Liberalism

Liberalism – “liber”, means free. It is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of
the governed, and equality before the law. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on
their understanding of these principles, but they generally support limited government, individual
rights (including civil rights and human rights), capitalism (free markets), democracy, secularism,
gender equality, racial equality, internationalism, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and
freedom of religion. Yellow is the political color most commonly associated with liberalism.
• is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the governed and equality before
the law.
• aims to disperse power, to foster diversity and to nurture creativity. They can further be divided
based on their adherence to social liberalism or classical liberalism, although all liberal parties and
individuals share basic similarities, including the support for civil rights and democratic institutions.
• sought to replace the norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy, the divine
right of kings and traditional conservatism with representative democracy and the rule of law.
• the belief in freedom, equality, democracy and human rights, is historically associated with thinkers
such as John Locke and Montesquieu.
• Liberalism – “liber”, means free. It is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of
the governed, and equality before the law. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on
their understanding of these principles, but they generally support limited government, individual
rights (including civil rights and human rights), capitalism (free markets), democracy, secularism,
gender equality, racial equality, internationalism, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and
freedom of religion. Yellow is the political color most commonly associated with liberalism.
Generally, liberals were more likely to be secular, single and in possession of a college degree while
less likely to own a gun. Conservatives, most of whom adhere to social as well as fiscal conservatism,
tended to be more religious and more likely to be married, employed and own firearms.
A core argument of liberalism is that concentrations of unaccountable violent power are the
fundamental threat to individual liberty and must be restrained. The primary means of restraining
power are institutions and norms at both domestic and international level.

Conservatism
• is a political and social philosophy promoting traditional social institutions in the context of culture
and civilization.
• is opposition to rapid changes, and supports keeping traditions in society. Gradualism is one form.
The first known use of the term in a political context was by François-René de Chateaubriand in
1818. The term is associated with right-wing politics. It has been used to describe a wide range of
views.
• Conservatives seek to preserve a range of institutions such as religion, parliamentary government,
and property rights, with the aim of emphasizing social stability and continuity. The more traditional
elements—reactionaries—oppose modernism and seek a return to "the way things were".
• is opposition to rapid changes, and supports keeping traditions in society. Gradualism is one form.
The first known use of the term in a political context was by François-René de Chateaubriand in
1818.
• The central tenets of conservatism include tradition, organic society, hierarchy, authority, and
property rights.

FASCISM
• Fascism (/ˈfæʃɪzəm/) is a form of far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by dictatorial
power, forcible suppression of opposition, as well as strong regimentation of society and of the
economy which came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe
• Roger Eatwell defines fascism as "an ideology that strives to forge social rebirth based on a holistic-
national radical Third Way"
• Walter Laqueur sees the core tenets of fascism as "self-evident: nationalism; Social Darwinism;
racialism, the need for leadership, a new aristocracy, and obedience.
• a governmental system led by a dictator having complete power, forcibly suppressing opposition
and criticism, regimenting all industry, commerce, etc., and emphasizing an aggressive nationalism
and often racism.
• According to Mussolini's own account, the Fascist Revolutionary Party (Partito Fascista
Rivoluzionario or PFR) was founded in Italy in 1915. In 1919, Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di
Combattimento in Milan, which became the Partito Nazionale Fascista (National Fascist Party) two
years later.
• Fascists believe that liberal democracy is obsolete and regard the complete mobilization of society
under a totalitarian one-party state as necessary to prepare a nation for armed conflict and to
respond effectively to economic difficulties.
• Fascism stands for a centralized government headed by a charismatic leader in which the
governments’ purpose is to serve the interests of the people. Historically, fascist governments tend
to be autocratic and militaristic.
Fascists believe that liberal democracy is obsolete and regard the complete mobilization of society
under a totalitarian one-party state as necessary to prepare a nation for armed conflict and to
respond effectively to economic difficulties. Such a state is led by a strong leader – such as a dictator
and a martial government composed of the members of the governing fascist party – to forge
national unity and maintain a stable and orderly society.

ANARCHISM
• it came from the ancient Greek word anarkhia, meaning “without a ruler”, composed of the prefix
a (i.e. without) and the word arkhos (leader or ruler); the word “ism” denotes the ideological current
that favors anarchy. It is an anti-authoritarian political and social philosophy that rejects hierarchies
deemed unjust and advocates their replacement with self-managed, self-governed societies based
on voluntary, cooperative institutions.
• These institutions are often described as stateless societies, although there are other authors have
defined them more specifically as distinct institutions based on non-hierarchical or free. It is usually
placed on the far-left of the political spectrum.
• is a political belief that there should be no hierarchies like the government.
• Anarchists also believe that people's actions should never be forced by other people. However,
anarchists usually do not want this. Rather, they define "anarchy" as a way of relations between
people.
• is a political philosophy and movement that rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of hierarchy. It
radically calls for the abolition of the state which it holds to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful.
• The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century—William Godwin espoused
philosophical anarchism in England, morally delegitimizing the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved
the way to individualism, and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in
France.
Nature of anarchism
Supports.
• Autonomy.
• Civil libertarianism.
• Common ownership.
• Cooperation.
• Decentrally planned economy or market socialism.
• Direct action.
• Mutual aid.
• Voluntary association. ...
Rejects.
• Authoritarianism.
• Capitalism.
• Censorship.
• Centrally planned economy.
• Coercion.
• Hierarchy.
• Imperialism.
• Paternalism.

Socialism
• refers to any system in which the production and distribution of goods and services is a shared
responsibility of a group of people.
• is based upon economic and political theories that advocate for collectivism.
• In a state of socialism, there is no privately owned property.
• is a political, social, and economic philosophy encompassing a range of economic and social
systems characterized by social ownership of the means of production and workers' self-
management of enterprises. ... Social ownership can be public, collective, cooperative or of equity.
• It includes the political theories and movements associated with such systems.
• is an economic and political system. It is an economic theory of social organization. It believes that
the means of making, moving, and trading wealth should be owned or controlled by the workers.
People who agree with this type of system are called socialists.
Socialism – for Andrew Vincent, the word socialism finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means
to combine or share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas.
This latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a
consensual contract between freemen.
o The term “socialism” was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would
later be labelled “utopian socialism”. Simon coined the term as a contrast to the liberal doctrine of
“individualism,” which stressed that people act or should act as if they are in the isolation from one
another.
o A range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of
production and workers’ self-management, as well as the political theories and movements
associated with them. Social ownership can be public, collective or cooperative ownership, or a
citizenship ownership of equity.
Some of the principles of socialism include:
• Public Ownership. This is the core tenet of socialism. ...
• Economic Planning. Unlike in a capitalist economy, a socialist economy is not driven by the
laws of supply and demand. ...
• Egalitarian Society. ...
• Provision of Basic Needs. ...
• No Competition. ...
• Price Control. ...
• Social Welfare. ...
• Social Justice.

Nationalism
– is an ideology and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation (as in a group
of people), especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation’s sovereignty (self-
governance) over its homeland.
o Nationalism holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-
determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity, and that the nation is the only
rightful source of political power (popular sovereignty). It further aims to build and maintain a single
national identity – based on shared social characteristics such as culture, language, religion, politics
and belief in a shared singular history and to promote national unity or solidarity.
➢ is an ideology and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation (as in a group
of people) especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation's sovereignty (self-
governance) over its homeland
 ➢ holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination),
that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity, and that the nation is the only rightful
source of political power (popular sovereignty).

According to Michael Freeden, the FIVE ELEMENTS which constitute the core structure of
nationalism are:

1. ‘the prioritization of a particular group – the nation – as a key constituting and identifying
framework for human beings and their practices’
2. ‘a positive valorization is assigned to one’s own nation, granting it specific claims over the
conduct of its members’
3. ‘the desire to give politico-institutional expression to the first two core concepts’
4. ‘space and time are considered to be crucial determinants of social identity’
5. ‘a sense of belonging and membership in which sentiment and emotion play an important
role’

FUNDAMENTALISM
is defined essentially as a political ideology oriented against the secular national state and
pursuing the creation of a theocratic system in the framework of a clash between civilizations
defined in religious terms and characterized by an anti‐western stance.
usually has a religious connotation that includes unwavering attachment to a set of
irreducible beliefs.
has come to be applied to a tendency among certain groups – mainly, although not
exclusively, in religion – that is characterized by a markedly strict literalism as it is applied to
certain specific scriptures, dogmas or ideologies and a strong sense of the importance of
maintaining in group and outgroup distinctions.
often capitalized:
1. a movement in 20th century Protestantism emphasizing the literally interpreted Bible
as fundamental to Christian life and teaching.
2. the beliefs of this movement.
3. adherence to such beliefs a minister noted for his strict fundamentalism.

"Fundamentalist" has been used pejoratively to refer to philosophies perceived as literal-

minded or carrying a pretense of being the sole source of objective truth, regardless of
whether it is usually called a religion.
Fundamentalism – usually has a religious connotation that includes unwavering attachment
to a set of irreducible beliefs. However, fundamentalism has come to be applied to a
tendency among certain groups –mainly, although not exclusively, in religion – that is
 characterized by a markedly strict literalism as it is applied to certain specific scriptures,
dogmas or ideologies and a strong sense of the importance of maintaining in group and
outgroup distinctions.

MULTICULTURALISM
o as a political philosophy involves ideologies and policies which vary widely. It has been
described as a salad bowl and as a cultural mosaic, in contrast to a melting pot.
o can be defined as a state's capacity to effectively and efficiently deal with cultural plurality
within its sovereign borders.
o In the political philosophy of multiculturalism, ideas are focused on the ways in which societies
are either believed to or should, respond to cultural and religious differences. It is often
associated with “identity politics”, “the politics of difference,” and the “politics of recognition.”
It is also a matter of economic interests and political power.
o As a philosophy, multiculturalism began as part of the pragmatism movement at the end of
the nineteenth century in Europe and the United States, then as political and cultural pluralism
at the turn of the twentieth.
o Multiculturalism – as a political philosophy involves ideologies and policies which vary widely.
It has been described as a salad bowl and as a cultural mosaic, in contrast to a melting pot.
In the political philosophy of multiculturalism, ideas are focused on the ways in which societies
are either believed to or should, respond to cultural and religious differences. It is often
associated with “identity politics”, “the politics of difference,” and the “politics of recognition.”
It is also a matter ofeconomic interests and political power.

IMPORTANCE OF MULTICULTURALISM
➢ It is important because it dilutes and dissipates the divisiveness of ignorance.
➢ It is important because it encourages dialogue, often between radically different cultures that
have radically different perspectives.

FEMINISM
– Charles Fourier, a utopian socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined
the word “feminisme” in 1837.
❖ The words “feminisme” and “feministe” first appeared in France and the Netherlands in
1872, Great Britain in the 1890s, and the United States in 1910.
❖ Feminism is a range of social movements, political movements, and ideologies that share a
common goal: to define, establish, and achieve the political, economic, personal, and social
equality of the sexes.
 ❖ Feminism incorporates the position that societies prioritize the male point of view, and that
women are treated unfairly within those societies.
❖ Efforts to change that include fighting gender stereotypes and seeking to establish
educational and professional opportunities for women that are equal to those for men.
❖ the belief in social, economic, and political equality of the sexes.
❖ Is manifested worldwide and is represented by various institutions committed to activity on
behalf of women's rights and interests.
❖ can be used to describe a political, cultural or economic movement aimed at establishing
equal rights and legal protection for women
a. First-wave feminism of the 19th and early 20th centuries focused on overturning
legal inequalities, particularly addressing issues of women's suffrage.
b. Second-wave feminism (1960s–1980s) broadened debate to include cultural
inequalities, gender norms, and the role of women in society.
❖ The main ideas of feminism are based on gender equality. These include things such as
reducing the gender pay gap, prosecuting rape and sexual assault, promoting equal rights
for transgender people, and many more things which promote the common good.

❖ The global idea of feminism refers to the belief that men and women deserve equality in all
opportunities, treatment, respect, and social rights.

FOUR TYPES OF FEMINISM

1. - radical feminism
2. socialist feminism
3. cultural feminism, and
4. liberal feminism.
*The concept of feminism was defined as the concern with gender equality and the
promotion of equal rights for men and woman, the expression of these concerns through theory or
action, and the valuing of individuals for their contributions to society rather than their biological or
sexual characteristics or roles.
Feminism – Charles Fourier, a utopian socialist and French philosopher, is credited with
having coined the word “feminisme” in 1837.
o The words “feminisme” and “feministe” first appeared in France and the Netherlands in
1872, Great Britain in the 1890s, and the United States in 1910.
o Feminism is a range of social movements, political movements, and ideologies that share
a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve the political, economic, personal, and social
equality of the sexes.
o Feminism incorporates the position that societies prioritize the male point of view, and that
women are treated unfairly within those societies.
o Efforts to change that include fighting gender stereotypes and seeking to establish
educational and professional opportunities for women that are equal to those for men.
ECOLOGISM
– aka Green politics, or eco politics, is a political ideology that aims to foster an ecologically
sustainable society rooted in environmentalism, nonviolence, social justice and grassroots
democracy.
o The political term “green” was used initially in relation to die Grunen (German for the
“greens”), a green party formed in the late 1970s.
 o Supporters of green politics share many ideas with the ecology, conservatism,
environmentalism, feminist and peace movements.
o Green party platforms are largely considered left in the political spectrum. The green
ideology has connections with various other ecocentric political ideologies, including
ecosocialism, ecoanarchism, and econofeminism.
o is a new political ideology based on the position that the non-human world is worthy of
moral consideration, and that this should be taken into account in social, economic,
and political systems.
o is a new political ideology based on the position that the non-human world is worthy of
moral consideration, and that this should be taken into account in social, economic,
and political systems.
o takes ideological thinking in novel and challenging directions. Its starting place is largely or
entirely ignored by other political ideologies: the idea of an intrinsic relationship between
humankind and nature (or non-human nature, to avoid confusion with the notion of 'human
nature').
o Ecologism – key concepts
➢ Ecology: As a distinct branch of biology, ecology focuses on the ways in which
plants and animals are sustained by self-regulating natural systems –
ecosystems – composed of both living and non-living elements. Ecology implies
both interconnectedness and equilibrium, as all ecosystems tend towards a
state of harmony through a system of self-regulation.
➢ Ecocentrism: An approach to understanding that prioritizes the maintenance of
ecological balance over the achievement of human ends. Only deep ecologists
fully embrace ecocentrism.
➢ Anthropocentrism: Human-centeredness; the belief that human needs and
interests are of overriding moral and philosophical importance.
Anthropocentrism is the opposite of eco-centrism.
➢ Shallow ecology: A green ideological perspective that harnesses the lessons of
ecology to human needs and ends, and is associated with values such as
sustainability and conservation; humanist ecology.
➢ Deep ecology: A green ideological perspective that rejects anthropocentrism
and gives priority to the maintenance of nature, and is associated with values
such as biocentric equality, diversity and decentralization.
➢ Holism: A belief that the whole is more important that its parts; holism implies
that understanding is gained by studying relationships between the parts.
➢ Industrialism: A term used by green theorists to refer to economic arrangements,
reflected in both capitalism and socialism, that favors large-scale production,
the accumulation of capital and relentless growth.
➢ Environmentalism: A concern about the natural environment and particularly the
desire to reduce environmental degradation; a policy orientation rather than an
ideological stance (unlike ecologism).
➢ Pastoralism: A belief in the virtues of rural existence: simplicity, community and
a closeness to nature, in contrast to the corrupting influence of urban and
industrialized life.
➢
Ecologism – aka Green politics, or eco politics, is a political ideology that aims to foster an
ecologically sustainable society rooted in environmentalism, nonviolence, social justice and
grassroots democracy.
o The political term “green” was used initially in relation to die Grunen (German for the “greens”), a
green party formed in the late 1970s.
o Supporters of green politics share many ideas with the ecology, conservatism, environmentalism,
feminist and peace movements. Green party platforms are largely considered left in the political
spectrum. The green ideology has connections with various other ecocentric political ideologies,
including ecosocialism, ecoanarchism, and econofeminism