Energy Geoscience 3 (2022) 300e313

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Energy Geoscience
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Geochemical, mineralogical, and petrological characteristics of the

Cretaceous coal from the middle Benue Trough Basin, Nigeria:
Implication for coal depositional environments
Segun A. Akinyemi a, b, *, James C. Hower c, d, Henry Y. Madukwe a, Bemgba B. Nyakuma e,
Mohammed B. Nasirudeen f, Timileyin A. Olanipekun g, Rabelani Mudzielwana h,
Mugera W. Gitari h, Luis F.O. Silva i
a
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ekiti State University, P.M.B 5363, Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
b
Energy, Environmental and Nanosciences Group, Department of Geology, Ekiti State University, P.M.B 5363, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
c
University of Kentucky, Centre for Applied Energy Research, 2540 Research, Park Drive, Lexington, KY, 40511, USA
d
Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40506, USA
e
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Benue State University, P. M. B. 102119, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria
f
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Federal University of Lafia, P. M. B. 146, Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
g
Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Albert Ludwigs Universita €t Freiburg, Albert Straße 23-B, 79104, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
h
Department of Ecology and Resources Management, University of Venda, Private Bag, X5050, Thohoyandou, 0950, Limpopo, South Africa
i
Department of Civil and Environmental, Universidad de la Costa, Calle 58 #55-66, 080002, Barranquilla, Atla ntico, Colombia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Benue Trough Basin (BTB) of Nigeria is geologically and geo-morphologically subdivided into upper,
Received 29 November 2021 middle, and lower segments. The BTB is the subject of geological research due to its rich coal deposits
Received in revised form that have the potential for oil and gas. The purpose of the present study is to examine the origins,
8 April 2022
depositional environments, and thermal history of the selected coals and the processes that influence
Accepted 21 April 2022
their quality. Coal samples from different open cast coal mines in the middle BTB were examined using
proximate and ultimate, x-ray diffraction (XRD), x-ray fluorescence (XRF), laser ablation induced coupled
Keywords:
plasma (LA-ICPMS), and petrographical analyses. The coal samples contained mainly quartz, kaolinite,
Coal
Maceral
and organic carbon. The XRD spectra peaks revealed the triclinic and monoclinic structure of kaolin. The
Trace elements SiO2/Al2O3 ratios confirmed the dominance of quartz and kaolinite. The Ni/Co versus V/Cr, Cu/Zn, and V/
Mineralogy Mo values in the studied coals suggest oxic depositional environments, whereas the V/(Ni þ V) and V/
Depositional environments (V þ Cr) values indicate oxic to suboxic conditions. The Ce/Ce* values are slightly below 1, which in-
dicates a suboxic depositional environment. Maceral texture is indicative of transformations from sub-
bituminous to high volatile C or B bituminous coal. The maceral components and mineral matter
(10%) of the studied coals imply deposition in the planar margin mire, and a river system of planar
margin mire environments, respectively. The high gelification index (GI) and tissue preservation index
(TPI) values indicate peat accumulation developed within a wet forest swamp. The ternary diagram of
the maceral component suggests deposition in a wet moor environment with intermittent moderate to
high flooding episodes. The studied coals are sub-hydrous vitrinite inferring hydrogen-poor and ther-
mally immature characteristics. The low V and Ni contents, low H/C and high O/C, indicate Type III
terrestrial organic matter with the potential to generate gaseous hydrocarbons. The investigated coals
were deposited by the river within telmatic, limnic, and limno-telmatic zones in the planar margin mire

Production and Hosting by Elsevier on behalf of KeAi

* Corresponding author. Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ekiti State University, P.M.B 5363, Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.
E-mail address: segun.akinyemi@eksu.edu.ng (S.A. Akinyemi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engeos.2022.04.004
2666-7592/© 2022 Sinopec Petroleum Exploration and Production Research Institute. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S.A. Akinyemi, J.C. Hower, H.Y. Madukwe et al.
depositional environments. Overall, the integrated petrologic and geochemical data used in this study
provides a reliable approach for the assessment of coal depositional environments.
© 2022 Sinopec Petroleum Exploration and Production Research Institute. Publishing services by Elsevier
B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
1. Introduction
Coal-fired power generation is a cost-effective source of the
electricity needs of many countries worldwide (World Coal
Association, 2017). In addition, considerable quantities of coal are
used as raw materials in metallurgical processes, cement industry,
gasification, industrial chemicals and high-value agrochemicals
production. Similarly, coal is rich in rare earth elements and yttrium
(REY) and base metals (Hower et al., 2015, 2016; Dai et al., 2015;
Akinyemi et al., 2021, 2022). Coal exploitation depends on its
chemical and physical properties, which shows that the identifi-
cation of the causes and distribution of such properties is essential
(Little, 2015; Keller et al., 2016; Dai and Finkelman, 2018).
Besides economic concerns, coal is an essential paleoenvir-
onmental, paleoclimatic, and geodynamic indicator due to its
intrinsic details and long-term records. Typically, these details are
interpreted through the study of its botanical, geochemical,
mineralogical, palynological, and petrological compositions. The
physical and chemical properties of coal and its behaviours during
preparation, combustion, and other forms of utilization are defined
by the depositional environment during peat formation and
transformation (Dai et al., 2020).
The peat depositional environment has an influence on the
concentrations of sulphur, arsenic, and mercury that can adversely
affect human health and the environment (Finkelman et al., 1999;
Dai et al., 2012a, 2012b). It also affects the potential of coal as an
alternative hydrocarbon source (Ayinla et al., 2017; Farhaduzzaman
et al., 2012); and its capacity for in-situ methane absorption (El Atfy
et al., 2014; Flores, 2014; Moore, 2012). The energy output of coal
during combustion, metallurgical processing and the problems
caused by mineral matter during coal combustion (abrasion,
stickiness, and corrosion) are also influenced by the depositional
environment (Clemens et al., 2000; Ward, 2016; Finkelman et al.,
2019). Therefore, the identification of the peat depositional envi-
ronments in coal is not only crucial for better understanding its
formation mechanisms but also for utilization in an environmen-
tally friendly manner based on economic and climatic perspectives.
The paleoenvironmental reconstruction of coal deposits in-
volves the understanding of the primary genetic characteristics of
the coal (Misz-Kennan and Fabian  ska, 2011; Liu et al., 2020; Dai
et al., 2020). Some genetic features such as maceral compositions,
maceral, mineral associations, textures, and indicative minerals are
necessary to appraise the paleoenvironments of precursor peats
(Cornelissen et al., 2004; Silva and Kalkreuth, 2005; Misz-Kennan
and Fabian  ska, 2011). The peat depositional environments that
produce coal can be assessed through the sedimentary facies of
associated rocks, petrological, palynological, organic geochemical,
mineralogical, and elemental indicators, which are widely but
cautiously used in the literature (Dai et al., 2020; Diessel, 1982,
1986; Ogala et al., 2012; Calder et al., 1991; Taylor et al., 1998).
However, the combination of techniques will provide a more reli-
able, accurate and comprehensive determination of coal deposi-
tional environments.
Studies on the depositional environments of the Cretaceous coal
from the BTB in Nigeria are scanty in the literature. The lack of
available reported data on newly discovered Cretaceous coals is
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Energy Geoscience 3 (2022) 300e313
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
partly due to the activities of bandits and the Boko Haram Islamic
sect in Northern Nigeria, which have hampered access to the de-
posits. Nonetheless, Obaje et al. (1994) reported the depositional
environment of Cretaceous coal and coal sequences around the Obi/
Lafia part of the Middle Benue Trough in Northern Nigeria. In
addition, Ogala et al. (2012) reported on the depositional environ-
ments of the lignite from OgwashieAsaba Formation in Southern
Nigeria. However, the major drawback of these studies is the sole
use of maceral compositions to decipher the depositional envi-
ronments of coal. In this study, the depositional environments of
newly discovered Cretaceous coals and coal sequences around the
Akunza, Ashiga, Adudu, Agyragu, Ikaleku, and Umah parts of the
middle BTB (Fig. 1) were investigated. Hence, various techniques,
including petrological, mineralogical, physicochemical, and inor-
ganic element geochemistry analyses, were employed in this study
to accurately and systematically assess the depositional environ-
ments of the newly discovered coals.
2. Geological setting of the study area
The Benue Trough Basin has been described as an intra-cratonic
basin (within the basement rocks) of about 1,000 km in length,
stretching in the NE-SW direction and resting unconformably upon
the Precambrian Basement rocks (Ojoh, 1990). The geology of
Benue Trough is not yet fully understood; nonetheless, research
works are constantly being carried out to study the various and
different segments of the trough. Many researchers have employed
modern analytical techniques for the robust, cognate, and valuable
interpretation of data that could address the various answered
questions about the Benue Trough.
The Benue Trough is reported to have been formed by an
aulacogen, which led to the rifting of the central West African
basement, beginning at the start of the Cretaceous period (Olade,
1975; Adighije, 1979). During the late Early to Middle Cretaceous,
the basin subsided rapidly under the sea. Subsequently, several
rivers and lakes deposited their sediments into the trough leading
to a 6 km thick sequence of sedimentary deposits (Fatoye and
Gideon, 2013; Olade, 1975). The basin is geologically and geo-
morphologically partitioned, subdividing into the upper, middle,
and lower regions, stretching from Gombe in the north to Abakaliki
in the south near the Niger Delta (Obaje et al., 2004). The upper
region is also sub-divided into two arms: the Gongola and Yola
arms, respectively (Adighije, 1979).
The Benue Trough has rich coal deposits originating from
organic matter (Adighije, 1979; Adedosu et al., 2010). The coal
seams within the Benue Trough are hosted in three different
geological units (Fig. 1). The lower portion of the coal measures/
seam is hosted by the Mamu Formation of the Campanian-
Maastrichtian age; the Middle portion is hosted by the Awgu For-
mation of the Turonian-Santonian depositional cycle; and finally,
within the Numanha shale and Lamza Sandstone Formation of the
Upper Cenomanian-Turonian-Santonian ages in the Upper portion
of the Benue Trough (Kogbe, 1976; Petters, 1982; Ojoh, 1992). The
Geological Survey Agency of Nigeria reports that the Benue Trough
is home to vast mineral resources such as barite, clay, glass sand,
gypsum, phosphate, and limestone (Fatoye and Gideon, 2013).
S.A. Akinyemi, J.C. Hower, H.Y. Madukwe et al. Energy Geoscience 3 (2022) 300e313

Fig. 1. Geological map of the Benue Trough Basin and sampling locations.

3. Materials and methods
3.1. Coalfield sites and sampling
The coal samples examined in this study were obtained from six
(6) different deposits (Table 1) using proportional stratified random
sampling. The small quantities of the samples used in this study are
due to the insecurity posed by the activities of bandits and Boko
Haram Islamic groups in many locations. The sampling method
involved the collection of coal sample fractions from each seam/
stratum based on the thickness of the band (lithotype) to acquire
fresh and representative samples. The thickness of the entire seam/
stratum was from 20 cm to 150 cm. During the process, the coal bed
surfaces were scrapped off at each sampling location before litho-
logical description and sample collection. Next, about 200 g of each
coal was packed into zip-locked polythene bags for transportation
to the laboratory for analysis.
3.2. Sample preparation
The coals were prepared according to the procedures of the
ASTM D-2013 standard (ASTM D2013/D2013M-12, 2012). The
samples were crushed by a hammer mill to reduce the particle size
to below 2.36 mm (mesh size - 8) before dividing with a sample
riffler. Afterwards, the crushed samples were ground and separated
into the <20-mesh and <60-mesh fractions originating from splits
from the identical portions of the whole sample. The top sizes of the
<20-mesh and <60-mesh samples are representative of each
sample. The <20-mesh fraction was pulverised using a plate grind
mill before the petrographic examination, whereas the <60-mesh
fraction was pulverised before the geochemical examination.

Table 1 3.3. Physicochemical analysis

Physicochemical characteristics of the studied Cretaceous coals (wt. %, whole-coal
basis).
The proximate analysis was examined by thermogravimetry
Property S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 (LECO thermogravimetric analyser, USA). The tests were performed
Proximate analysis (as-received basis) at the University of Kentucky Centre for Applied Energy Research
Ash (%) 32.76 32.36 31.26 24.34 23.83 22.86 (CAER) according to ASTM Standard D7582-12 (ASTM D7582-12,
Moisture (%) 4.69 4.6 4.93 5.95 5.97 6.32 2012). The analysis of total carbon and sulphur (LECO carbon/
Volatile matter (%) 30.4 30.81 31.5 36.63 36.96 36.43
sulphur analyser) was performed based on the ASTM D4239-12
Fixed Carbon (%) 32.15 32.23 32.31 33.08 33.24 34.39
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
standard (ASTM D4239-12, 2012). The ultimate analysis was
Ultimate analysis (dry basis) determined based on the ASTM standard D3176-15 (LECO CHN
Carbon (%) 45.87 46.54 47.82 52.75 53.27 53.24 analyser) (ASTM D3176-15, 2015). Triplicate analyses were con-
Hydrogen (%) 4.04 4.1 4.23 4.62 4.75 4.73 ducted on each coal sample.
Nitrogen (%) 1.25 1.23 1.19 1.19 1.2 1.21
Total Sulphur (%) 0.52 0.58 0.59 1.06 1.08 1.29
Oxygen (%) 15.56 15.19 14.91 16.04 15.87 16.67 3.4. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
S1 ¼ Akunza, S2 ¼ Ashiga, S3 ¼ Adudu, S4 ¼ Agyragu, S5 ¼ Ikaleku, S6 ¼ Umah.
Proximate analyses (as-received basis) and ultimate analyses (dry basis; C, H, N, XRD measurements were performed using the multipurpose X-
total S, and O by difference) of coals. ray diffractometer D8-Advance from Bruker operated in a
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continuous qq scan in locked coupled mode with Cu-Ka radiation.
Each coal sample was mounted in the centre of the sample holder
on a glass slide and levelled up to the correct height. The mea-
surements were run within the range of 2q as defined by the user
with a typical step size of 0.034 . A position-sensitive detector, Lyn-
Eye, was used to record diffraction data at a typical speed of 0.5 s/
step, which is equivalent to an effective time of 92 s/step for a
scintillation counter. The background was subtracted from the data
to carry out a phase analysis of the diffraction pattern after the
selection of possible elements from the periodic table. The phases
were subsequently identified by matching the calculated peaks
with the measured ones until all phases were identified within the
limits of the resolution of the results.
3.5. Organic petrography
The petrologic analysis was conducted using epoxy-bound
particulate pellets prepared to a final 0.05-mm-alumina polish
with an examination based on 50  reflected-light and an oil-
immersion objective. The macerals were described according to
the nomenclature of the International Committee for Coal and
Organic Petrology (ICCP, 1998, 2001) and Pickel et al. (2017). For the
vitrinite group macerals, the entire suite of coal counts adhere to
ICCP (ICCP, 1998) instead of mixing the low-rank terminology of
Sýkorova  et al. (2005) with the bituminous terminology. The vit-
rinite reflectance was examined using a photometric apparatus
equipped with an incident polarized light of 45 and incident light
transitory across a grating of 546 nm.
3.6. X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
The major oxides of the coal samples were determined by XRF
analysis in wt.%. For each test, 1.0 ± 0.0009 g of each sample was
weighed and placed in an oven at 110 ℃ for 1 h to determine H2O.
The crushed coal sample was heated at 1000 ℃ for 1 h in a muffle
furnace to determine loss on ignition (LOI). Next, 10.0 ± 0.0009 g of
Claisse flux was fused in the M4 Claisse fluxer and added to the
sample for 23 min. Precisely 0.2 g of NaCO3 was then inserted into
the mixture before pre-oxidation of the sample þ flux þ NaCO3 at
700 ℃, followed by fusion. The flux type used was the Ultrapure
Fused Anhydrous Li-Tetraborate-Li-Metaborate flux (66.67%
Li2B4O7 þ 32.83% LiBO2) along with the releasing agent Li-Iodide
(0.5% LiI). Each coal sample (pressed pellets) was subsequently
characterized on the XRF spectrometer (Philips PW 2400,
Netherlands) equipped with a rhodium X-ray tube and Beryllium
window operating at 60 kV, 125 mA, and 3000 W to quantitatively
examine the bulk chemical compositions. The international certi-
fied reference materials (BE-N, JB-1, BHVO-1, and JG-1) and in-
house certified reference materials (HUSG-1 and WITS-G) were
used. The analytical precisions for major oxides varied between
0.09% and 5.07% RSD. The accuracy indicated for major oxides
ranged from 5.26% to 1.57%. The XRF results were analysed using
the proprietary SuperQ software and regularised to a 100% volatile-
free basis before analysis.
compositions in the coals were examined by LA-ICP-MS (Laser
Ablation - Induced Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry) analyser
(Panalytical Axios, USA). While conventional ICP-MS analysis of
minor elements would be the preferred method in most cases, the
use of LA-ICP-MS in coal analysis is not unprecedented (Kostova
et al., 2016). The quality control methods used for the trace metal
analysis are reference materials (i.e., BHVO and BCR) described in
the United States Geological Survey (USGS) powder standards
(Jochum et al., 2005, 2016), with each coal sample subjected to
duplicate analysis. The precision for trace elements and REY varied
between 0.1% and 10.1% RSD. The accuracy stated for the trace el-
ements, and REE varied between 8.41% and 7.7%. The sample
preparation, XRF, and LA-ICPMS analytical procedures used are
reported in our previous study (Akinyemi et al., 2012).
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Physicochemical analysis
The physicochemical results of the coal samples reported on a
dry-ash free basis are shown in Table 1. The average ash content in
the studied coal samples are in the order: S1>
S2 > S3 > S4 > S5 > S6. The fouling or slagging potential of coals
during thermal conversion is determined by the ash content
(Speight, 2012). The ash content of coal affects the composition,
volume, and performance of blast furnace coke (Ryemshak and
Jauro, 2013; Obaje and Ligouis, 1996). The carbon and hydrogen
contents of the studied coals are in the order:
S5 > S6 > S4 > S3 > S2 > S1. The C and H contents of the coals are
related to the maturity (rank), calorific value, and chemical reac-
tivity during thermal conversion (Ryemshak and Jauro, 2013;
Speight, 2012). The total sulphur contents in the studied coal
samples are in the order: S6 > S5 > S4 > S3 > S2 > S1. The contents
of nitrogen and total sulphur are suggestive of the environmental
friendliness of coals when compared to their potential NOx and SOx
emissions (Nyakuma and Jauro, 2016; Nyakuma et al., 2018).
4.2. Mineralogical analysis
The XRD spectra of the studied coal samples are shown in Fig. 2.
The coal samples contained mainly quartz, kaolinite, and organic
carbon. The XRD spectra peaks were associated with triclinic
structure of kaolin (a¼5.15540; b¼8.94480; c¼7.40480) and
monoclinic structure of kaolin (a¼5.16000; b¼8.93000;
c ¼7.39000). The triclinic structure of kaolin is formed from the
transformation and crystallisation of original kaolinite-forming
materials under the influence of organic acid fluids generated in
the swamp during diagenesis. On the other hand, the monoclinic

3.7. Laser ablation-induced coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (LA-

ICP-MS)

Before each test, 8 ± 0.05 g of each pulverised coal sample was

thoroughly mixed using 3 drops of the Mowiol wax binder. The
pellets were forced with the pill press to 15 tonnes of pressure and
dried in an oven at 100 ℃ for 30 min before the ICPMS analysis. The
laser was employed to vaporize the solid surface of the coal samples
(press pellets). Hence, the vapour and particles were conveyed to Fig. 2. X-ray diffraction spectra of the studied coal samples (S1 ¼ Akunza, S2 ¼ Ashiga,
the ICP-MS analyser by the carrier gas flow. The trace element S3 ¼ Adudu, S4 ¼ Agyragu, S5 ¼ Ikaleku, S6 ¼ Umah).

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S.A. Akinyemi, J.C. Hower, H.Y. Madukwe et al. Energy Geoscience 3 (2022) 300e313

structure of kaolin is believed to have been formed from the
transformation and crystallisation of kaolinite in a swamp envi-
ronment at the diagenetic stage (Ding et al., 2009).
4.3. Geochemistry
4.3.1. Major elements composition
Table 2 shows the contents of the major elements in the coal
samples on a whole-coal basis. The major oxides show the presence
of high proportions of SiO2 (13.43 wt%-20.45 wt%), Al2O3 (6.45 wt
%-9.88 wt%), and Fe2O3 (0.80 wt%-1.10 wt%). Previous studies have
established that the dominance of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 is ascribed
to the presence of quartz, clay mineral, and pyrites (Ameh, 2019;
Zhao et al., 2015). The ratio of SiO2/Al2O3 in all the studied coal
samples is greater than 2, confirming the dominance of alumino-
silicate minerals (i.e. quartz and kaolinite). The other major oxides
have notably low mean weight percentages. The LOI varied be-
tween 67.54 wt % and 77.50 wt % with an average value of 72.29 wt
%. The trend of the major oxides in this study is similar to data
reported in other studies (Saikia et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2015;
Ameh, 2019; Islam et al., 2021; Akinyemi et al., 2022).
4.3.2. Trace elements composition
The trace element contents on the dry-ash basis of the studied
coal samples are shown in Table 3. The trace elements contents of V,
Cr, Cu, Zr, Nb, and Th on a whole-coal basis are relatively enriched
compared to the world average concentrations, as reported in the
literature (Ketris and Yudovich, 2009; Hower et al., 2020).
Conversely, the average contents of Ni, Rb, Sr, Mo, Cs, and Ba on a
whole-coal basis are comparatively depleted compared to the
world average concentrations (Table 3). The average contents of U
in the coal samples code-named S1, S2, and S3 on a whole-coal
basis are less than the world average concentrations. In contrast,
the average contents of U in S4, S5, and S6 on a whole-coal basis are
higher than the world average concentrations (Table 3). The
average contents of Zn on a whole-coal basis are relatively enriched
in all the studied coal samples compared to world average con-
centrations except in the coal sample code-named S5. The relative
abundance of Zn in the studied coal is ascribed to the presence of
kaolinite, as shown in XRD spectra (Fig. 2). The Zn concentrations in
coal may also be related to sphalerite or clay minerals (Saikia et al.,
2015). The trace elements contents in coal are influenced by factors
such as the natural surroundings of the sediment-source area,
maritime depositional settings, underground water hydrothermal
fluid and deposition of volcanic ash (Hower et al., 1999; Burger
et al., 2000; Crowley et al., 1989; Zhao et al., 2013; Ren et al., 1999).
4.3.3. Rare earth elements composition
P
Table 4 depicts the rare earth element features of the REE,
LREE (Ce, Eu La, Nd, Pr, and Sm), HREE (Er, Dy, Gd, Ho, Lu, Tb, Tm, Yb,
and Lu), and LREE/HREE (Zhao et al., 2013; Hower et al., 2015). The
P
REE is significantly lower than the world average (68.5 mg$kg1)
(Hower et al., 2020) and Chinese (137.9 mg$kg1) coals (Ketris and
P
Yudovich, 2009; Dai et al., 2012a). The distinctive REE concen-
tration in the coal deposits could be attributed to the various
mechanisms for the enrichment of REE like terrigenous, tuffaceous,
leaching/infiltration, and hydrothermal processes (Arbuzov et al.,
2019). The LREE/HREE contents in the studied coal samples vary
between 0.84 and 0.87. In general, the low LREE/HREE is indicative
of the remnant signature of the organic association of HREE in peat
and low-rank coals.
The Y/Ho ratio is essential for understanding the behaviour of
the elements due to comparisons in various geochemical processes
(Yasnygina et al., 2006). The ratio of Y/Ho is representative of the
composition of seawater. Typically, seawater displays high ratios
(~44e74) of Y/Ho, whereas terrigenous constituents and volcanic
ash have constant chondritic Y/Ho values of ~28 (Bau, 1996). The Y/
Ho values in the studied coal samples varied between 20.16 and
20.89, indicating terrigenous influence rather than marine (Speight,
2012). The Cerium anomaly (Ce/Ce*) may be used to determine the
paleo-depositional environment. The values > 1 indicate an
oxidizing environment (Piper, 1974; Milodowski and Zalasiewicz,
1991; McDaniel et al., 1994). The coal samples have Ce/Ce* values
slightly below 1, indicating a suboxic depositional environment.
4.4. Maceral analysis
The studied coal samples are all high in the mineral matter
(Tables 1 and 5) with varying amounts of vitrinite, inertinite, and
liptinite. The vitrinite reflectance indicates that the rank of the coal
is high volatile B bituminous, while the maceral texture suggests it
is in transition from sub-bituminous to high volatile C or B bitu-
minous. The vitrinite (Fig. 3) is dominated by telovitrinite (S1
through S3) and detrovitrinite (S4 through S6). However, gelovi-
trinite is more abundant in S1 through S3 but never exceeds 18% of
the total mineral-free maceral content. The inertinite (Fig. 4) is
more abundant in S4 through S6, with the fusinite, semifusinite,
macrinite, and funginite components that all indicate more
degradation than in S1 through S3. Resinite is the most abundant
liptinite maceral (Fig. 5) in S1 through S3, with sporinite becoming
more abundant in S4 through S6 (see Fig. 5).
4.5. Depositional environment

Table 2 The average concentrations of trace elements in the studied

Major elements concentrations (wt. %, whole-coal basis) of the studied Cretaceous coals are shown in Table 4. Nickel and vanadium are the two most
coals (bdl: below detection limit) (n ¼ 2).
abundant metals in petroleum and essentially exist as porphyrin
Elements (wt. %) S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 complexes that are primarily derived from chlorophyll precursors
Ash 32.76 32.36 31.26 24.34 23.83 22.86 (Barwise, 1990). Typically, concentrations of Ni, Co, and V, ratios of
SiO2 20.45 20.14 19.47 15.35 14.30 13.48 V/Ni and Co/Ni, are helpful in the assessment of the origin and
Al2O3 9.88 9.79 9.51 7.18 6.49 6.45 depositional environments of fossil fuels (Akinlua et al., 2015; Zhao
Fe2O3 0.88 0.80 0.84 0.99 0.98 1.10 et al., 2018). Besides, the geochemical signatures of trace elements
CaO 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.44 0.47 0.50
Cr2O3 0.01 0.01 bdl bdl bdl bdl
improve understanding of the depositional setting of sediments
K2O 0.23 0.22 0.22 0.16 0.14 0.14 rich in organic matter. The trace elements such as Ni, Co, V, Cr, Cu,
MgO 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.18 0.18 0.19 Zn, Mo, U, and Th are susceptible to redox conditions, and their
MnO 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.04 ratios are used to distinguish between anoxic and oxic conditions.
Na2O 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01
Lewan (1984) suggested that the relative proportions of V and Ni
P2O5 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02
TiO2 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.57 0.56 0.51 are controlled by the depositional environment. The V/Ni ratio <1.9
L.O·I. 67.54 67.95 68.87 75.13 76.74 77.50 indicates mainly terrigenous organic matter deposited under oxic
Total 99.99 99.91 99.93 100.07 99.93 99.95 conditions, although ratios from 1.9 to 3 point to suboxic condi-
SiO2/Al2O3 2.07 2.06 2.05 2.14 2.20 2.09 tions, whereas V/Ni values above 3 indicate deposition in a
S1 ¼ Akunza, S2 ¼ Ashiga, S3 ¼ Adudu, S4 ¼ Agyragu, S5 ¼ Ikaleku, S6 ¼ Umah. reducing environment (Galarraga et al., 2008). In this study, the
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Table 3
Trace elements concentrations (mg$kg1, whole-coal basis) of the studied Cretaceous coals (bdl: below detection limit) (n ¼ 2) (S1 ¼ Akunza, S2 ¼ Ashiga, S3 ¼ Adudu, S4 ¼
Agyragu, S5 ¼ Ikaleku, S6 ¼ Umah).

Elements (mg$kg1) S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 World Average (Hower et al., 2020)

V 55.08 55.47 55.50 46.79 43.23 44.30 28

Cr 45.82 46.26 45.60 39.77 39.74 37.56 17
Co 9.26 9.44 9.51 7.70 7.20 7.58 6
Ni 15.39 15.05 15.48 12.93 11.43 12.05 17
Cu 26.84 38.85 20.69 23.49 36.89 79.56 16
Zn 107.79 66.70 114.95 53.01 27.61 39.11 28
Rb 11.80 11.78 11.34 7.98 7.18 7.22 18
Sr 31.14 31.04 30.71 50.28 52.25 52.60 100
Y 14.86 14.73 14.95 11.74 11.03 10.66 e
Zr 98.74 95.49 93.57 83.90 80.55 74.27 36
Nb 13.17 12.87 12.84 11.53 10.67 10.19 4
Mo 1.20 1.38 1.26 1.22 1.24 1.24 2.1
Sc 7.79 7.84 7.75 6.36 5.70 5.88 e
Cs 1.08 1.04 1.02 0.70 0.64 0.64 1.1
Ba 111.60 110.30 109.04 112.51 112.99 108.02 150
Pb 32.16 32.82 39.86 21.43 5.05 7.42 9
Th 6.77 6.70 6.68 5.68 5.30 5.16 3.2
U 2.03 2.04 1.98 1.68 1.58 1.53 1.9
Sr/Ba 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.45 0.46 0.49
V/Ni 3.58 3.69 3.59 3.62 3.78 3.68
V/Zn 0.51 0.83 0.48 0.88 1.57 1.13
Ni/Co 1.66 1.59 1.63 1.68 1.59 1.59
Th/U 3.34 3.28 3.38 3.38 3.35 3.37
Cu/Zn 0.25 0.58 0.18 0.44 1.34 2.03
(Cu þ Mo)/Zn 0.26 0.60 0.19 0.47 1.38 2.07
V/Cr 1.20 1.20 1.22 1.18 1.09 1.18
V/Sc 7.07 7.08 7.16 7.36 7.59 7.53
V/(Ni þ V) 0.78 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.79
Th/U 3.34 3.28 3.38 3.38 3.35 3.37
U-(Th/3) 0.90 0.91 0.89 0.89 0.90 0.89
V/Mo 45.82 40.16 44.19 38.27 34.95 35.71
U/Mo 1.69 1.48 1.58 1.37 1.28 1.23
V/(V þ Cr) 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.52 0.54
Cu/Mo 22.33 28.13 16.48 19.22 29.83 64.13
Co/Ni 0.60 0.63 0.61 0.60 0.63 0.63
Ba/Al 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003

Table 4
Rare earth elements concentrations (mg$kg1, whole-coal basis) in the studied Cretaceous coal samples.

Elements (mg$kg1) S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 World Average (Hower et al., 2020)

La 28.21 28.11 27.72 21.87 20.32 19.47 11

Ce 52.49 52.38 51.70 40.11 36.86 35.53 23
Pr 6.05 6.01 5.92 4.59 4.23 4.11 3.4
Nd 23.56 23.15 22.86 17.30 15.95 15.59 12
Sm 4.29 4.33 4.19 3.31 2.98 2.92 2.2
Eu 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.43
Gd 3.82 3.71 3.72 2.88 2.61 2.50 2.7
Tb 0.51 0.51 0.48 0.39 0.35 0.36 0.31
Dy 3.08 3.12 3.07 2.43 2.17 2.10 2.1
Ho 0.58 0.56 0.59 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.57
Er 1.79 1.71 1.71 1.35 1.23 1.22 1
Tm 0.23 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.3
Yb 1.66 1.63 1.62 1.24 1.22 1.18 1
Lu 0.25 0.23 0.23 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.2
Hf 2.77 2.59 2.63 2.40 2.28 2.05 3.7
Ta 1.03 1.02 0.98 0.90 0.88 0.80 8.4
∑REE 11.97 11.81 11.66 9.11 8.46 8.20 72.31
LREE 5.53 5.50 5.42 4.18 3.87 3.74
HREE 6.44 6.31 6.24 4.93 4.59 4.45
LREE/HREE 0.86 0.87 0.87 0.85 0.84 0.84
Y/Ho 20.42 20.89 20.16 20.40 20.20 20.49
Ce/Ce* 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.91
Er/Nd 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.08

REE ¼ La e Lu; LREE ¼ La e Eu; HREE ¼ Gd e Lu; LREE/HREE ¼ Enrichment of light rare earth element and heavy rare earth elements.

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S.A. Akinyemi, J.C. Hower, H.Y. Madukwe et al. Energy Geoscience 3 (2022) 300e313

Fig. 3. Vitrinite (A/Corpogelinite (cg), telinite (t), vitrodetrinite (d), and funginite (fg) sclerotia (top arrow) and hyphae (lower arrow). Image 8705 S1 04. Scale ¼ 50 mm. B/Cor-
pogelinite (cg). Image 8710 S6 08. Scale ¼ 50 mm. C/Corpogelinite (cg). Image 8706 S2 03. Scale ¼ 50 mm. D/Image 8715 S1 04. Scale ¼ 50 mm.

Fig. 4. Inertinite A/Semifusinite (sf). Image 8705 S1 02. Scale ¼ 50 mm. B/Fusinite (f), semifusinite (sf), and funginite (fg). Image 8710 S6 05. Scale ¼ 50 mm. C/Fungal sclerotia
(Funginite e fg). Image 8705 S1 05. Scale ¼ 50 mm. D/Funginite (fg), sporinite (sp), and telinite (t). Image 8708 S4 01. Scale ¼ 50 mm.

average V/Ni values for the studied coal samples indicate deposi-
tion in a reducing environment. The ratio of Ni/Co is used as a
reliable redox indicator of the paleodepositional conditions. The
characteristic values below 5 indicate oxic settings, whereas values
above 5 are suggestive of suboxic to anoxic depositional settings
(Jones and Manning, 1994). The Ni/Co values for the studied coal
samples suggest deposition under an oxic environment.
Fig. 6a indicates that the coal samples were deposited under
oxic conditions. Based on the Ni/Co and V/Cr ratio plots (Fig. 6b), the
studied coals were deposited in an oxic condition. The Th/U ratio is
also a consistent redox indicator, with Th/U ratios below 2 signi-
fying anoxic oceanic settings, whereas 2e7 and greater than 7
signifying oxic and extremely oxic terrestrial settings, respectively
(Wignall and Twitchett, 1996). In this study, the Th/U ratio in the
studied coal samples suggests oxic terrestrial settings. Similarly, the
authigenic uranium (authigenic U ¼ Total U- (Th/3)) value is
regarded as a guide to the paleo-redox conditions of maritime
settings (Wignall and Myers, 1988). For authigenic U values below
2, the depositional setting is oxic, whereas values above 2 indicate
suboxic and anoxic conditions. The contents of authigenic U varied
between 0.89 and 0.91, which suggests deposition under oxic
conditions. Fig. 6b shows the depositional environment discrimi-
nation cross-plot of Ni/Co versus V/Cr. The plot depicts oxic con-
ditions, which could be attributed to increased water levels,
sedimentation, or climatic effects.
According to Hetzel et al. (2009), the V/Sc ratios below 9.1
indicate an oxic depositional environment. The V/Sc values in the
studied coal samples indicate an oxic depositional environment.
Hatch and Leventhal (1992) reported that the V/(Ni þ V) ratios
below 0.46 indicate oxic environments but ratios between 0.54 and
0.82 suggest suboxic and anoxic environments. The V/(Ni þ V)
values for the studied coal samples suggest suboxic and anoxic
environments. The V/(Ni þ V) values in the studied coal samples are
relatively enriched compared to normal marine systems (0.05)

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S.A. Akinyemi, J.C. Hower, H.Y. Madukwe et al. Energy Geoscience 3 (2022) 300e313

Fig. 5. Liptinite A & B/White light and blue light images of resinite (r), collotelinite (ct), corpogelinite (cg), detrovitrinite (d), fusinite (f), and fuginite (fg). Image 8708 S4 02.
Scale ¼ 50 mm; C/Suberinite (sb) with corpogelinite (cg). Image 8710 S6 02. Scale ¼ 50 mm. D/Various vitrinite macerals, primarily telinite and collotelinite, are on the left. Fusinite
with broken funginite (fg) on the right. Image 8708 S4 05. Scale ¼ 50 mm.

Fig. 6. (a)Trace elements ratios of the studied coals relating to the redox conditions; (b) Plot of Ni/Co versus V/Cr of the studied coals.

(Lewan, 1984), which indicates a terrestrial oxic to suboxic condi-
tion, possibly due to flooding.
The (Cu þ Mo)/Zn ratio is a suitable paleo-redox indicator for
bottom water and sediment surface (Hallberg, 1976). The
(Cu þ Mo)/Zn values for the studied coal samples indicate oxic
environments of deposition. The high Cu/Zn ratios show reducing
depositional conditions, while the low Cu/Zn ratios suggest
oxidizing conditions (Hallberg, 1976). The Cu/Zn ratios for the
studied coal samples suggest deposition under oxic conditions. The
V/Mo values near the seawater ratio (<2) indicate the condition is
anoxic. Nonetheless, the values from 2 to 10 indicate suboxic con-
ditions, but values from 10 to 60 indicate normal oxygenation
(Gallego-Torres et al., 2010). The V/Mo ratio in the studied coal
samples varied between 34.95 and 45.82, which infers oxic depo-
sitional environments. Pi et al. (2014) indicated that V/(V þ Cr)
ratios above 0.6 denote strongly reducing conditions. The V/
(V þ Cr) values for the studied coals indicate oxic to suboxic
conditions.
The coal samples investigated in this study have Co/Ni ratios
between 0.60 and 0.63. According to Udo (1992), the values of Co/Ni
values above 0.1 indicate oil source rocks with high input from
marine sources. Strontium (Sr) and Ba are considered measures of
paleo-salinity (Aihua, 1996; Deng and Qian, 1993; Liu et al., 1984).
Typically, high ratios of Sr/Ba reveal a high rate of salinity and vice

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Fig. 7. Paleo-environment discriminant plot of the studied coal samples (adapted after
Galarraga et al. (2008)).
versa (Deng and Qian, 1993). The Sr/Ba values in the studied coal
samples varied between 0.28 and 0.49, indicating low saline water
during deposition along with strong continental rather than marine
influence. A plot of V versus Ni (Fig. 7) shows the studied coals are
located in the marine-terrestrial oxic-dysoxic zones. The impor-
tance of water levels in the development of coal is depicted in Fig. 8,
proposed by Misiak (2002). The occurrence of maceral components
is a function of the water surface in the peat bog. According to
Misiak (2006), the long-term stages of inundation and drying of the
mire required progressive alterations for the assemblage of plants.
The studied coal samples were deposited in planar margin mire
(permanently inundated).
Fig. 8 shows the importance of the mineral matter composition
in coal, as proposed by Misiak (2003). This trend suggests that
mineral matter was deposited in basins susceptible to decompo-
sition in a flooded mire, but the low level of water is verified in
higher inertinites (Mastalerz et al., 2000). Naturally, the content of
mineral matter below 5% is related to tissue degradation, while
content above 5% reflects the influx of water into the mire. The
mineral matter content above 10% is linked to fluvial systems
(Misiak, 2006). The studied coal samples have mineral matter 10%
(Fig. 8), suggesting deposition by river system in a planar margin
(mire river environment border (mineral matter >10%)).
The two coal facies indices, tissue preservation index (TPI) and
Fig. 8. Sedimentary environments of the coals studied, modified from Misiak (2002).
DEM ¼ detrital matter, I ¼ inertinite, L ¼ liptinite, V ¼ vitrinite.
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Energy Geoscience 3 (2022) 300e313
gelification index (GI), described in Equations (1) and (2), were
suggested by Diessel (1986) with the caveat that the formulas are
intended for Permian Gondwana coals (see a critique of maceral
indices by Dai et al., 2020).
Telovitrinite þ Telo  inertinite
TPI ¼ (1)
Detro  þGelovitrinite þ Detro  þ Gelo  inertinite
Vitrinite þ Gelo  inertinite
GI ¼ (2)
Telo  inertinite þ Detro  inertinite
Fig. 8 demonstrates that the information on the coal deposi-
tional environment can be inferred from the cross plot of the gel-
ification index (GI) against the tissue preservation index (TPI). The
studied coal seams are characterized by high GI values and high TPI
values, which indicate that peat accumulation developed within a
wet forset swamp (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9 depicts that the coal seams code-named S4, S5, and S6
were deposited in limno-telmatic with a transgression period of
deposition. Nevertheless, the coal samples code-named S1 and S3
were deposited within a telmatic deposition environment in a wet
forest swamp (Fig. 9). S2 was deposited in a limnic influx clastic
marsh. This result trend is consistent with a previous study on the
coals from three segments of the BTB reported by Akinyemi et al.
(2022). The TPI values changes in the limnic-influx clastic marsh,
limno-telmatic and telmatic zone, and significant differences in GI.
This is an indication of sedimentary facies deposited within the
subaquatic lacustrine environment, predominantly in a wet moor
of the limnic-influx clastic marsh and in the limnotelmatic and
telmatic zones. The ternary diagram of macerals composition sug-
gests that the investigated coal samples were deposited in a wet
moor environment with intermittent moderate to high flooding
episodes (Fig. 10).
4.6. Organic matter type and thermal maturity
As shown in Table 5, vitrinite (Type III) has the highest maceral
composition in all the investigated coal samples next to the iner-
tinite group (Type Ⅳ). The ternary plot of the vitrinite, inertinite
and liptinite maceral groups shows that the investigated coal
samples indicate a favoured outlook for vitric coals (Fig. 11a). The
ternary diagram of the kerogen type classification shows that
S.A. Akinyemi, J.C. Hower, H.Y. Madukwe et al. Energy Geoscience 3 (2022) 300e313

Fig. 9. Diagram of the coal facies analysis of the coals studied, modified from Misiak (2003). DEM ¼ detrital matter, I ¼ inertinite, L ¼ liptinite, V ¼ vitrinite.

Table 5
Maceral composition of the studied Cretaceous coals (wt. %).

Macerals S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6

Telinite 12.3 10.7 15.7 5.1 8.7 8.4

Collotelinite 15.2 17.3 17.2 14.5 15.8 7.7
Total telovitrinite 27.4 28.0 32.8 19.5 24.5 16.1
Vitrodetrinite 14.4 20.8 16.8 37.1 28.1 29.9
Collodetrinite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total detrovitrinite 14.4 20.8 16.8 37.1 28.1 29.9
Corpogelinite 10.1 9.7 9.5 2.3 0.4 1.5
Gelinite 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.0 1.5
Total gelovitrinite 10.1 9.7 9.5 3.5 0.4 3.1
Total vitrinite 52.0 58.5 59.1 60.2 53.0 49.0
Fusinite 1.1 1.7 1.1 2.7 5.5 5.4
Semifusinite 0.0 0.0 0.4 5.1 3.6 3.4
Micrinite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Macrinite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.4 1.1
Secretinite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Funginite 1.4 0.3 0.7 2.0 0.8 0.8
Fig. 10. Facies diagram to identify paleodepositional peat-forming environments of the Inertodetrinite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total inertinite 2.5 2.1 2.2 10.2 10.3 10.7
studied coals (modified from Diessel, 1986; Alves and Ade, 1996).
Sporinite 0.0 0.3 1.1 3.1 3.2 2.3
Cutinite 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Resinite 2.2 2.8 4.0 2.3 2.4 3.4
studied coal samples are characterised by Type III organic matter Alginite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Liptodetrinite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
(Fig. 11b) that could produce gas when getting matured (Fig. 11c). Suberinite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.0
The elemental ratio of H/C against O/C shows that all the investi- Exsudatinite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
gated coal samples are below the oil generation zone (Fig. 11d). This Total liptinite 2.5 3.1 5.1 5.5 7.1 5.7
pattern corroborates that the studied coals can only produce Silicate 42.6 36.3 33.2 23.0 28.5 34.5
Sulfide 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 0.0
gaseous hydrocarbon upon attaining thermal maturity.
Carbonate 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Fig. 12a shows Seyler's coal chart describing compositional fields Other 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0
of orthohydrous, perhydrous, and sub-hydrous coals (Diessel, 1992) Total mineral 43.0 36.3 33.6 24.2 29.6 34.5
for the coals in this study. Typically, the plot shows H% versus C% (on S1 ¼ Akunza, S2 ¼ Ashiga, S3 ¼ Adudu, S4 ¼ Agyragu, S5 ¼ Ikaleku, S6 ¼ Umah.
a dry mineral-free basis) along with overlaps that relate the differ- Macerals, subtotals of vitrinite submacerals (in italics), and totals of maceral groups
ences in various thermochemical properties to the primary variables. and of minerals (in italics).

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S.A. Akinyemi, J.C. Hower, H.Y. Madukwe et al. Energy Geoscience 3 (2022) 300e313

Fig. 11. (a) Depositional condition of the studied coals based on maceral and mineral matter after Singh and Singh (1996); (b) Ternary diagram of maceral groups in the studied coal
seams, (after Go mez Neita and Lo pez Carrasquilla (2017)); (c) Ternary plot of classification of kerogen type based on major organic components (modified after Cornford (1979)); (d)
Ternary diagram based on maceral composition indicating the hydrocarbon generation potential of coals of Benue Trough (after Tissot and Welte (1984)).

The class of ortho-hydrous bituminous coals are plotted as H% band
ranging from 4.4 to 5.6 based on rank. The hydrogen-rich coals
plotted above this band are termed perhydrous based on Seyler's
chart, whereas the hydrogen-poor coals plotted below the band are
termed subhydrous. In Fig. 12a, the studied coals samples fall within
the subhydrous zone, indicating hydrogen-poor coals.
The elemental atomic ratios cross plot is shown in Fig. 12b. The
studied coal samples fall below the oil generation zone in the plot.
These results demonstrate that the coals are sub-hydrous vitrinite
coals that can produce gaseous hydrocarbons only upon attaining
maturity (Figs. 12b & 13). Some researchers have focused on the
critical importance of liptinites in evaluating the predictions of oil
generation from coal (Tissot and Welte, 1984; Horsfield et al., 1988;
Snowdon, 1991; Hendrix et al., 1995; Mukhopadhyay et al., 1991).
Similar attempts to assess liptinite content (exinite in vol%)
entrained in coal for oil generation are available in the literature
(Hunt, 1991; Snowdon, 1991; Mukhopadhyay and Hatcher, 1993).
According to Hunt (1991), this is 15%e20% liptinite þ resinite;
Snowdon (1991) called for “as little as 10% H-rich maceral”, and
Mukhopadhyay and Hatcher (1993) indicated a minimum of 15%e
20% liptinite. Besides, Mukhopadhyay et al. (1991) stated that 20%e
25% liptinite is necessary to produce >10 wt% pyrolysate. Hereafter,
liptinites and perhydrous vitrinites can possibly produce liquid
hydrocarbons during the process of natural coalification (Wilkins

Fig. 12. (a) Simplified Seyler chart depicting the compositional fields of orthohydrous, perhydrous, and subhydrous coals after Diessel (1992); (b) Atomic H/C vs O/C plots of vitrinite
maturation line and calculated oil yields for slow pyrolysis (after Saxby (1980)).

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S.A. Akinyemi, J.C. Hower, H.Y. Madukwe et al.
Fig. 13. van Krevelen (1961) diagram of O/C versus H/C (from Singh et al. (2012))
applied to the coals in the Benue Trough.
and George, 2002). The high content of liptinite in humic based
coals is usually related to various compositions of perhydrous vit-
rinite (Price and Baker, 1985; Kalkreuth, 1982; Raymond and
Murchison, 1991).
5. Conclusion
The mineralogical constituents are mainly quartz, kaolinite, and
minor quantities of organic carbon. The XRD spectra identified both
monoclinic and triclinic structures of kaolinite. The ratios of SiO2/
Al2O3 have verified the dominance of quartz and kaolinite as
revealed by XRD spectra. The Ni/Co versus V/Cr, Cu/Zn, V/Mo, and
Ni/Co ratios indicate oxic depositional environments. Nonetheless,
the ratios of V/(Ni þ V) and V/(V þ Cr) indicate oxic to suboxic
conditions. The maceral texture of the studied coals is indicative of
coal on the transition from sub-bituminous to high volatile C or B
bituminous. The maceral composition suggests deposition by a
river in the planar margin mire environments. The high GI and TPI
values suggest peat accumulation that developed within the wet
forest swamp. The ternary plot of macerals components indicates
deposition in a wet moor environment with intermittent moderate
to high flooding episodes. The studied samples are sub-hydrous
vitrinite coals that are poor in hydrogen content and thermally
immature. The low V and Ni contents, low H/C and high O/C values
suggest Type III land-derived organic matter with the potential to
produce hydrocarbon gas. The paleodepositional interpretation of
the studied coals suggests deposition by a river within telmatic,
limnic, and limno-telmatic zones in the planar margin mire
environments.
Declaration of competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge Dr A. B. Eluwole of the Department of
Geophysics, Federal University Oye Ekiti, for producing the
geological map of the study area. The authors appreciate Ms Riana
Rossouw of the ICP-MS & XRF Laboratory, Central Analytical Facil-
ities, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, for the XRF & LA-
ICPMS analysis. The authors are grateful to “The Environmental
Remediation and Nano Sciences Research Laboratory and Prof
311
Energy Geoscience 3 (2022) 300e313
Mugera W. Gitari DHET grants at the University of Venda, South
Africa for assistance with XRF and LA-ICPMS analysis.
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