The Role and Nature of Questioned Document in Police Work:

The document examiner has a dual objective. First, to discover

the facts and second, to prove the facts. The document examiner who
would truly serve the ends of justice must go to the witness stand
fully prepared to support this conclusion with testimony that is
factual, clearly understandable & persuasive. Expert testimony
should be measured by its convingness.

With regard to handwriting, the document examiner should be

furnished by police investigation only those writings which can be
proved to the satisfaction of the court to be genuine writings.

The Examiner as a Part of the Investigative Team in Crime Detection

and Investigation:

The field of questioned examination is one of the three “I’s”

of the investigation of crime i.e. Instrumentation. Documents as
evidence in various cases specifically forgeries and the like are
submitted to the laboratory for the appropriate examination.
Documents examiner who scientifully studies the elements, nature and
composition of documents regards this field of expertise as one of
the process of discovering and proving facts for promoting justice
law enforcement. One of the necessary steps in the investigation is
disputed documents is the accurate determination of what the fact
really is taken then comes the task of proving the fact in court.
The specialist or the document examiner will provide in the name of
justice testimony that will emulate the necessary result of the
examination. He should be accurate, fair and courageous. These three
words are basically the traits of a law enforcer and on which the
secure foundation of this profession is built. This profession has
produced men have nationally and worldwide influenced for the better
administration of justice. The outstanding reputation acquired for
ability and honesty in a particular field has always carried over to
and filtered through the thinking of those in related fields
assisting them the better performance of their work.

Questioned Document:

One in which the facts appearing therein are not true, and are
contested either in whole or in part with respect to its
authenticity, identity, or origin. It may be a deed, contract, will,
election ballots, marriage contract, checks, visas, application form,
certificates, etc.

Document is questioned because its origins, its contents, or

the circumstance and story regarding its production arouse suspicion
as to its genuineness or it may adversely scrutinized simple because
it displeases someone.

Document is said to be questioned when it is disputed or

attacked, either in whole or in part as to its date or age, as to
its source or origin, as to the material used in their production,
and as to its relation in some other document.

Classes of Questioned Documents:

1. Documents with questioned signatures.

2. Documents containing alleged fraudulent alterations.
3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills.

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 a. Holographic Will – will entirely written in the handwriting
of the testator
b. Notarial Will – signed by the testator acknowledge before a
notary public with three witnesses
4. Documents investigated on the question of typewriting.
a. with a view of ascertaining their source
b. with a view of ascertaining their date
c. with a view of determining whether or not they contain
fraudulent alterations or substituted pages
5. Documents on issues of their age or date.
6. Documents on issues of materials used in their production.
7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that
they identify some persons through handwriting.
a. anonymous and disputed letters, and
b. superscriptions, registrations and miscellaneous writings
8. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently altered or disputed.

Document:

Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either

visible, partially visible that may present or ultimately convey a
meaning to someone. May be in the form of pencil, ink writing,
typewriting, or printing on paper.

In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119, a document
is any written document by which a right is established or an
obligation is extinguished.

In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453, a

document is every deed or instrument executed by person by which
some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.

Kinds of Documents:

Under the Philippine Law, the following are the four kinds of
documents:

1. Public Document – any instrument notarized by a notary public or

competent public official with solemnities required by law. (Cacnio
vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742)

2. Official Document – any instrument issued by the government or

its agents or its officers having the authority to do so and the
offices, which in accordance with their creation, they are
authorized to issue and be issued in the performance of their duties.

3. Private Document – every deed or instrument executed by a private

person without the intervention of a notary public or of any person
legally authorized, by which documents, some disposition or
agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.
4. Commercial Document – any instrument executed in accordance with
the Code of Commerce or any Mercantile Law, containing disposition
of commercial rights or obligations.

Note:

A private document may become a public or official document

when it partakes the nature of a public or official record. So if
the falsification committed on such document, that is, when it is
already a part of the public record, falsification of public or
official document is committed. However, if such private document is
intended to become a part of the public record, even though

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falsified prior thereto, falsification of a public document is
committed.
Standard Document:

Are condensed and compact set of authentic specimen which is

adequate and proper, should contain a true correction of the
material form a known source. They are used by the Document Examiner
as the basis for his identification or non-identification of the
questioned document as, for example, for the known handwriting which
serves to establish who wrote the disputed letter.

Two Kinds of Standard Documents:

a. Procured or Collected – Those which are obtain from files of

document executed in the persons day to day business, official,
social or personal activities.

b. Requested – Those which are given or made upon the request of an

investigator for purpose of making comparative examination with the
request writing.

Writings which do not constitute documents:

Based on some Supreme Court rulings:

1. A draft of a municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the

proper authority.
(People vs. Camacho, 44 Phil. 484)

2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are

not yet filled up. (People vs. Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558)

3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or

agreement are not documents but are mere merchandise. (People vs.
Agnis, 47 Phil. 945)

Subjects Considered in Questioned Document Exam:

1. Handwriting examination
a. examination of signatures and initials
b. examination of anonymous letters
c. hand printing examination
2. Typewriting examination
3. Examination of inks
4. Erasures, alterations or obliterations, etc.
5. Counterfeiting

DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Objectives:

a. The objective is to furnish the investigator in the field

with sufficient background information concerning document
examination.
b. No attempt is made to provide detailed information
sufficient to qualify the investigator as an expert document
examiner.

Importance/Significance:

a. In the commission of a crime, the criminal often finds

necessary to employ one or more documents in furtherance of his act.

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 b. In some crimes, such as forgery, the document is an
integral part of the crime.

c. In others, such as false claims against government,

documents often play an important part in proving the commission of
the crime.

d. Proof of the fact that a document was altered or made by a

particular individual may show that:
1. He committed the crime.
2. He had knowledge of the crime.
3. He was present in a certain locality at a specified time.

Evidence that a document was not made by an authorized

individual or machine may prove it to be fraudulent. Latent
fingerprints on documents are of great value to the investigator.

Purposes:

A document may be examined for a number of purposes including:

1. Identity of the author/maker/writer.
2. True contents of the documents.
3. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the
documents.
4. Alterations or erasures which have been made.
5. Authenticity of the document.

Logical Process of Inquiry in Document Examination:

An aware document expert must know that the first step in

making over a case to get the proper identification. The logical
processes of inquiry are:

1. Ascertain the facts: to select “questioned”, “denied”, or

“admitted”, “authentic”, and “doubtful” documents.
a. Concerning the document in questioned. Is only one
signature is question? Is any part of the document is question? Is
the date of the document in question? Is the paper or the typewriter
used in the document in question?
b. Regarding the standards.

1. Make sure that there are sufficient numbers of authentic

documents for comparison submitted. If there are inadequate
standards, obtain more.

2. Determine whether the standards are authentic ones, on which a

foundation can be built for admitting them in evidence.

2. Analyze the details: synthesize the elements, date, circumstances,

conditions, technical problems and the like.

a. The examiner of the questioned documents, after

ascertaining the facts, should have detailed information as to the
circumstances of the document in questioned, the condition of an
alleged writer, or of any condition that may have affected the
writing or any facts that are part of the technical problem with the
document that is submitted to the expert.

b. He should inquire about the circumstances and conditions as

far as the client knows, such as, was the document signed sitting on
the wall, on the lap, or lying in bed? Sitting in bed, lying on his

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back or side? For example a document could have been signed in a
moving automobile or while having a drink at the bar.

3. Qualify the case:

How much time is needed for the examination? Is it possible to

complete the study from the original papers, or is it necessary to
make special photo-enlargements for proper examination? If it is
possible to make arrangements with the client for photo-enlargement,
is it advisable to do so? Photo-enlargements are always useful for
demonstrating the reasons on which the opinion is based, especially
in court.

Scientific Method in Questioned Document:

The document examiners strive constantly for objectives and

the avoidance of personal bias. It orders knowledge, follows in
logical sequences. It classifies knowledge as the only systematic
means to its organization a deduction to matters of facts. It
insists upon verification as the most reliable form of proof. It
utilizes observation or experimentation designed expressly toward
the control of variables. A scientific method therefore consists of
the following processes:

1. Analysis – properties of characteristics observed or measured.

2. Comparison – properties or characteristics of the unknown
determined thought analysis are now compared with the familiar or
recorded properties of known items.
3. Evaluation – Similarities or dissimilarities in properties or
characteristics will each have a certain value for identification,
determined by its likelihood of occurrence. The weight or
significance of each must therefore be considered. The principle of
identification requires that when two items contain a combination of
corresponding or similar and specifically oriented characteristics
of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of
their occurrence by mere coincidence and there are no unaccounted
for differences. It may be concluded that they are same in their
characteristics attributed to the same cause.

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION

Definition of Terms:

Writing – It is the result of a very complicated series of acts,

being used as whole, combination of certain forms of visible mental
and muscular habits acquired by long, continued painstaking effort.

Handwriting – It is the visible effect of bodily movement which is

an almost subconscious expression of fixed mental expression of
certain ideas associated with script form.

Natural Handwriting – Any writing executed normally without any

attempt to control or alter its identifying habits and its usual
quality of execution.

Disguised Writing – A writer may deliberately try to alter his usual

writing habits in hope of hiding his identity, writing skill is
poorer, change in slant, size, altered or capital letters.

Stroke – Series of lines or curves written in a single letter. One

of the lines of an alphabet or series of lines or curves within a
single letter. The path traced by the pen on the paper.

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Terminology Concerning Stroke characteristics:

Arc/Arch – a curved formed inside the top curve of loop, as in small

letters “h”, ‘m”, “n”, “p”.

Ascender – is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.

Baseline – maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be imaginary

alignment of writing. Is the ruled or imaginary line upon which the
writing rest.

Beaded – preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually occurs

in capital letter.

Beard – is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter.

Blunt – the beginning and ending stroke of a letter. (without

hesitation)

Body – the main portion of the letter, minus the initial of stroke.
Terminal strokes and the diacritic of any. Example: the oval of the
letter “O” is the body, minus the downward stroke and the loop.

Bowl – a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete

into “O”.

Buckle/Buckle Knot – a loop made as a flourished which is added to

the letters, as in small letter “k’ and “a” or in capital letters
“A”, “K”, “P”. The horizontal end loop stroke that are often used to
complete a letter.

Cacography – a bad writing

Calligraphy – the art of beautiful writing

Descender – opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.

Diacritic – “t” crossing and dots of the letters “I” and “j”. The
matters of the Indian script are also known as diacritic signs. An
element added to complete a certain letter, either a cross bar or a
dot.

Ending/Terminate Stroke of Toe – the end stroke of a letter.

Eye/Eyelet/Eye Loop – a small loop or curved formed inside the

letters. This may occur inside the oval of the letters “a”, “d”, “o”.
The small loop form by stroke that extend in divergent direction as
in small letters.

Foot – the lower parts which rest on the base line. The small letter
“m” has three feet, and the small letter “n” has two feet.

Habits – any repeated elements or details, which may serve to

individualize writing.

Hesitation – the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink

which is found when writing slows down or stop while the pen take a
stock of the position.

Hiatus/Pen Jump – a gap occurring between continuous strokes without

lifting the pen. Such as occurrence usually occurs due to speed.

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Hook – it is a minute curve or an ankle which often occurs at the
end of the terminal strokes. It is also sometimes occur at the
beginning of an initial stroke. The terminal curves of the letters
“a”, “d”, “n”, “m’, “p”, “u’, are the hook. In small letter “w” the
initial curve is the hook. The minute involuntary talon like
formation found at the commencement of an initial up stroke or the
end terminal stroke.

Hump – upper portion of its letter “m”, “n”, “h”, “k”. The rounded
outside of the top of the bend stroke or curve in small letter.

Knob – the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke
due to the slow withdrawal of the pen from the paper. (usually
applicable to fountain pen)

Ligature/Connection – the strokes which connect two stroke of letter,

characterized by connected stroke between letters.
Long Letter – those letters with both upper and lower loops.

Loop – an oblong curve such as found on the small letters “f”, “go”,
“l” and letters stroke “f” has two. A loop maybe blind or open. A
blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled the open
space.

Majuscule – a capital letter

Minuscule – a small letter.

Movement Impulses – this refer to the continuity of stroke force

writing is usually produce by disconnected and broken movements more
motion or movement impulses than genuine writing.

Oval – the portion of the letter which is oval in shape. The small
letter stroke “a” , “d” , “g” , and “q” contain oval letter “a” ,
“t” while coming down……….

Patching/Retouching – retouching or going back over a defective

portion of a written stroke. Careful patching is common defect on
forgeries.

Pen Lift – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the

writing instrument from the paper. Disconnection between letters and
letter combination maybe due to lack of movement control. Using a
ball-point pen may cause pen lift due to the failure of the ball to
rotate.
Pen Position or Pen Hold – Is the relative location of the pen in
relation to the paper surface which can be determined by the
presence of the emphasis or pen shading.

Pen Scope – Represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest.
It is the average scope or limits of the pen during the process of
writing with the wrist of the hand at still.

Retrace/Retracing – any part of a stroke which is super imposed upon

the original stroke. Is the stroke which goes back over other
writing strokes; it is slightly to occur in others handwriting.
Example: vertical strokes of the letter “d”, “t” while coming
downward from the top to bottom will have a retracing stokes. Any
stroke which goes back over another writing stroke. In natural
handwriting there may be instances in which the pen doubled back
over the course.

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Shoulder – outside portion of the top curve, small letter “m” has
three shoulders and the small letter “n” has two, the small letter
“h” has one shoulder.

Spur – a short initial or terminal stroke.

Staff – Any major long downward stroke of a letter that is the long
downward stroke of the letter “b”, “g”.

Stem or Shank – the upright long downward stroke that is the trunk
or stalk, normally seen in capital letters.
Tick/ Hitch – any short stroke, which is usually at the top of the
letters.

Tremor – a writing weakness portrayed by irregular shaky strokes is

described as writing tremor.

Other Terminology Related to Handwriting Examination:

Alignment – is the relation of parts of the whole of writing or line

of individual letters in words to the baseline. It is the alignment
of words. The relative alignment of letters.

Characteristics – is any property or marks which distinguish and in

document examination commonly called to as the identifying details.

Kinds of Characteristics:

Class characteristics – not all characteristics encountered in

document examination are peculiar to a single person or thing and
one which is common to a group may be described as class
characteristics.

Individual or Personal Characteristics – characteristics which is

highly personal or peculiar and it is unlikely to occur in other
instances.

Collation – side by side comparison. Collation as used in this text

means the critical comparison on side by side examination.
Comparison – the act of setting two or more items side by side to
weigh their identifying qualities. It refers not only a visual but
also the mental act in which the element of one item are related to
the counterparts of the other.

Disguised Writing – a writer may deliberately try to alter his usual

writing habits in hopes of hiding his identity. The result
regardless of their effectiveness is termed disguised writing.

Examination – it is the act of making a close and critical study of

any material and with questioned document, Is the process necessary
to discover the facts about them. Various types are undertaken
including microscopic, visual photographic, chemical, ultra violet
and infra-red examination.

Graphoanalysis – the study of handwriting based on the two

fundamental strokes, the curve and the straight

Graphometry– analysis by comparisons and measurement.

Graphology – the art of determining character disposition and

amplitude of a person from the study of handwriting.

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Line quality – is the overall character of the inks lines from the
beginning to the ending strokes.
Two classes:
a. Good line quality
b. poor line quality

Microscopes Examination – any study or examination which is made

with the microscope in other to discover minute details.

Movement – Is an important element in handwriting. It embraces all

the factors which are related to the motion of the writing
instrument skill, speed freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis,
tremors and the like. The manner in which the writing instrument is
move that is by finger, hand, forearm or whole arm.

Natural Writing – any specimen of writing executed normally without

any attempt to control or alter its identifying habits and its usual
quality or execution.

Natural Variation – these are normal or usual deviations found

between repeated specimens of any individual handwriting.

Opinion – in legal language, the Document Examiner’s conclusion.

Actually in court, he not only expresses an opinion but demonstrate
the reasons for arriving at this opinion. Though this book, opinion
and conclusion are used synonymously.

Proportion or Ratio – is the relation between the tall and the short
letter is referred as to the ratio of writing.

Pen Pressure – the average force with which the pen contacts the
paper may be estimated from the examination of the writing. Pen
pressure as opposed to pen emphasis deals with the usual of average
force involved in the writing rather than the period increases.

Pen Emphasis – the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the
paper surfaces with increase pressure. When the pen point has
flexibility, this emphasis produces shading, but with more rigid
writing points heavy point emphasis can occur in writing with out
any evidence of shading.

Pen Pressure – the average force with which the pen contacts the
paper or the usual force involves in writing. This is one of the
most personal but somewhat hidden characteristics in writing.

Ratio of Writing – it is the relationship between the heights of the

short letters.

Rhythm – is the element of the writing movement which is marked by

regular or periodic recurrences. It may be classed as smooth,
intermittent, or jerky in its quality. The flourishing succession of
motion which are recorded in a written record.

Shading – is the widening of the ink strokes due to the added

pressure on a flexible pen point or to the use of a stub pen.

Skill – in any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill

and a specimen of writing usually contains evidence of the writer’s
proficiency.

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Slope/Slant – is the angle or inclination of the axis of the letters
relative to the baseline.
Three Classes:
a. Slant to the left
b. Slant to the right
c. Vertical slant

Speed of Writing – not every one writer as the same rate so that
consideration of the speed of writing may be a significant
identifying element. Writing speed cannot be measured precisely form
the finished handwriting but can be interpose in broad terms of slow,
moderates, or rapid.

BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

Handwriting:

In Wignore’s Principles of judicial proof, handwriting is

defined as a visible effect of bodily movement which is an almost
unconscious expression of fixed muscular habits, reacting from fixed
mental impression of certain ideas associated with script form.

Environment, education and occupation affect individuals so

variously in the information of this muscular habit that finally the
act of writing becomes an almost automatic succession of acts
stimulated by this habit. Thus a person’s style or writing in most
details becomes as fixed as the habit and serve as a continuous
inseparable mark of that one person.

The imitation of the style of writing by another person

becomes difficult because the other person cannot by mere will power
reproduce in himself all the muscular combination which from the
habit of the first writer.

Physiological Basis of Handwriting:

The impulse to from a letter begins in the brains writing

center in the cortex. This center is skin to brain areas control
visions, hearing, taking and walking, guides the muscles as they
weave the complex movements that make the words. Since writing in
the mind, emotion and attitudes both path of the mind, influence how
we write just as they influence how we walk and talk.

In writing the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The

fingers transmit to the paper, the directive impulse and the
variation in muscular tension that according to the nature of the
writer’s nervous organization occur during the act of writing.

Hence as each writer has his own way of holding his hand,
manipulating the pen, and exerting pressure, the same pen in
different hands will produce entirely different strokes.

This center near the motor area of the cortex responsible for
the finger movement involved in handwriting. The importance of this
center is that when it becomes diseased as in a graphic, one loses
the ability to write although he could still grasp a fountain pen,
ball pen or pencil.
Thus the ability or power to hold a fountain pen or pencil to
from symbols and words can be said to emanate from its cortical
center.

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 The hands contain two kinds of muscles which function is in
the act of writing. A group of extensor muscles push up the pen to
form the upward strokes and ease the tension produced as a result of
flaxen by a group of muscle called the flexor muscles which push the
pen to from the downward strokes.

This flexor and extensor muscles combined with numerical

muscle to form lateral strokes.

Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in

writing. Those which operate the joints of the fingers, wrist, elbow,
and shoulder. The delicate way in which the various muscles used in
writing work together to produce written from is known as motor
coordination.

Kinds of Writing Movements:

1. Finger Movement – Is mostly employed in “vertical writing” and

mainly in the formation of printed styles of writing. Letters are
formed by the actions of the thumb, index and the middle finger.
This is the movement employed by children, or generally by those
with whom writing is an unfamiliar process, it is otherwise called
as the “push and Pull writing”.
Characteristics:
a. It results to an inferior or poor quality of writing with
lack of rhythm and speed.
b. Spacing is cropped up and the dashes are usually absent.
c. Finishes are done in irregular and abrupt manner or are
varied between letters.
d. Pen usually starts resting on the paper and ends with short
and abrupt strokes due to limited and irregular movements of the
fingers.
e. Shading is pronounced.
f. Lack of clear-cut, smooth and regular lines.

2. Hand Movement – It involves the action of the hand as a whole

with the fingers playing but a minor role (mainly in the formation
of small letters) and the wrist is the pivotal of the lateral
movement.
Characteristics:
a. Affords more expensive writing.
b. Narrow connections at the top and bottom of letters.
c. There is a considerable speed in movements.
d. More regularity of the lines.

3. Forearm (or Muscular) Movement – Writing is produced by the

movement of the hand and arm and also fingers in some cases. The
elbow is the pivotal of the lateral movement.
Characteristics:
a. Shows the greatest freedom and speed.
b. Smooth clear cut as indicative of rhythm.
c. Slight shading is produced.
d. More even baseline.
e. Lateral movements in longer making the shifting of the
writing hand fewer.
f. Uniformity in size of letters.
This movement once used in imitation of genuine writing
will make difficulties in its examination.

4. Whole Forearm Movement – It involves the action of the entire arm

without rest and is employed in very large writing. Ornamental
penmanship, blackboard writing, and by a few writers in making all

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the capital letters are some of the writing where this movement is
being employed.

A more or less definite pattern for each is stored away in the

subjective mind but the hand does not always produce a stereotype
duplicate of that pattern. This is due to extraneous influences such
as fatigue, lack of nervous tone, or muscular coordination, sickness
and the like.

The hand ordinarily is not an instrument of precision and

therefore we may not expect every habitual manual operation to be
absolutely uniform. The greater this skill in the art of penmanship,
the less the various there will be in the form of individualize
letters as well as in the writing as a whole.

Kinds of Writing:

1. Cursive – connected writing

2. Script – separated writing
3. Block – capitalized writing

Development of Writing:

1. Children learn writing by following the school copy model.

2. After acquiring some degree of skill the children no longer
follow the school model.

3. As speed increasing, conscious design and regularity begin to

breakdown.
4. In the course of trial and error, modification are made,
simplification and elaboration, addition and omission occur.
The writing pattern of each child embodies a unique
combination of such deviation from the standard letter forms or
school model, and becomes his personal habits.
Although, thousands learn the same system and that the natural
result is identity, but facts show that it is not because those who
were taught the dame system or school copy a class of writes, but
such impairs does not by any means produce a slavish uniformity.
Variation begins as soon as writing begins and continues till
each writer in the way that seems best and easiest to him. No two
persons write exactly alike and no reproduction of a handwritten
document can duplicate completely all the detailed of the original
writing.

Handwriting Problems:

1. A signature contested by its author which in reality is genuine

and corresponds perfectly to the ordinary and habitual signatures of
that person.
2. A signature contested by its author which in reality was written
by him but in a way which was different from the ordinary manner and
which is more or less different from the common genuine signatures
of that person.

3. A signature contested by its author which in reality was written

by a third person and which is a forgery written in an attempted
imitation of a model.

4. A spurious signature written by somebody who did not attempt to

imitate the signature of a person and who uses a fictitious name and
this to give his work the appearance of a signature.

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5. An uncontested signature, in fact, genuine but written by an
unknown person whose name must be deciphered by the document
examiner.

Writing Habits:

Writing by all its thousand of peculiarities in combination is

the most personal and individuals thing a man does that leaves a
record which he can seen and studies. This is what constitutes
individuality in handwriting.

Writing habits learned in the early years are those habits

which are part of a basic system or which are modifications of the
system of writing found among so large a group of writers that they
have only slight identification value. These might include an open
top ”O” and an ”A” or a looped “T” which occur in many rapid
careless handwriting.

A few of these early habits learned by the child are those

slant of letters “l”, “d”, “b”, “g”, “t” with small letters like
letters “n”, “m”, “I”, “o”, “e” and also form and design of letters.
These groups of habits are also called general or class
characteristics.

Another group of writing characteristics or habits is termed

individuals habits. Any writing habit or character in writing maybe
modified and individualized by different writers in many different
ways in many varying degrees and the writing individuality of any
particular writer is made up of all those common and uncommon
characteristics and habits.

It is always in the combination of particulars that identifies

and necessarily the more numerous and usual the various elements and
features, the more certain and identity. No two persons write alike.

An individual characteristic maybe the survival of an error

when writing was learned. An individual characteristic maybe caused
by the conscious influence of the writing of other that we
frequently see.

Various individual characteristics in writing also grow out of

the purpose for which writing is used and the amount of writing done.
One who writes much will develop many individual qualities while the
one who does practically no writing will continue to write the
general system acquired in school.

Thus, in the development of writing, basic forms or school

copy or system of writing, are imposed upon the writer. And later,
after a degree of manipulative skill has been acquired, writers
refashion these basic forms in his own individual way.

He develops a personal style in his writing which becomes as

fixed as the habit in most details and serve as a continuous
inseparable mark of that one person.

Significance of school Copy Forms or Systems Characteristics as

Basic in the Identification of Handwriting:

1. Similarities of form are not indicative of identity unless they

concern unusual form or what are termed deviations from the normal.
Similarities are bound to occur in different writings but such

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similarities exist only in letters which are normal in form, the
fact bears no significance.

2. All differences in form are indicated of non-identity.

3. The likeness in form maybe general and simply indicate the class
or genus or the difference that does not differentiate maybe nearly
superficial.

4. In many systems of writing, the date and influences of system of

writing have an important bearing on the question of genuine or of
forgery and in other cases, the presence of European characteristics
in handwriting is a vital and controlling fact.

Stroke:

A stroke is the path traced by the pen on the paper. It should

be observed whether the course of the strokes is continuous or
broken. The pen stroke is the visual record of the writing movement.

Qualities of the Strokes:

1. Expansion – whether the movement is extended or limited in its

range with respect to both vertical and horizontal dimension.

2. Coordination – whether the flow of movement is controlled or

uncertain, smooth or jerky, continuous or interrupted.

3. Speed – whether the movement has been rapid or slow and whether
the space has been steady or variable.

4. Pressure – whether the pressure exerted in the movement on its

upward and downward reach.

5. Direction – Leftward or rightward trend of they movement and its

upward and downward reach.

6. Rhythm – In the sequence of movements that wave the total pattern,

certain similar phases recur at more or less regular interval.

Motor Coordination:

The special way in which the various muscles used in writing

work together to produced written forms. Generally speaking, four
groups of muscles are employed in writing. Those which operate
respectively the joints of the finger, wrist, elbow and shoulder.

Characteristics of Motor Coordination:

1. Free, smelt rounded curve.

2. Gradual changes of directions.
3. Pressure is always in a state of change, moving from light to
heavy or from heavy to light.
4. Speed
5. The shading impulse is distributed over a considerable length of
the line whereas in writing produced with a slow motion as in the
finger movement, the shading often has a “bunchay” appearance, in
which the maximum width of the shaded line is attained abruptly.

Rhythm in Handwriting:

14
 Rhythm is a succession of connected, uniform strokes working
in full coordination. Manifested by clear-cut accentuated strokes
which increase and decrease in which like perfect cones. Pressure is
always in a state of change moving from light to heavy or from heavy
to light.

Lack of Rhythm:

Characterized by a succession of awkward, independent, poorly

directed and disconnected motions.

Importance of Rhythm:

By studying the rhythm of the succession of strokes, one can

determine if the writer normally and spontaneously or write with
hesitation as if he is attempting to for another signature.

Letter of Connections:

Determine the essential expression of the writing pattern. It

is mean indicator of the neuro-muscular function. Words are form by
connection letters to one another.

Even letters are formed by the joining of the upward and

downward strokes. These types of connections are:

1. Arcade – a rounded stroke shaped like an arch. It is a slow mode

of connection resulting from controlled movements.

2. Garland – links the downward stroke to the upstrokes with a

flowing curve swinging from left to right. It is an easy, effortless
mode of connection, written with speed.

3. Angular Connective Form – where the downward strokes and upward

strokes meet directly, angular connection are formed. These types of
connection impose a check on the continuity of movement
characterized by an abrupt stop and start each turning point.

4. The Threadlike Connective Form – the joining of downward and

upward strokes is slurred to a threadlike tracing or where rounded
turns used at both top and bottom produce a double curve. These
forms appear both in the shaping of letters within the word.

STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS

They are known writings which indicate how a person writes. A

writer manifests fixed habits in his writings that identify him.
This fact provides the basis for an opinion of conclusion regarding
any writing identification problems.

General Classes of Handwriting Standards:

1. Collected Standards – are known (genuine) handwriting of an

individual such as signature and endorsements on canceled checks,
legal papers, commercial, official, public and private document and
other handwriting such as letters, memoranda, etc. Written in the
course of daily life, both business and socials.

15
2. Request Standards – are signature or other handwritings (or hand
printings) written by an individual upon request for the purpose of
comparison with other handwriting or for specimen purposes.

3. Post Liten Motan Exemplars – writings produced by the subject

after evidential writings have come into dispute and solely for the
purpose of establishing his contentions.

In most instances, collected standards are preferable to

request standards, though both types should be submitted if
available. Standards should be collected from a period dated within
a year of the date questioned document, with some written within
weeks or days of the questioned writing.

Types of Standards Desirable for Comparison Use in the Two Most

Common Types of Questioned Documents Problems:

a. Submit collected and request standards signature from both

individual case.
b. When anonymous letter writings other than signature are in
questioned.

1. Submit request standards writings of general nature from both

victim and suspects (as much standards
reason)
2. Submit request standards of the
printed) – at least 3 writings by
instanced by the victim)
as possible to obtain within
questioned text written (or
the suspect/s and in some

Suggested Procedure for Taking Request Handwriting Standards in all

Types of Questioned Document Problems:

1. Have the subject seated in a natural position at table or desk

having smooth writing surface.

2. Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to

those used in questioned writings, lie: paper should be same size,
and ruled or unruled; as questioned document: if questioned document
is in written furnish subject with pen and ink, etc.

3. Never permit subject to see any writing on questioned document.

4. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned

material is hand printed): give no assistance in spelling or
arrangement on page. Dictate at a rate of speed which will produce
the subject natural writing habits. Too slow dictation will enable
subject to attempt disguise, to rapid dictation will produce normal
writing.

5. Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number in

consequence, date, time and identify by initiating each, and request
subjects to sign each specimen.

6. Observe all writing done by subjects and indicate any attempt at

disguise, as well as whether subjects appears to be normally right
or left handed, etc.

Special Procedure for Taking Request Handwriting Standards Where

Checks Forgery is Changed or Suspected:

1. Furnish subjects with check blanks similar to the questioned

check/s.

16
2. Dictate the entries to be made on specimen checks as follows:
a. Date - same as shown on questioned check
b. Payee - do –
c. Amount - do –
d. Signature - do –
e. Endorsement - do –
f. Any other writing shown on questioned check.
g. Give subjects to help or suggestions in completing specimen
checks.

Miscellaneous:

a. The laboratory should be informed of the age apparent health and

physical condition of the time standards are written.
b. Do not fold, staple or pin document, handle questioned documents
with care.
c. Indicate in the sample handwriting the time, place, date,
signature of writer as well as witness of the handwriting.

Sources of Signatures Written in the Course of Daily Affairs:

1. Canceled checks.
2. Signature cards for savings, checking and charge accounts and
safe deposit boxes.
3. Signed receipts for telegrams, special delivery or registered
letters, express and store packages, etc.
4. Business and personal letters.
5. Credit applications and cards.
6. Signature on sales slips, on job orders slips, requisition slips,
and purchase slips.
7. Leases, mortgages, agreements, bills of sale, contracts, deeds,
notes stock certificates and transfers and other legal or business
documents.
8. Court records and affidavits, such as naturalization papers,
bankruptcy proceedings, divorce papers, probated wills and estate
files, powers of attorney, etc.
9. Passports, marriage application, license and affidavits.
10. Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of licensee
applications.
11. Application for gas, electricity, water and telephone services.
12. Loan application and receipts.
13. Tax returns or affidavits.
14. Insurance and employment applications.
15. Records from currency exchanges, check cashing agencies and
pawnshop.
16. Time sheets, payroll, pay receipts and personal forms.
17. Barangay registrations, petitions.
18. Relief and unemployment and old age compensation records.
19. Signature for certain drug purchases, hotel registrations.
20. Church, club, professional society records.
21. Veteran records.
22. Fingerprint records.
23. School or university class records and cards.
24. Application for clearances like in the office of municipal and
city courts, city fiscals office, N.B.I. and other government and
private offices.
25. Application for firearms and licenses.
26. Application for commission and enlistments in the AFP and
foreign armed forces offices.
27. Application for export and import and dollar allocations
28. Identification cards.

17
29. Application for right like water rights, copyrights, patents,
franchises, etc.
30. Application for civil service examination, board and bar
examinations.
31. Application for scholarships.
32. Residence certificate, class A and B, reservist data sheet.
33. Others.

Factors to Consider in the Selection of Standards:

1. Good writing standards should be sufficient to define accurately

the identifying habits as well as the kind and extent of variation
typical of the writer’s handwriting under any specific writing
condition. (Hilton)

2. If the questioned handwriting was executed under abnormal

conditions it is necessary to look for standards prepared under
comparable circumstances.

3. The style of the writing contained in the standards or exemplars

should be similar to the style of the questioned writings. If the
questioned writings are hand printed, then get hand printed
standards or exemplars.

4. Same instrument used in the preparation of the questioned

document must be obtained in the standards. If the signature was
written by ball pen in ruled paper and above a typewritten name,
standards prepared under similar conditions should be selected. If
the questioned handwriting was written a pencil, then standards
written should be contemporaneous with standards exemplars. The
ideal standards are those before, on and after the date of the
questioned writing. The interval of years between the questioned and
standards should not exceed more than five years.

According to Ordway Hilton, an authority on the subject of

standards, selection of standard must be very carefully controlled
if the standards describe accurately and completely how a person
writes.

If the writing in question was prepared under normal writing

conditions, in respect to the physical surroundings and the writer’s
health no difficult problem will arise, and comparison on the basis
of ten or twenty contemporary signatures written under comparable
physical condition will give accurate results. But some problems are
complicated and harder to solve. This includes the following:

1. Signature of the careless or highly unreliable writer. There is a

group of writers who execute their signatures with lack of
consistency. With 74 or 100 known signatures, the examiner may still
be confused to account for some rare peculiarity which occurs in the
questioned signature. With a writer of this type, even a series of
signatures written within a week or so of the questioned signature
may show great variation.

2. Receipt signature. Is has same lack of consistency but only when

a writer is signing for a delivery, such as letter or telegram.
Under other conditions his signature is consistently uniforms and
superior in form.

3. Near-illiterate writer. Writing is a slow and difficult task. The

signature is drawn, slow and its designs are primitive. Problems
involving these signatures tend to be troublesome.

18
4. Signatures of physical impaired writer.

a. The intoxicated signature – generally, deterioration in writing

can be caused by excessive consumption of alcohol. The writing skill
declines although other writers still continue to write with skill.
- successive signatures wander away from the normal design and
also the design of the immediately preceding signature written in
somewhat unpredictable way – successive specimens written during the
same night of drinking vary greatly in many identifying elements.
Our problem is how to obtain comparable specimens which can be used
effectively in accurately identifying a signature which clearly
reflects the influence of excess alcohol.

b. Old age deterioration – very difficult problems may be

encountered with signatures which have seriously deteriorated due to
the writers age or to terminal illness. Writing is characterized by
a lack of fluency in the execution and inaccuracy and inconsistency
in details of form. Study of a series of signature to signature than
was typical of vigorous signatures of earlier years. The
inconsistency of these signatures complicates the problem. In order
to reach the most accurate conclusions, two or three times the
normal number of signatures may be needed, and must be closer in
date to the signature in question than in the usual case.

c. The sick bed signature – infirm signature written on a sick bed

represent badly deteriorated signatures of a writer who subsequently
regains some or all of his writing vigor. A signature of this kind
may have been immediately after a serious accident or operation when
it was believed essential to execute the particular document.
- period of illness are not times when one is appropriate to
do much waiting and so there may be only limited numbers of
signatures write. Thus the right kind of standards, therefore are
extremely difficult to locate, if the exist at all.

5. Disguised signature or writing. - the questioned writing of the

may be disguised that the problem becomes more confusing to the
document examiner. If the questioned signature is disguised,
specimens written under normal condition cannot be used for
comparison. The examination is therefore hampered by the lack of
truly adequate and proper standards.

Admissibility of Standard Writing:

Standard used by the document examiner in an identification

problem are vital importance to him. If some of the standard
writings on which the document examiner bases his conclusion cannot
be introduced, then the document examiner may not be able to provide
convincing or his testimony may be weakened.

Classes of Standard Writings Which are Admissible for Comparison

Purposes:

1. Standard Writings Witnessed. – The courts accept as sufficient

proof that evidence in the form of uncontradicted testimony of a
competent eyewitness to the execution of writing is sufficient to
permit the use of such writings as standard to test other writing.
- It was not necessary for the witness actually to have
watched the pen of the writer as it passed over the paper where it
appeared that there was no other as person present at the time but
he write and the witnesses that the writing was done in the
witnesses presence and that writer then gave them the paper.

19
 - Included in this class of admissible standards are writings
voluntarily prepared by a party in the presence of an investigator,
these generally are known as requested writings.

2. Standards Writings Admitted. – It the party whom a handwriting

standard is to be admits the geniuses of the standards it could hold
that further proof of genuineness is unnecessary.

3. Record Maintained in Regular Course of Business as Standard

Writings. Generally, the contexts of records maintained in the
regular course of business are admissible as an exemption to the
hearsay rule, as proof of their contents.
- However, their acceptance as such does not in itself
establish the writings as a standard for comparison. Circumstantial
evidence, particularly in civil cases, has been held to be
sufficient proof to admit records of this nature as standard of
writing for comparison.

4. Government Document as Standard Writings. – Signatures of

government officials on document treated as authentic and produced
from official archives may be admitted in evidence as standard of
comparison whether being as issue as to the forgery of the signature
of the same persons on other documents.

5. Ancient Writings. – The courts have admitted writings on ancient

document as standard for comparison.

6. Other Writings Standards. – Among writings admissible as standard

are signature on spelling motion or other instruments, such as an
appearance bond, which may without further proof of genuineness be
used as a standard.

7. Familiarity Sometimes Establish Standard Writings. – Testimony to

the genuineness of a collection of standard of writing by witnesses
who are familiar with a person’s handwriting.

8. Opinion Evidence. – The court seem to be in general agreement

that proof of the genuineness of a standard cannot be established by
the opinion of experts testifying from a comparison of the writing
sought to be used as standard with another writing.

9. Genuineness of Standard Decided by Court. – The sufficient of the

proof of the genuineness of a standard of writing is a matter to be
decided by the court.

HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS

Principal Points to Consider Regarding Collected Standards:

1. The amount of standard written.

a. Signature - twenty to twenty five
b. Writing - usually five or seven pages of natural writing

2. Similarly of subject matter.

a. Compare conventional copy book from with conventional copy-
book form standard; and compare highly individualized questioned
signature with highly individualized standards signatures.
b. Extended writing – determine whether the questioned writing
is purely cursive, or script, or block, or combination of the three
or two styles of writing.

3. Relative dates of the questioned and the standards writing.

20
 - standard signatures or writing must be those written five
years before or five years after the date of the questioned
signature or writing.

4. Condition under which both the questioned and the standard are
prepared.
a. Paper rested on the knee
b. Standing
c. Sitting
d. Lying down
e. Moving vehicle
- The document examiner must make a brief investigation into
the condition under which a document was written.

5. Writing instrument and paper.

a. Paper – Determine whether the questioned writing was
written in the ruled pad paper or plain paper.
b. Writing instrument – Determine whether the questioned
writing was written in ball point pen, fountain pen, etc.

For Requested and Dictated Standards:

1. Material must be dictated to the suspect/s.

2. Carefully select the dictated. Do not dictate the entire content
of the anonymous letter.
3. Adequate amount of writing must be included.
4. Some portion of the dictation should be repeated at least three
times.
5. Writing instrument and paper should be similar to those used in
preparing the questioned document.
6. The dictation should be interrupted at intervals.
7. Normal writing conditions should be arranged.

As much as possible the combination of the collected and

requested standards must be used in the comparison in order to
obtain an adequate and accuracy of the opinion.

For Typewriting Standards:

1. If the typewriting ribbon is obviously now, remove it to the

laboratory with the typewriting exemplars prepared from another
ribbon. (the text of the material in question may still be visible
on the ribbon).

2. Use of about the same size as the questioned materials, type out
a full word copy of the message in question, typographical errors,
using nearly as possible the same degree of touch as that used in
typing the questioned materials.

3. After placing the typewriter in a stencil position or removing

the cloth ribbon, obtain samples of each character on the keyboard
by typing through carbon paper which has been inserted carbon side
down over a piece of white bond paper.

4. Make certain that each specimen contain the make, model and
serial number of the typewriter from which it was produced as well
as the date and initials of the offices.

5. Typewriter specimen should be taken from suspect typewriter/s. It

is usually not necessary to forward the typewriter to the laboratory
it complete known exemplars are obtained.

21
6. If possible, after a typewritten exemplar is obtained from a
suspect typewriter, the investigator insures that the typewriter is
kept in its current condition. With evidence thus obtained from
typewritten documents the laboratory experts is in position to find
valuable assistance to the solution and subsequent prosecution of
many cases.

Indication of Disguised Writings:

1. Abnormally large writing.

2. Abnormally small writing.
3. Alteration in slant (usually backhand)
4. Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writing
(within a single signature)
5. Printed forms instead of cursive forms.
6. Decrease in the usual speed of writing.
7. Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing.

Kinds of Disguises:

1. Change of slant – from right to left or vice versa.

2. Change of letter, either from cursive to block style or vice
versa.
3. Change from cursive (conventional style) to block form or vice
versa.
4. Change of style from small to big or vice versa.
5. Deteriorating one’s handwriting.
6. Using the wrong hand. (Ambidextrous)

Evidence of Alcoholic Intoxication in Handwriting:

1. Bizarre letter forms.

2. Greatly enlarge writing.
3. Illegible forms and writing generally.
4. Uneven baseline.
5. Meaningless blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing.
6. Inconsistency in slant of writing.
7. Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters.

Importance of Contemporaneous Standard:

For the reason that characteristics and qualities of

handwriting gradually change with many writes, the alleged date of
writing in question and the actual date of all standard writing
should be known, because of this possibility of change the standard
always should include all that are available within a certain
definite period; including the item when it is claimed the
questioned writing was written.

If it is alleged that writing was produced under unusual

surrounding of any kind, this fact should be known by the examiner.
If the writer was subjects to unusual changes in physical or mental
condition due to age, disease or personal habits, or through any
cause, these facts also should be known. Certain general qualities
in handwriting necessarily are affected by conditions of the writer
or surrounding the writer and often it is necessary to determine
whether the written results are in harmony with alleged condition.

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

Principle of Identification:

22
 When any two specimens of handwritings contain a combination
of corresponding or similar and specifically oriented
characteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the
possibility of their occurrence by mere coincidence, and there are
no unaccounted for difference, it may be concluded that they are
similar in writing characteristics and therefore written by one and
the same person.

Writing as a whole is a combination of certain forms which are

the visible result of a series of controlled successive movement
that follows the fixed grooves of habits.

These writing habits like habits of speech become so automatic

and unconscious that even by the most demanding effort, it is almost
impossible to change them. It is one of the most permanent of human
habits.

Early developed and mature handwriting shows peculiarities

which are combination of all various and their cannot be exactly
duplicated in the writing of any other person.

General Characteristics:

These characteristics refer to those habits are part of basic

writing system or which are modifications of the system of writing
found among so large a group of writes that have only slight
identification value.

They might include an open top small letter “t” which occurs
in any rapid careless writings, proportion of all letters to medium
letters, slant connection and combination of letters.

General similarities can certainly form a part of the basic

identification but here must be very unique combinations of them and
of individual or personal writing indicate the class or genus or the
difference that does not differentiate may prove lack of genuineness.

Individual Characteristics:

They are characteristics which are the result of the writer’s

muscular control, coordination, age health, and nervous temperament,
frequency of writing, personality and character. No two persons
write alike. They are found in the following:

1. Writing movement – the character of writing movement is a primary

determinant of writing speed. It makes more time to make a long one.
More time to form a small solid letter than a form a large “racy
one”. Short, steady lines suggest a firmly controlled and purposeful
movement. A feather edged “broken line” suggest a slowly executed
movement.

2. Form and design of letters – all differences in form and design

of letters are indicative of non-identity.
Similarities of form are not indicative of identity they
concern unusual forms or what are termed deviations from the normal.
Similarities are bound to occur in different writings but such
similarities exist only in letters which are normal in from, which
facts bear no significance.
Those which occur only occasionally are next importance. The
writing pattern of letters has three dimensions, width, depth,
height.

23
3. Muscular control or motor control – is characterized by free
smooth, well regulated movements produced without tension or
impulsive variation. Deviations from true motor or muscular control
are:
a. Loose writing – this is characterized by too much freedom
of movement and lack of regulation. This is noticed especially in
tall letters forms.
b. Restrained writing – there is a lack of freedom and
inhibited movements. It gives you the impression that every stroke
was made with great difficulty. This writing is small. There is
distortion of letter forms which may lead to illegibility. However
small writing is not always evidence of restrained movement fatigue
during long periods of writings. True full-arm movement can be
employed only under rather ideal conditions such as while sitting at
a clean table or desk.

4. Motor coordination – the efficient way which the various muscles

writing work together to produce written forms. A writer with a good
motor coordination writes without mental strain, forming his letters
without conscious attention. The hand moves as soon as the mind
conceives a word to write and the word is there on the paper. There
are times when one set of muscles do not properly yield to the
pressure of the other set muscles especially at junction and the
conflict hinders the normal flow of the pen. This dis-coordination
of writing muscles leaves a distinct mark which is visible under
magnification. Two writers of the same class may not have equal
coordination or dis-coordination their writings. Each write has his
own width regard to alignment and the relative position of the
letters.

Faculty Coordination is Characterized by the Following:

a. Wavering and very irregular line or strokes with uncertain and

unsteady progress. There is no freedom of movement along the strokes
of the letter forms. The writing is obviously very slow and is
typical of the writing of a young child or for any one who
painstaking draws a picture of an unfamiliar form.

b. Angular line – a very common fault of coordination. Curves, large

and small are not smoothly rounded and there is no gradual change of
direction. On the contrary, and angle marks almost every change are
direction in the line. Investigation has disclosed that angles are
accompanied by a lessening of writing speed.

c. Shading – in forearm movement where considerable speed is used,

there is ordinarily but slight shading if any. The shading impulse
here is distributed over a considerable length of the line whereas
writing produced with a slow motion as in the finger movement the
shading often has a “bunchay” appearance that is to say, the maximum
width of the shaded line is attained abruptly. The shading impulse
is firmly grounded and difficult to overcome. It is basis of its
degree and location. Some writers place the greatest emphasis on the
straight strokes, others on the curves.

6. Skill – legibility and symmetry are the basis upon which one’s
skill or pictorial aspect is judged. Skill is classified as poor,
medium, and good.

7. Alignment – good alignment is obtained by a forearm movement in

which the elbow joint is used as the center or pivot of lateral
motion and arm is held at right angles to the line or writing. This
set-up allows the hand and forearm to swing left and right in an arc

24
and also permitting the forearm to rotate so that the palm may be
turned downward or upward.

8. Pen pressure – one of the most reliable indications of

naturalness in handwriting is the rhythmical and fluent application
of pressure and release of pressure. This indicate that pressure is
always in a state of change moving form light to heavy or form heavy
to light.

9. Connection – the connective form determines the essential

expression of the writing pattern. It is the main indicator of his
neuromuscular function. Connections used may be rounded like the
garland and the arcade, angular and threads. They form the letter
and ink them within the words.

10. Pen hold – this location of the shading can give clue to how the
fountain pen is held. If the pen is held pointing to the right
shoulder, shading appears fairly high or long the sides of circular
form. This is shown in small letter ‘d”. If the pen is held pointing
away from the right shoulder, shading tends to appear at the top and
the bottom of circular formation such as small letters “o”, “a”, and
“d”.

11. Rhythm – this characteristic is an importance indicator of a

natural writing movement. It is caused by a contraction and
relaxation of group of muscles in full coordination. Pressure is
always in a state of change from light to heavy or vice versa.

12. Disconnections or pen lifts between letters – this

characteristic may be due to lack of movement control or closely
related to design of letters and habits controlling this
characteristic where acquired when writing was learned. Many free
writers don’t stop the motion of the pen every time it is raised so
that the notion itself may be learning to write are taught to take
up the pen before the small letters “a”, “c”, “d”, “g”, “q”, and “t”
and the design of certain styles of these small letters requires
that the pen be raised.
13. Speed – speed of writing which is correlated with naturalness of
handwritings frequently shown by slurring of letter forms.

Indication of Speed Writing:

a. Smooth, unbroken strokes and rounded forms.

b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the right.
c. Marked uncertainly as to the location of the dots of small
letters “i”, “j” and crosses of small letter “t”.
d. Increased naturalness of words or small letter “t” connected with
the following words.
e. Letters shortened or degenerated almost to illegibility toward
the end of words.
f. Wide writing – width of letters is greater than the connecting
spaces adjoining it.
g. Great difference in emphasis between upstrokes and down strokes.
h. Marked simplification of letters especially capital letters.
i. Rising line.
j. Increased pen pressure.
k. Increase in the margin to left at the beginning of the line.

Indication of Slow Writing:

a. Wavering forms and broken strokes.

b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the left.

25
c. Conspicuous certainly as to the location of the dots of small
letters “I”, “j”, or “t” crosses with just perceptible deviation
from the intended direction.
d. Frequent pauses by meaningless blobs, angles divided letters and
retouches.
e. Careful execution of detail of letters, toward the end or names.
f. Narrow writing.
g. No difference in emphasis in upstroke and down stroke.
h. Ornamental or flourishing connections.
i. Sinking lines.

14. Slant as a writing habit – under certain conditions, slant

becomes highly significant and with many writers in one of the most
fixed of habits. Slight divergence in the few strokes of a single
signature may be very strong evidence of lack of genuineness when
such divergence is part of a combination of character pointing to a
writer of a different system of writings from the imitated. A slight
but persistent difference in slant in two writings of considerable
length may be evidence difference might be the result of intended
disguise.

15. Proportion of letters as an individual characteristic or habit –

this characteristic refer to the proportion of the upper and lower
loops of capital and small letters and to the medium letters.

16. Quality of stroke or line quality – the line or stroke itself in

writing shows the quality of speed and continuity of motion with
which it is made, the degree of muscular skill employed in the
operation, the relation of the pen point to the surface of the paper,
the nature of the movement employed in making the stroke as shown by
its force and freedom or its hesitation.

17. Variation – there are trivial or superficial differences which

can be observed when any two genuine signature or writings are
compared with each other. These writings will differ somewhat in
size as well as in certain unimportant particulars in design and
execution because of the fact that the human writing mechanism is
not an entirely accurate reproducing instrument like a stamp print
but produces and inevitable variation within a certain field. The
degree of this variation varies with different writers.

Causes of Variations:

a. Function of some external condition example: influence of the

available space.

b. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects,

vibration, emotion and deception.

c. Position of letter – all the letters are to be found initially,

medially, and finally. The fact of a different position, especially
in combination with another and particular letter, may modify any of
them in some way or another.

Classes of Individual Characteristics:

a. Permanent characteristics – can be found always in his writings.

b. Common or usual – can be found in a group of writers who studied

the same system of writing.

c. Occasional – only found occasionally in his writing.

26
 d. Rare – special to the writer and perhaps found only in one or
two persons in a group of one hundred individuals.

Fundamental Law as Which Govern the Conclusion in Handwriting

Identification Problems:

a. A signature naturally and genuinely written under normal

condition contain all of the individual habits of the writer’s
signature which are put into it in a way that is consistent with his
writing ability and the writing quality of his signature.

b. A signature is fraudulent if it contains habits, qualities

or elements which are significantly different from genuine
signatures written under similar conditions.

Probative Value of Writing Characteristics:

It is impossible to illustrate and define all the thousands of

actual and possible individual qualities and characteristics of
writing and weight and measure their comparative values for the
reason that these values differ greatly with different writers and
under varying conditions. It is very important to have an
understanding of the principles by which the force and significance
of characteristics are to be measured.

Some General Principles Can be Stated That Apply in Most Cases:

a. Those identifying or differentiating characteristics are of

the most force which is most divergent from the regular system or
national features of a particular handwriting under examination.

b. Those repeated characteristics which are inconspicuous

should be first be sought for and should be given the most weight,
for these are likely to be so unconscious that they would not
intentionally be omitted when the attempt is made to disguise and
would not be successfully copies from the writing of another when
simulation is attempted.

c. Ordinary system or national features and element are not

alone sufficient characteristics necessarily have as evidence of
identity as stated above, it present in sufficient number and in
combination with individuals qualities and characteristics.

Correct Conclusion:

To reach the conclusion that two writings are written by the

same hand, characteristics or “dents” and “scratches” in sufficient
quantity to exclude the theory of accidental coincidence; to reach
the conclusion that writings are by different hands, we may find
numerous likeliness in class characteristics but divergences in
individual characteristics or we may find divergences in both but
the divergence must be something more than mere superficial
differences.
If the conclusion of identifying is reached, there must not
remain significant differences that cannot reasonably be explained.
This ignoring of the differences or the failure properly to account
for them is the cause of the errors in handwriting identification.

A Document Examiner usually observes a scientific approach in

the examination of the disputed writing. The possibility that
handwriting being identifiable and separated from others largely

27
depends on any individuals who have developed the complex structural
product of modifying normal practice and adapting to the needs and
abilities. Although there is no specified approach, the following
are always observed:

a. Recognition of handwriting characteristic – one must

acquire the ability to distinguish what are the style and individual
characteristics. Distinguish characteristics which are normal and
disguise.

b. Comparison of handwriting characteristics – make allowance

to the presence of natural variation in handwriting.

c. Evaluation of handwriting characteristics for opinion

purposes – evaluate the significance and number of similarities and
dissimilarities in handwriting.

Examples of Common Characteristics:

a. Ordinary copy-book form.

b. Usual systematic slant.
c. Ordinary scale of proportion or ratio.
d. Conventional spacing.

How Individual Characteristics are Acquired:

a. Outgrowth of definite teaching.

b. Result of imitation.
c. Accidental condition or circumstances.
d. Expression of certain mental and physical trains of the
writer as affected by education, by environment and by occupation.

Examples of Some of the Individual Characteristics:

a. Hook to the right and hook to the left.

b. Shape, position, size and angle of “I” dots “t” crossing.
c. Idiosyncrasies
d. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure.
e. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement endings.
f. Abbreviation of letters.
g. Simple and compound curves and graceful endings.
h. Labored movement producing ragged lines.
i. Terminal shadings and forceful endings.
j. Presence and influence of foreign handwriting, with the
introduction of Greek “e’.

Movement or Manner of Execution:

1. Kinds of movement
a. Forearm
b. Whole arm

2. Quality of movement
a. Awkward, illiterate and uncertain.
b. Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness.
c. Strong, heavy and forceful.
d. Nervous and irregular.
e. Smooth, flowing and rapid.

3. Speed
a. Slow and drawn
b. Deliberate

28
 c. Average
d. Rapid

4. Different movements employed affect wring in:

a. Smoothness
b. Directness
c. Uniformity
d. Continuity of strokes
e. Connecting or curves between letters

Points to Consider in Examining Extended Writing:

(Anonymous, threat, poison letters)

1. Uniformity – does the questioned writing have smooth, rhythmic

and free flowing appearance?

2. Irregularities – does the questioned writing appear awkward, ill-

formed slowly drawn?

3. Size and proportion – determine the height go the overall writing

as well as the heights go the individual strokes in proportion to
each other.
4. Alignment – are they horizontally aligned, or curving, uphill or
downhill?

5. Spacing – determine the general spacing between letters, spacing

between words. Width of the left and right margins, paragraph
indentions.

6. Degree of slant – are they uniform or not?

7. Formation and design of letters, “t” – bars, “I” . dots, loops,

circle formation.

8. Initial, connecting and final strokes.

HANDPRINTING

The procedure and the principle involved is similar to that of

cursive handwriting, the different steps in the preparation of both
collected and requested standards should be applied in this problem
which is determination of the author of questioned hand printed
writings.

Specimen must be hand printed and reflect the style of

printing habitually used by the writer. Instructions should be given
to print capitals and small letters. At least the investigator
should obtain about ten sheets of paper containing the subject
handwriting. The materials of course should approximate the
materials used in the questioned hand printed document.

In block capital and manuscript writings, personal individual

rest principally in design, selection, individual letter
construction, size, ratios and punctuation habits. The initial step
in handwriting examination is to determine whether the questioned
handwriting and standards were accomplished with:

a. a fluency of movement and a certainty of execution

indicative of familiarity with and a measure or skill in handwriting
of conversely.

29
 b. a conscious mental effort and non-rhythmic execution
denoting either unfamiliarity with or disguise in the subjects
handwriting.

Investigation and Detailed Examination of Signatures:

Forgery – A legal term which involves not only a non-genuine

document but also and intent room however, it is used synonymously
with fraudulent signature or spurious document.

Spurious Document – A fraudulent signature in which there was no

papparent attempt at stimulation or limitation. It is a common form
of forgery encountered at stipulation or limitation.

Traced Forgery – Any fraudulent signature which was executed by

actually following the outline of a genuine signature with a writing
instrument.

Simulated or Freehand Imitation Forgery – A fraudulent signature

which was executed purely by simulation rather than by tracing the
outline of a genuine signature.

Anachronism – This something wrong in time and in place. This means

that the forger has trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing
materials to the exact date it was supposed to have been written.

Guided Signature – A signature which is executed while the writer’s

hand or arm is steadied in any way is classified as a guided or
assisted signature. Under the law of most jurisdictions such as a
signature authenticates a legal document, provided it show that the
writer requested assistance. Guided signatures are most commonly
written during a serious illness or on a deathbed.

Definition of Signature:

A name or a mark that a person puts at the end of a document

to attest that he is its author or that he ratifies its contents.
Many persons who have done a lot of writing transform their name.
Letters become simplified or condensed, complex movement name. This
is now signature. It is mark but this mark is now personal. It is a
personal combination of strokes in which it is possible to recognize
the writer.

Signatures should be considered not just from the point of

view whether there is any difference whatever. The problem is to
form a judgment first about the normal range of variation in the
standard and then to consider whether the questioned signature has
significant similarity and whether any difference you observe is
within the range of normal variation established by the standards or
whether variations shown by several signatures.

Classes of Signature:

a. Formal or Complete – Class of signature used in acknowledging

important document such as will, checks, contract and business
papers.

b. Informal or Cursory (Initial) – A class of signature for

routinely document or made for personal correspondence.

30
c. Careless Scribble – Used for mail carrier, delivery of goods,
purchase of equipments and an autograph collector.

Examination of Signatures is Considered a Specialized Branch of

Handwriting Identification for the Following Reason:

1. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore

most fluently written.

2. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great

personal significance.

3. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some

other details.

4. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the

mechanics of its production and is written automatically.

5. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with

confidence.

Suggested Steps in the Examination of Signature:

Signature in documents must be examined exhaustively and

scrutinized in every detail to avoid error in judgment.

The difference between the layman’s observation and those with

special training in questioned documents examination lies on gross
features in the signatures, while the letter makes an exhaustive
study of the minute details.

Step 1 – Place the questioned and the standard signatures in the

juxta-position or side by side for simultaneous viewing of the
various elements and characteristics.

Step 2 – The first element to be considered is the handwriting

movement or the manner of execution (slow, deliberate, rapid, etc).
The fundamental difference existing between a genuine signature and
an almost perfect forgery is in the manner of execution.

Step 3 – Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the

presence or tremors, smooth, fluent or hesitation. Defect in line
quality is only appreciated when simultaneous viewing is made.

Step 4 - Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very
significant, determine whether the appearance blunt, club-shaped,
tapered or vanishing.

Step 5 – Design and structure of the letters – Determine as to

roundness, smoothness, angularity and direction. Each individual has
a different concept of letter design.

Step 6 – Look for the presence of retouching or patching.

Step 7 – Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.

Step 8 – Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the

capital letters, for these are the often changed according to the
notion of the writer.

Indication of Genuineness:

31
 a. Carelessness
b. Spontaneity
c. alteration of thick and thin strokes.
d. Speed
e. Simplification
f. Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
g. The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing.
h. Rhythm
i. Good line quality
j. Variation

Three Classes of Forged Signature:

1. Simulated Signature – the free hand drawing in imitation of model

signature.

a. Simulated with the model before the forger – he makes an

effort to obtain a reproduction of the model signature. He works
slowly, stroke after stroke.
a.1. Direct technique – forger works directly with ink.
a.2. Indirect technique – forger work first with special
pencil and afterwards covers the pencil strokes with ink.

b. Simulated free hand forgery – used by forgers who have a

certain skill in writing. After some practice, the forger tries to
write a copy of the model quickly.

2. Traced Signature – a tracing of a genuine signature outline.

a. Direct tracing – copy is made by transmitted light.
b. Indirect tracing – forger used a carbon paper and place
document on which he will trace the forged signatures under the
document bearing the model signature with carbon between the two.

Types of Traced Signatures:

a. Carbon Process – The forger places the document to be

forged on the bottom, inter-leave a piece of carbon and places on
top a document containing the genuine signature. The forger then
traces over the genuine signature with pencil, pen stylus, or other
sharp pointed instrument.

The pressure of this over tracing against the carbon paper

imprints the signature outline in carbon on the top bottom document.
This type could be easily detected by the smattering of carbon
remnants on the forged document.
b. Indention Process - The document containing the model
signature is placed on top of the forged document. The forger traces
with considerable pressure, over the genuine signature using a
pencil, pen stylus, or similar instrument and creates an indented
signature outline on the document being forged. Later this
depression outline is overwritten using pencil or fountain pen.

c. Transmitted Light Process – The document to be forged is

place on top of the document containing the genuine signature. The
two documents are superimposed over a trace a signature outline,
with pencil or fountain pen following the design of the genuine set
in bold relief by the light in back of it.

3. Simple Forgery – forger does not try to copy a model but writes
with something resembling we ordinarily call a signature. For this
he uses a false name and makes a rapid stroke, disturbing his usual
writing by adopting a camouflage called disguise.

32
Indication of Forgery – Simulated and Traced:

1. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters,

indicating points at which the writer has temporarily struck.
2. No rhythm
3. Carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
4. No contrast between upward and downward strokes
5. Slow writing – angular writing
6. Blunt beginning and ending
7. Placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of
letters
8. Absence of spontaneity – lack of smoothness of letters
9. Restrained writing – there is a lack of freedom or
“inhibited’ movements. It gives the impression that every stroke is
made with great difficulty. This writing is small.
10. No variation

WRITING MATERIALS (PAPER) IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

One of the subjects of inquiry in questioned documents is the

writing material used. The common (probable) questioned on paper is
the AGE, whether the actual age of the paper corresponds with the
alleged date of preparation of the questioned document.

To fully understand the principles of tracing the age of the

writing materials used in questioned documents, it is imperative for
a questioned documents examiner to be aware of the evolution and
development of papers. When such paper was first introduced or used,
physical changes on papers and the importance of water marks, are
some of the valuable things that an investigator should know to come
up with a more conclusive opinion.

Paper – sheet of interlaced fibers usually cellulose fibers from

plants, but sometimes from cloth rags or other fibrous materials.
That is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or mat, to
form a solid surface.

Writing Materials – the evolution of writing materials culminated in

the development of paper. The oldest written records still surviving
are the Sumerian clay tablets dating back from 4th millennium B.C.

Papyrus – came into use about 3,500 B.C., people of Egypt, Palestine,
Syria, and Southern Europe used the pith (soft Spongy tissue of the
stem) of the sedge (grass like herb) CYPERUS PAPYRUS to make a
writing known as PAPYRUS.

Parchment – writing material made from skin of animals primarily of

sheep, calves or goats – was probably developed in the Middle East
more or less contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into wide use
only in the 2nd century B.C. in the city of PERGAMUM, ANATOLIA.

Vellum – writing materials from fine skins of young calves or kids

and the term vellum was often used for all kind of parchment
manuscripts, it became the most important writing material for
bookmaking, while parchment continued for special manuscripts.

Almost every portable surface that would retain the marks of

brush or pen was also used as a writing material during the early
period.

Development of Paper Manufacturing:

33
Cailun (Tsai Lun) – it is widely claimed that invention of paper is
generally attributed to a Chinese court official, CAI LUN (TSAI LUN),
in about 105 A.D.
- the first to succeed in making paper from vegetable fibers –
tree barks, rags, old fish nettings.
- the art of paper making was kept secret for 500 years; the
Japanese acquired it only in the 7th century A.D.
- in 751 A.D. the Arab city of Samarkand was attacked by
marauding Chinese and some Chinese taken as prisoners were skilled
in papermaking and were forced by the city Governor to build and
operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon became the papermaking
center of the Arab world.
- knowledge of papermaking traveled westward, spreading
throughout the Middle East, the Moorish invasion of Spain led to the
invention (1150 A.D.) or erection of the first European paper mill
at JATIVA, VALENCIA.
- knowledge of the technology spread quickly and by 16th
century, paper was manufactured throughout most of Europe.

Chlorine – was introduced in 19th century for bleaching and colored

linen could already manufacture for paper.

Esparto – a grass grown in Libya, also in Spain and North Africa was
first introduced in England in 1861.

Straw – was used to make paper in 1800.

Sulphite – paper from wood was not attempted until 1869 and paper
called SULPHITE (modern type) was first used between 1880 and 1890.

Oldest Manuscript – letters dated 874 A.D. have been found in Egypt
and the oldest manuscript in England on cotton paper dated 1890 A.D.

Tracing the Age of Paper (Document):

The age of the document may be estimated from paper. Four

cases were reported by Lucas in which the age of the document was
established from the compositor/composition of the paper.

In one of these cases, a document dated 1798 A.D. was found to

be written in paper composed entirely of chemically prepared wood
cellulose. Considering that this type of paper was not introduced
not until about 60 years later, the document is obviously a fake one.

Watermarks:

Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of the document by

means of watermark, the earliest known dating from 1282.
unfortunately, however, not all papers contain watermarks.

The earliest way of identifying the date of manufacture of the

paper is by the WATERMARK – a brand put on the paper by the
manufacturers.
It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers called
DANDY ROLL that make the paper, and these designs are changed from
time to time. Usually watermarks are requested by their
owners/manufacturers with the patent office.

If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of

tracing the age of the paper. However, the questioned documents
examiner’s finding is limited only to the APPROXIMATE DATE (YEAR) of
the paper manufacture.

34
 In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is
necessary to ascertain the owner of the watermark in question or its
manufacturer.

In the FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the

laboratory. Once the manufacturer is determined, then consideration
is given to changes in design and defects of individual design.

In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly

incorporated inconspicuous changes in their watermark design in
order to date their products.

Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark which

was not in existence at the time the document purports to have been
executed.

In Case the Watermark of a Certain Paper Manufacturer did not

Changed, the Following is Applied:

In those cases where no change in the design has been made

over a long period of time, defects in the individual design may
furnish a clue as to the age of the paper.

The dandy roll through constant usage will somehow be damaged.

This damage is also known as caused by WERA and TEAR which become
progressively more and more as time goes by. The damage on the dandy
roll will leave some peculiar markings on the watermark of the paper
manufactured or all papers that will pass through the damaged dandy
roll.

The investigator carefully determined the distinct markings

caused by the dandy roll’s damaged surface will coordinate with the
paper manufacture regarding when such damage occurred on the dandy
roll used.

Discoloration:

One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the

observance of the changes in its physical characteristics
particularly DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolor after a
passage of time due to numerous environmental factors such as
moisture, temperature, dust etc.

Causes of Discoloration:

Discoloration is highly influenced by storage of the papers or

documents and conditions like the following:
1. Due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means
2. Brown spots due to molds that are very characteristics both in
appearance and distribution
3. Exposure to dust and dirt
4. Occasional staining of fruit juice, grease
5. Excrete of rats, mice and other insects
6. May also due to heat, partial burning, etc.
 Wood Pulp – papers out of wood pulp may start to discolor at
edges from 2 to 3 years
 Rug-ship Quality – may be very old before discoloration starts.

WRITING INSTRUMENT (PEN)

35
 A tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as
ink. The rise and spread of Christianity increased the demand for
permanent written religious documents. Pen came from the Latin word
“PENNA” meaning feather.

Quill Pens
It is a hollow, horny part of large feather usually from goose
and was used for writing on parchment. Poland, Germany, Russia, and
the Netherlands were the largest producers of quill.

As the size of writing became smaller, both writing tools and

surfaces changed. Vellum or parchment books replaced the papyrus
roll, and the QUILL replaced the REED PEN.

Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feathers
of any bird, those of goose, swan, crow and later turkey, were
preferred. The earliest reference (6th century A.D.) to quill pens
was made by the Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, and this
tool was the principal writing implement for nearly 1300 years.

To make a quill pen, a wing feather is first hardened by

heating or letting it dry out gradually. The hardened quill is then
cut to a broad edge with a special pen knife.

The writer had to recut the quill pen frequently to maintain

its edge. By the 18th century, the width of the edge had diminished
and the length of the slit had increased creating a flexible point
that produced thick and thin strokes by pressure on the point rather
than by the angle at which the broad edge was held.

Also by the 18th century, paper had replaced vellum as the

chief writing surface and more writing was being done for commerce
than for church or crown. During this period, attempts were made to
invent a lasting writing tool that did not require recutting. Horn,
tortoise shell, and gemstones were tried, but steel was eventually
used for permanent pen points.

Although pens of bronze may have been known to Romans, the

earliest mention of “BRAZEN PENS” was in 1465. The 16th century
Spanish calligrapher JUAN DE YCIAR mentions brass pens for very
large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the use of metal pens
did not become widespread until the early part of the 19th century.

The first patented steel pen point was made by the English
engineer BRYAN DONKIN in 1803. The leading 19th century English pen
manufacturers were WILLIAM JOSEPH GILLOT, WILLIAM MITCHELL, and
JAMES STEPHEN PERRY.

Use of the quill rapidly declined during that century,

especially after the introduction of the free public education for
children; more emphasis was then placed on the teaching of writing
than on teaching the skill of quill cutting.

In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York insurance agent, patented

the first practical FOUNTAIN PEN containing its own ink reservoir.
Waterman invented a mechanism that fed ink to the pen point by
capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly while writing.

By the 1920’s the fountain pen was the chief writing

instrument in the west and remained so until the introduction of the
ball point pen after WORLD WAR II.

36
Reed Pen/ Swamp Pen
It came from especially selected water grasses found in Egypt,
Armenia and along the shores of the Persian Gulf, were prepared by
leaving them under dung heaps for several months.

It was the first writing tool that had, the writing end
slightly worn like a brush. About 2,000 years B.C., this reed pen
was first used in NEAR EAST on papyrus and later on parchment.

The Ball Point Pen

JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ball point writing tool.
A ball point pen has in its point a small rotating metal ball that
continually inks itself as it turns.
The ball is set into a tiny socket. In the center of the
socket is a hole that feeds ink to the socket from a long tube
(reservoir) inside the pen.

As early as the 19th century, attempts had been made to

manufacture a pen with a rolling ball tip, but not until 1938 did
Hungarian inventor GEORGE LAZLO BIRO invent a viscous, oil-based ink
that could be used with such a pen.

Early ball point pens did not write well; they tended to skip,
and the slow-drying oil-based ink smudged easily. However, the ball
point pen had several advantages over the fountain pen:
a. The ink was waterproof and almost inerasable;
b. The ball point pen could write on many kinds of surfaces
and could be hold in almost any position for writing; and
c. The pressure required to feed the ink was ideal for making
carbon copies.

Ink formulas were improved for smoother flow and faster drying,
and soon the ball point replaced the fountain pen as the universal
writing tool.

Fiber Tip Pens

In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced into the U.S.
market and have since challenged the ball point as the principal
writing implement.

The first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO HORIE
of Japan in 1962. it was ideally suited to the strokes of Japanese
writing, which is traditionally done with a pointed ink brush.

Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses dye as a

writing fluid. As a result, the fiber tip pen can produce a wide
range of colors unavailable in ball point and fountain pen inks. The
tip is made of fine nylon or other synthetic fibers drawn to a point
and fastened to the barrel of the pen. Dye is fed to the point by
elaborate capillary mechanism.

Felt-tip markers are made of dense natural or artificial

fibers impregnated with a dye. These markers can be cut to a variety
of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width. A modification of
the ball point pen using a liquid dye fed to a metal/plastic ball
was introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.

The Examination and Identification of Inks:

The examination of inks often plays an important part in

document examination. In this case the inks to be examined are not
available in liquid form. One kind of examination centers on the

37
question as to whether the ink of some writings or of alterations in
a police blotter is identical with the ink found in the possession
of the suspect.

For this reason, the examination of questioned documents is

restricted to a comparative examination of certain properties of
these inks. However, the examination carries with it certain
difficulties as the quantity of material available for examination
is small and the examination can be done only one.

It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is

attempted, which results in a partial destruction of writing, an
exhaustive examination by non-destructive methods be carried out.

These non-destruction methods include visual examination with

the aid of a binocular microscope as well as photographic
examination. They should be used first before any chemical
examination is resorted to.

It is necessary therefore to be acquainted with the

composition and developmental history, method of manufacture of the
types of ink most commonly used. Sometimes, antedating can only be
proved by identifying a competent of the ink, which was not yet
included in inks at the alleged date of the document.

Composition and Characteristics of Inks:

1. Indian Inks
The oldest form of Indian ink consisted of a suspension of
carbon black (soot or lampblack) in water to which glue or a
vegetable gum was added. Inks of this composition are still on the
market mostly in the shape of sticks or cakes. In modern carbon ink,
the glue or gum is replaced by a solution of shellac in borax or
ammonia. These inks are not affected by oxidants. It is practically
impossible to remove the last traces of the carbon from the paper
without causing damage to it.

2. Log Wood Inks

These inks which were used extensively about a century ago,
have now because obsolete and are no longer manufactured. They were
made from an aqueous extract of logwood chips and potassium chromate.
These inks will be found only on old.

3. Iron Gallotanate Inks

This ink has been used as writing for over a thousand years.
Formerly it was made of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which
iron salts were added. The ink was composed of suspension of the
black, almost insoluble ferric tannate.

The particles were kept in suspension by adding glue or gum

Arabic. This manufacturing method was not economical and so it had
to be changed. It was observe that if the ink was slightly acidified
with hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid, the oxidation of the
ferrous iron was checked and the undesirable precipitation of the
ferric tannate was prevented. The ink thus obtained was practically
colorless and did not acquire the black color desired before it
matured on paper. Coloring matter (Aniline dyes) was added to the
ink as well as a sterilizing agent to prevent growth of mold and
bacteria in the ink.

4. Fountain Pen Inks

38
 These inks are regarded as special fountain pen inks, and
consisting of ordinary iron gallotannate inks with a lower iron
content in most cases but with a higher dyestuff content than normal
inks. This type of ink is placed on the market under the name of
“blue-black permanent”. The iron content range from .7 Fe/I (e.g.
Parker Quink Permanent Blue) to 2.7 Fe/ I (e.g. Pelikan
Fullhaltertinte).

5. Dyestuff Inks
These inks are composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic
dyestuffs, to which a preservative and a flux are added. The writing
qualities of the ink are improved by addition of substances such as
glycerol, glucose or dextrin.

The dark blue and black inks are often composed of four or
more dyes because no black dyestuff of sufficient tinctorial
capacity is known.
6. Water Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks
These inks are special group of dyestuff inks. They consist of
a pigment paste and a solution of shellac made soluble in water by
means of borax, liquid ammonia or ammonium bicarbonate. Sometimes
the pigment suspension is combined with acid or basic dyestuff.

7. Alkaline Writing Inks

These are quick drying inks which possesses a ph of from 9 to
about 11. They penetrate quickly through the size of the paper
allowing the ink to penetrate quickly into the paper. The dyestuff
in these inks consists of acid dyes, sometimes combined with phthalc
cyanide dyes.

These inks are not much in demand because they are rather
expensive and because the material of many fountain pens is affected
by them. The best known of these inks are the Parker super chrome
inks which in the colors black, blue-black, blue, red and green.
Phthalocyanine dye is found in the blue super chrome inks. The super
chrome inks were already obtainable since 1950, which fact maybe of
importance for the determination of the age of a document.

8. Ballpoint Pen Inks

The ballpoint pens did not appear on the European market
before 1945. The development of the present pen was accomplished
during World War II because the army and the Air Force needed a
writing instrument which would not leak at high altitude and which
supplied quick drying water resistant writing.

In principle, the construction of all ballpoint pens is the

same. The differences are in the finish, the precision with which
the instrument is made, the size and the material of the ball, and
the composition of the ink. As a rule, the diameter of the ball lays
between 0.6 and 1.0 mm. the cheapest makes having the largest
diameter. The ball is made of steel while the more expensive makes
of sapphire.

The quality of the pen is chiefly to be judged by the writing

angle. The best writing angle for the ballpoint pen is 90 degrees,
but a normal hand of writing seldom uses this angle. The cheaper
makes have a minimum writing angle of 55-60 degrees. If one writes
at too small an angle, the brass socket holding the ball will
scratch a lined into the paper, parallel with the ink line.

9. Stamp Pad Inks

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 They are made with the acid of substances such as glycerol,
glycol, acetin or benzyl alcohol and water. Airline dyes are added
as coloring matter. For quick drying stamp pad inks, more volatile
organic solvents are used as acetone, ethanol, etc. As a vehicle,
dextrin, gum Arabic, or tennin is sometimes added. Through the
addition of tannin, the stamp impression becomes water resistant
after drying.

10. Hectograph Inks

These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks and are
exclusively made with basic dyes. To the dyestuff solution several
other substances are added such as glycerol, acetic acid and acetone.

11. Typewriter Ribbon Inks

These inks are usually composed of a blend of aniline dyes,
carbon black and oil such as olein or castor oil. The two-tone
ribbons however contain no dyes, but pigments suspended in a oil
base. This is necessary because aniline dyes tend to bleed and would
cause the sharp division between the differently colored halves of
the ribbon to merge.

12. Printing Inks

Printing inks often consist of a mixture of colored pigments,
carbon black and a “base” which may consist of oil, resins,
synthetic resins or a mixture of these. It is possible to remove
printing ink from a document by scrubbing the document with an
aqueous solution of a suitable detergent. The rubbing and breaking
up of the surface of the ink and the detergent facilitates the
suspension and eventual removal of the carbon and other ingredients
by the water.

13. Canceling Inks

These inks often contain carbon and this fact should be burned
in mind when it is required to decipher faint cancellation marks on
a postage stamp and wrappers. Carbon is opaque to infra-red
sensitive plate and be relied upon to improve the legibility of any
marking affected by a carbon containing canceling ink.
Erasure of canceling ink on valuable stamps is usually
affected by attack on the medium which bind the carbon to the
surface of the stamp and it is to be regretted that many canceling
inks are manufactured width media which offer resistance to attack
so that the resistant carbon can simply be swabbed off. This can be
usually be detected by infra-red photography which will reveal the
traces of carbon, which almost invariability remain on the stamp.

14. Skrip Inks

Skrip inks are manufactured by W.A. Chaffer Pen Company since
1955. The inks contain a substance which is colorless in visible
light and has a strong affinity for the fibers of the paper, and yet
is not bleached by hypoclorite ink eradicators or washed out by
soaking on water.

Thus if a writing with “Skrip” is obliterated with ink

eradicator, the original will produce a characteristics fluorescence
and can be deciphered by reviewing under filtered ultra-violet.
Similarly if writing made with was able skrip is soaked in water so
the invisible dye is washed out, the original record can be read
clearly by filtered ultra-violet light.

The Chemical Examination of Inks:

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 The chemical examination of ink is indicated in the following
problems:
1. The chromatographic examination and separation of the dyestuff in
the ink.
2. The determination of the age of the ink.

TYPEWRITER/TYPEWRITING EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION

Typewriter Defined:

A machine that can reproduce printed characters on papers or

that can produce printed letters and figures on paper.

Evolution of Typewriters:

Several typewriters like machines were develop during the

latter part of the 17th century. The first patent, however, was
granted by QUEEN ANNE of England to HENRY MILL in 1714 for a machine
designed to reproduce a letter of the alphabet.

Within the next 100 years, however, at least 50 attempts were

made by various inventors to develop a typing machine. In 1829,
WILLIAM AUSTIN BURT of Detroit, invented the TYPOGRAPHER.

The development of the first practical typewriter begun in

1866 by CHRISTOPHER LATHAM SHOLES and was patented in 1868. He
developed the first practical typewriter in cooperation with two
fellow mechanics, CARLOS GLIDEN and SAMUEL SOULE.

Six years later, Christopher Latham Sholes entered an

agreement with ELIPHALET REMINGTON and SONS, GUNSMITH and SEWING
MACHINES MANUFACTURERS, the company produced the REMINGTON MODEL I.
Four years later, REMINGTON MODEL II was introduced having
both the lower and upper case of the alphabet. MARK TWAIN was among
the first to buy a typewriter and the first to submit a typewritten
manuscript to a publisher.

GEORGE BERNARD SHAW recognized the importance of typewriter

when he became the first writer to use it as a stage prop in Canada
in 1897. When THOMAS EDISON visited Sholes to see his machine, he
forecasted that typewriters would one day be operated by electricity.
Soon afterwards, Edison built such typewriter. He used a
series of magnet, which made the machine large and too expensive to
be marketed.

The first practical typewriter was invented in 1914 by JAMES F.

SMATHERS of Kansas City. In 1933, the International Business
Machines Inc. (IBM), introduced the first commercially successful
electric typewriter to the business world.

The latest development in electric typewriter is one which not

only eliminates type bars and movable carriages but can use six
interchangeable type of typefaces.

The first basic change in typewriting operation appeared in

1961. Despite of the revolutionary advances in typewriting
capabilities, one essential element has remained unchanged since the
first Remington. The keyboard arrangement, nicknamed QWERTY for the
top line of letters was designed to make it easier for salesmen to
use the machine.

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 A much more efficient arrangement was devised in 1936 by
AUGUST DVORAK. The process of changing over the DVORAK seemed so
difficult that it was never even begun.

Identification and Examination of Typewritten Questioned Documents:

The earliest comment in writing by a document examiner on

typewriting identification was made by HAGAN in 1894. He wrote that
all typewriter machines even when using the same kind of type become
more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them. These
peculiarities positively connect them with the printing done by the
machine.

This exposition of the principles of typewriting

identification was followed in 1900 by AMES who wrote that the
identity of writing by different operators as well as that done on
different machines can be done with considerable degree of certainty.

Different operators have their own peculiar methods which

differ widely in the location of date, address, margins, punctuation,
spacing, signing as well as impressions from touch.

In several articles written between 1901 to 1907, ALBERT S.

OSBORNE, the foremost document examiner of the early 20th century,
define the principles of typewriting identification used today. He
called it THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION.

Typewriting Identification:

The typewriter has become an instrument of world wide

importance in the correspondence and commerce of the world and
therefore could be an effective screen for commuting crime.

In several articles written between 1901 and 1907, Albert S.

Osborne, the foremost document examiner of the early 20th century,
defined the principles points enunciated by Osborne are as follows:

a. The typefaces used by the different typewriter manufacturer

can be differentiated on the basis of design and have dating
significance.
b. Through usage, typewriters develop individuality which can
serve to identify the typewriting of a particular typewriter.
c. The gradual development of typewriting individuality plus
ribbon condition and typeface. Cleanliness can be used to date a
document of fix it written a period of time.
d. Horizontal and vertical alignment, tilting characters, lack
of uniformity of impression (off-footedness), typeface score, breads,
defects and deformities all serve to identify the typewriting of a
particular machine.
e. Peculiar habits of striking the typewriter keys,
spacing,arrangement,punctuation, mistakes, corrections, can be used
to identify a typist or differentiate typists.
f. A sheet of paper cannot be reinserted in a typewriter in
exact register with previous typing done on the sheet of paper.

Classification of Typewriters as to Typeface:

a. Pica Type – the typefaces are spaced ten characters to the

horizontal inch.
b. Elite Type – the typefaces are spaced twelve characters to the
horizontal.

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Identification of Typewriter by the Defects of the Stroke:

The identification of a typewriter consist first of the

preliminary examination of the questioned document in which the
general characteristics such as the style, the dimension of the
characters, the spacing and the design of the letters. This
important phase of work enables document examiner to eliminate
numerous suspect typewriters keeping only those of the same make and
model as that of the suspected typewriters provided however they are
equipped with the same characters.
The defects of the typewriter maybe compared to ailment or
sickness and congenital deformation while its translation on the
paper be compared to symptoms of the defects. This comparison has
the advantage of sorting out the exact conditions of the control of
questioned typewritten documents as follows:
a. First, it will show the actual state of the typewriter and
consequently that the aspect of the stroke is not immutable but
evolves progressively so that a good identification needs the
comparison of documents from sufficiently adjacent period.
b. It show that the expert do not see the defect of the
typewriter right away but only its translation on the paper by a
writing anomaly of which he must appreciate the cause. Like in
medicine, a given symptom maybe common to several ailments and
inversely the same ailments maybe accompanied at certain movements
by different symptoms.
c. Lastly, it will explain that certain anomalies are not even
ascribable to an organic cause of the typewriter but to a phenomenon
outside it. For example, an error of manipulation by the typist may
give some anomalies of the stroke and have no connection with the
mechanism of the typewriter itself. Others are due to a temporary
sickness such as a torn ribbon which will give an incomplete
impression of the character or dust which may choke the mechanism of
the stroke. It is only the permanent faults which permit of a
positive identification.

Terminologies in Typewriting Examinations:

Alignment Defect – Include character which writes improperly in the

following respects: a twisted letter, horizontal mal-alignment,
vertical mal-alignment and a character special adjustment to the
type block.

Carbon Impression – Any typewriting which is placed on the paper by

action of the typefaces striking through carbon paper is classed as
a carbon impression. Generally, carbon impression is “Carbon Copies”
but sometimes original typewritings are made directly through a
carbon paper copy.

Character - In connection with typewriting identification the terms

“Character” is used to include either letters, symbols, numerals or
point of punctuation.

Clogged (Dirty) Typefaces – With use the typefaces becomes filled

with lint, dirty and ink, particularly in enclosed letters such as
the o, e, p, and g. In this condition is allowed to progress without
cleaning, there comes a time when the written impression actually
print with the clogged areas shaded on a solid block.

Defects – The term defect describes any abnormality or mal-

adjustment in a typewriter which is reflected in its works and which
leads to its individualization or identification.

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Horizontal Mal-adjustment – An alignment defect in which the
character prints to the right or left of its proper position.

Mal-alignment – Is synonymous with the term “Alignment Defects”.

Off its Feet – The condition of a typeface printing heavier on one

side or corner than over the remainder of its outline.

Permanent Defect – Any identifying characteristics of a typewriter

which cannot be corrected by simply cleaning the typeface or
replacing the ribbon is classed permanent defect. Actually, this
term is not absolutely accurate since all defects in typewriters
undergo modification and change in time.

Platen – The cylinder which serve as the backing of the paper and
which absorbs the blow from the typeface.

Proportional Spacing Typewriting – A modern form of typewriting

which resembles printing in that all of the horizontal space as they
do with the conventional typewriter, for example, the “i” occupies
two units, the “o” three and “m” five. A typewriter of this design
is known as a proportional spacing machine.

Rebound – A defect in which a character prints a double impression

with the lighter one slightly offset to the right or left.
Ribbon Condition – Typewriter ribbons gradually deteriorate with use
and the degree of determination is a measure of the ribbon condition.

Ribbon Impression – Typewriting which is made directly through a

cloth ribbon.

Transitory Defects – An identifying typewriter characteristic which

can be eliminated by cleaning.

Typeface – The printing surface of the type block is known as the

typeface, with most modern typewriter this block is attached at the
end of a movable arm or type bar which propels the typeface against
the ribbon and paper to make the typewriter impression.

Typeface Defects – Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual

damage to the typeface metal. These defects maybe actual breaks in
the outline of the letter where the metal has been chipped away
sometimes referred to as broken type, or they may be distorted
outlines of the letter where the typeface metal has become bent or
smashed, they can only be corrected by replacing the type block.

Twisted Letter – Each letter and character is designed to print a

certain fixed angle to the baseline, due to wear, and damage to the
type bars and the type block, some letters become twisted so that
they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.

Vertical Mal-alignment – A character printing above or below its

proper position has the quality of vertical mal-alignment.

Identification of Typewritten Documents:

As a preliminary step in the identification of typewriting, it

is necessary to establish that the style and size of the letters and
numerals are the same and that both the letter spacing and the line
spacing are the same.
In order to make a further study leading either towards an
identification or non-identification such instrument as magnifying

44
lenses, microscopes and various kinds of measuring devices are used.
These instruments make it possible to study the following:
a. Slant – A study is made of each character to determine to
what extent if any, it leans either to the right or to the left.
b. Alignment – If a typewriter is in proper alignment each
character should strike in the center of an imaginary rectangle.
c. Footing – A letter may strike heavier either on the right,
on the left, on the top, or on the bottom.
d. Defects in the Typefaces – These may be brought about
either through mistreatment or as a result of ordinary wear and tear.

When Questioned Typewriting is Compared With Known Typewritten

Exemplars, 3 General Areas of Examination are Made:

1. Size and spacing (vertical and horizontal)

2. Type style
3. Unique identifying characteristics – character and
alignment defects

Nine Points That Maybe Involve in Questioned Typewriting:

1. That of ascertaining the exact date of such typewriting.

2. Whether every line of the document was written at one time.
3. Whether the various lines of the document were written at
different time by the same machine.
4. Whether the document was written at different times by several
machine.
5. Whether spurious, typewritten pages have been substituted or
inserted in the document.
6. Whether interlineations have been added to the original document.
7. Whether additional words of sentences have been written at the
end of the paragraph.
8. Whether the entire document was written by one machine.
9. Whether the document was written by a particular suspected
typewriter.

Principal Typewriting Question That Maybe resolved in Typewriting

Examination:

1. To determine whether an evidence typewriting was accomplished on

a suspected typewriter.
2. To determine whether an evidential typewriting prepared as a
known typewriter was actually typewritten on its purported date.
3. To determine whether all of typewriting was prepared by a
suspected typist.
4. To determine the make or brand of the typewriter on which a
questioned typewriting was prepared.

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