a self-enclosed
diegetic universe. The look at the camerabecomestaboo
and the devicesof cin_
ema are transformed from playful ,,fricks,,- cinematic
attractions (M6lids ges_
turing at us to watch the lady vanish) - to erements
of dramatic expressioryen_
tries into the psychology of characterand the world
of fiction.
However, it would be too easy to seethis as a cain
and Abel story with nar-
rative strangling the nascentpossibilitiesof a young
iconoclasticform of enter_
tainment. Just as the variety format in somesensesurvived
in the movie paraces
of the rgzos (with newsreel, cartoory sing-along, orchestra
performance and
sometimesvaudeville acts subordinated to, uut sul
coexistinj with, the narra_
tive featureof the evening), the system of attraction remains
an essentialpart of
popular filmmaking.
The chase film shows how, towards the end of this
period (basicaily from
r9o3 to t9o6), a synthesis of attractions and narrative
was already ,r.rd"r-uy.
The chasehad been the originar truly narrative genre
of the cinema,providing
a model for causality and linearity as well as a basic
editing continui$2.A film
like Biograph's psnsoNat (rgo4, the model for the
chase fi-lm rn many ways)
shows the creation of a narrative linearity, as the French
nobleman runs for his
life from the fiancdeshis personal corumn ad has
unleashed.However, at the
sametime, as the group of young women pursue their
prey towards the camera
in each shot, they encounter some slighi obstacre
(a rencg a steep srope, a
stream) that slows them_down for the spectator, providing
a mini-spectacle
pause in the unfolding of narrative. The Edison Company
sJe*ea particularly
aware of this, since they offered their pragiarized versiorr
of this Biograph film
(Howa FnrNcn Nonrs*{ar{ Gor a wrir TnnoucH
rHE Nnw yonx Hrnaro psn_
soNALCoruivrNs)t" ,yg formE as a complete film or
as separateshots, so that
any one image of the ladies chasingthe man could be
uougit without the incit_
ing incident or narrative closure.'5
As Laura Mulvey has shown in a very different context,
the dialectic between
spectacleand narrative has fuelled much of the classicar
cinema.,6por.rurai.J
ton in his study of slapstick comedy, "The pie and the
Chase,,,has shown the
way slapstick did a balancing act between the pure
spectacleof gag and the
development of narrative.'7 Likewise, the
ltraaitionar] spectaclefilm [...]
proved true to its name by highlighting moments
of pure visuar stimulation
along with narrative. The r9z4 version of Br* Hun
was in fact shown at a Bos-
ton theaterwith a timetable announcing the moment
of its prime attractions:
8135 TheStarof Bethlehem
8:4o jerusalemRestored
8:59 Fall of the House of Hur
70:29 ThelastSupper
ro:5o Reunionts
cr' . =etrt-enclosed
&r ;er.ices of cin-
M'r--o \felies ges-
0c t,:t:lession, en-
eLt::-u" rrith nar-
ffir; :,r:m of enter-
ffie ::ru-"niepalaces
Fjer,lnrnarce and
g ;,*1fi. j:te narra_
m Dart Of
"s--c:;1al
d la-r;callv lrom
hre=;-, imdenfa\-.
im:r: :ror-iding
ctrr::'r--:it','. -{ tilm
!D r :lan\- I\-avsi
gttrE:r :*JL: tor hri-s
. H:"r,:ei-er at tple
mrris -Juecarne'ra
& irS:f :10D€. a
': - _ ---- r u - l f : - l p
emre: ::r:;u-lari',-
hs i:':.-a:hr;im
im.s, :-:.r-q-n Fgn-
mfiif ;i],:::
wili::q:r*: t1w nc:-
dli",; rr.:: ; ter!',:exfl-l
&'o l '']a -o
t' ia-; ::r:,-il:: " a-3rE
k ;r :::
rorfa:r= --r:-
llr u d L :-
S $i:r:'nnr:::: : E,:5-
m t::r;A:rirs:
The Hollywood advertising policy of enumerating the features of a film, each
emblazoned with the command, "See!" shows this primal power of the attrac-
tion running beneath the armature of narrative regulation.
We seem far from the avant-garde Plemises with which this discussion of
early cinema began. But it is important that the radical heterogeneity which I
find in early cinema not be conceived as a truly oppositional program, one irre-
concilable with the growth of narrative cinema. This view is too sentimental
and too a-historical. A film like TnE GnEan TurN Ronssnv (rgol) does point in
both directions, toward a direct assault on the spectatol (the spectacularly en-
larged outlaw unloading his pistol in our faces), and towards a linear narrative
continuity. This is early film's ambiguous heritage. Clearly in some sense recent
spectacle cinema has reaffirmed its loots in stimulus and camival rides, in what
might be called the Spielberg-Lucas-Coppola cinema of effects.
But effects are tamed attractions. Marinetti and Eisenstein understood that
they were tapping into a source of energy that would need focusing and inten-
sification to fulfill its revolutionary possibilities. Both Eisenstein and Marinetti
planned to exaggerate the impact on the spectator[s], Marinetti proposing to
iiterally glue them to their seats (ruined garments paid for after the perfol-
mance) and Eisenstein setting firecrackers off beneath them. Every change in
film history implies a change in its address to the sPectatol, and each period
constructs its spectator in a new way. Now in a period of American avant-garde
cinema in which the tradition of contemplative subjectivity has perhaps run its
(often glorious) course, it is possible that this earlier camival of the cinema, and
the methods of popular entertainment, still provide an unexhausted resource -
a Coney Island of the avant-gatde, whose never dominant but always sensed
Si dlai current can be traced from M6liEs through Keaton, through UN CnrsN ANDA-
Lou (7928), and Jack Smith'
No tes
-
ij-J irc
- First publishedinWide Angte8.3-4(1986):63-7o;and subsequently,with some variations,
- n faily Cinema:SpaceFrameNarratioe,ed. Thomas Elsaesser(London: British Film Insti-
* :--r-
tute, r99o) 56-62.Ttrc variations and additions to the original version are Put between
squaredbrackets.
L. Femand L6ger, "A Critical Essayon the Plastic Qualities of Abel Gance'sFllm The
IMeeI," Functionsof Painting,ed. and intro. Edward Fry trans. Alexandra Anderson
(New York Viking, t973) zr.
2. see my articles l'The Non-Continuous Style of Early Film," Cinematgoo-t9o6, ed.
Roger Holman (Bruxelles:FIAF, rgSz) and ',An unseen Energy swallows space:
The Spacein Earlv Film and its Relation to American Avant Garde Fllm," FiIm Before
 Th"!ryg:?q.,ractions Reloaded

Grffith, ed' John L. Fell (Berkeley:u of

Califomia p, ryg)
tive paper delivered by M. Gaudreault 355-66,andour collabora_
at tl" *rf;::;;i,C;;"" Film History
(August t98) "Le cinema des premiers
temps: un ddfi a l,histoire du cin6ma?,,
would arso like to note the importance I
of my discussionswith Aaam simon
our hope to further in;uestigate-ihehistory and
and the archaeology of the f'm spectator.
3' Robert C. Aileru vauderiili and FiIm: fii5-t9t5,
A study rn*lleara Interaction(New
York: Amo, rygo) t59,2a2_.r.1.
4' GeorgesM6lids, "Importance du sc6nario,',in
Georgessadoul, Georges Mdriis (pais:
feghers, ry6r) n6 (my translation).
5' Christian MetZ The-,Imaginary signifier: Psychoanalysis
Brittoru Annwyr william! nen gr"ewste, and the Cinema,trans.Celia
u'i err"a Guzzettt(Bloomington:
yl,r98z), parricutarty 58-8o,gr_97. Indiana
.
t 'American vliag"uph t897-t9o.',"
Cinemalournal zz.3 (spring
:r11;lJVlusser'
7' Raymond Fierding "Hale's Tours: tltrarearism
in the pre_r9ro Motion picfure,,,
Film BeforeGrffith l:rl_jo.
8. I wish to thank Ben Brewster for
his con
paper
which
pointed
outther-p",";";;':?ilii"xtfili:,
attractionshere.
g' s'M' Eisenstern,"How I Became
"U"1*l"JJ"fl"**;
a Film Direct or,,, Notesof a Fitm Director(Moscow:
Languagepublishing House, n.d.) 16.
l:yfl
10. s'M. Eisensteiru"Montage oiAttractionq i,
oun".Daniel Gerould, TheDrama
r8.r (March ry79:78_79. Reztiezn
r-r.. Eisensteiry ,,Montage
of Attractions,,
72. Yon Barna,Eisenstein(Bloomington: Zg_7g.
Indiana Up, ryp) 59.
a3. F.T. Marinetri, ,,The.Variety Thlater
]:rgrZli, futririionyntos, ed,.UmbroApollo,
nio (Newyork: Viking,
ryp) o7.
14. Michael Davis, The.Exproitation preasure
of (New york: Russell sage Foundation"
Child Hygiene, pamphtei rgrr).
?ept..o_f
1'5' David Levy, "Edison sales poliry
ur'ti *r" Contirluous Action FIm t9o4_r9o6,,,
BeforeGrffith 207-22. Film
t6' tut"t""t "visuar pleasure and Narrarive
cinema,,, screen ,63 (Farl
f];u ry75):
17' Paperdelivered at the FIAF Conference
on slapstick, May
18' Nicholas vardas From stage ryg5,New york City.
to screen:TheairicalMethlds-yiom
(New York Benjamin Blom, carrirt to Grffith
ry6g) 42.