Mof Short Q&a Ak

Short Questions and Answers SQ.
SHORT QUESTION AND ANSWERS
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS - KERALA
Chapter 1
1.1 What is fluid mechanics?

Fluid mechanics is the science which deals with the
mechanics of liquids and gases. It is divided into Fluid
statics, Fluid kinematics and Fluid dynamics.
1.2 What is fluid?
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when
subjected to a shear stress, no matter how small the shear
stress may be. Fluid does not have its own shape but takes
the shape of the vessel.
1.3 Distinguish between Fluid and solid.
1.2.1 Distinction between solid and fluid
Table 1.1
Solid Fluid
1. Solid is a substance 1. A fluid is a substance
which undergoes a finite which undergoes continuous
deformation depending upon deformation under
elastic limit on application application of a shear force,
of a force. no matter how small the
force might be.
2. Atoms (molecules) are 2. Atoms are comparatively
usually closer together in loosely packed in fluid.
solid.
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Solid Fluid
3. Intermolecular attractive 3. Inter molecular forces
forces between the are not so large enough to
molecules of a solid are hold the various elements of
large the fluid together and hence
fluid will flow under the
action of slightest stress.
4. A solid has a definite 4. A fluid has no definite
shape. shape of its own but it
confirms to the shape of the
container vessel.
1.4 What are the types of fluids?

Fluids are classified as
1. Newtonian and Non Newtonian fluids 2. Ideal and
real fluids.
1.5 State Newton’s law of viscosity.
Newton’s law of viscosity states that shear stress of
a fluid is directly proportional to velocity gradient.
du du
Shear stress   (Velocity gradient) (or)    ,
dy dy
where ‘’ is Coefficient of viscosity.
1.6 What are Newtonian fluids? Give examples.

Fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity (i.e.)
fluids having linear relationship between shear stress and
velocity gradient (deformation) are called Newtonian fluids.
(eg) Water, Kerosene.

Short Questions and Answers SQ.3
1.7 Distinguish between vapour and gas.

A vapour is a gas whose temperature and pressure
are very closely near to the liquid phase. (eg). Steam
A gas may be defined as a highly super heated
vapour, i.e. its state is far away from the liquid phase (eg)
air.
1.8 Define density and specific weight.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
Mass
Density   kg/m 3
Volume
Specific weight is defined as weight per unit volume.

Weight
Sp.weight w  N/m 3.
Volume
1.9 Define Specific volume and specific gravity.

Specific volume is the volume occupied by unit mass
of fluid.
volume of fluid 1
v in m 3/kg ; v 
Mass of fluid 
Specific gravity of any liquid is the ratio of its density
to density of standard liquid (water) at standard
temperature.
Density of liquid 
Specific gravity S  
Density of Water w
1.10 Define Compressibility and viscosity of fluid?

Compressibility is defined as the ratio of the change
in pressure to the rate of change of volume due to the
change in pressure.

1
Compressibility  K  Bulk Modulus
K
Compre ss ive Strain

K
Volumetric Strain
Viscosity is the resistance offered to the movement of

one layer of fluid by another adjacent layer of the fluid.
Shear S tress 
Viscosity   
 Change in velocity  du/dy
 Change of distance 
 
This is generally called as dynamic viscosity.
1.11 What is Kinematic Viscosity?
Kinematic Viscosity is defined as ratio of dynamic
viscosity to mass density



where : Kinematic viscosity

: Dynamic viscosity
: Density of fluid.
1.12 Give the relationship between viscosity and

temperature for liquids and gases and give its
significance?
 1 
For liquid   o  2 
. Viscosity for liquid
 1   t   t 
decreases with increase in temperature.
For gas   o   t   t2. Viscosity for gas increases
with the increase in temperature.
Here,  is viscosity of liquid / gas, o is viscosity at
0C and ,  are constants.

1.13 Why it is necessary in winter to use lighter oil

for automobiles than in summer? To what
property does the term lighter refer? (FAQ)
 1 
For liquid viscosity   o  2 
. In winter,
1tt 
temperature is low and hence the viscosity of the oil
increases and hence in winter, lighter oil is used. The
property referring to lighter is viscosity.
1.14. Define vapour pressure?
The partial pressure exerted by the vapour on the
free surface of the liquid in a closed container is defined
as vapour pressure.
1.15 Define Surface Tension? What is its unit? (FAQ)
Surface Tension in a liquid is property due to cohesive
force between the molecules of the same material or fluid.
It is the rise or fall of free surface of liquid near the wall
of tube. Soap bubbles, droplets of water and dew on dry
solid surface are due to surface tension. Its unit is N/m.
1.16 Give the equations for surface tension for soap
bubble, liquid droplet and liquid jet.
The equation for surface tension for
8
Soap bubble : Pressure P 
d
4
Liquid droplet : Pressure P 
d
2
Liquid jet : Pressure P 
d

Where P : Pressure in N/m 2,  : Surface tension in

N/m, d : Diameter in m .
1.17 A soap bubble is formed when the inside
2
pressure is 5 N/m above the atmospheric
pressure. If surface tension in the soap bubble is
0.0125 N/m, find the diameter of bubble formed.
(FAQ)
Given: Soap bubble P  5 N/m 2 ,   0.0125 N/m
8 8  0.0125
For Soap bubble P  5
d d
8  0.0125
 d  0.02 m
5
 diameter d  0.02 m  20 mm
1.18 Suppose the small air bubbles in a glass tap

water may be on the order of 50  m in diameter,
what is the pressure inside these bubbles. (FAQ)
Given diameter  50  m  50  10  6 m
4 4
For liquid droplet P    80,000 
d 50  10  6
 The pressure will be 80,000 times that of the

surface tension.
suppose   0.1 N/m , then pressure
 0.1  80,000  8000 N/m 2
1.19 Define Capillarity.

Capillarity is a phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid
surface relative to the adjacent general level of liquid. This

phenomenon is due to the combined effect of cohesion and

adhesion of liquid molecules. Rise of liquid is called
capillary rise and fall is called capillary depression.
1.20 Define Pascal’s law.
Pascal law states that the pressure P at a point in a
fluid in equilibrium is same in all directions.
1 N/m 2  1 pascal
1.21 Define gauge pressure and vacuum pressure?

The pressure recorded by any pressure gauge, called
gauge pressure, takes atmospheric pressure as datum and
is measured either above or below atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure  Atmospheric  gauge pressure.
‘’ for gauge pressure (above atmospheric pressure).
‘’ for negative gauge pressure (below atmospheric

pressure).
1.22 Classify pressure measuring gauges?
Pressure measuring gauges are classified as
(a) Mechanical gauges - Bourdon gauges, Diaphragm
gauges, Bellows, Dead weight gauges
(b) Manometer gauges - Simple Manometer, U-tube
Manometer, Differential Manometer
(c) Electric gauges - Strain gauge, potentiometer
gauges, capacitance gauges.
1.23 Explain Manometry?
Manometry is the branch of fluid mechanics, which
deals with the measurement of pressures. We have seen
that pressure is proportional to the height of a column of
fluid. Manometry exploits this condition for measuring

pressure using liquid columns in vertical or inclined tubes.

The devices used in this manner are called manometers.
1.24 What is Total pressure?
When a fluid is at rest and there is no relative
velocity or velocity gradient between the layers, then the
fluid has no tangential shear force. Due to the existence of
hydrostatic pressure in the fluid mass, a normal force is
exerted on any part of a solid surface which in contact with
the fluid. This normal force exerted by the static fluid on
the surface in contact with the fluid is called total
pressure.
1.25 Define Centre of pressure.
The point at which the total pressure is supposed to
act is called the centre of pressure.
1.26 Give the expression for total pressure on a
submerged horizontal plane surface.
Total pressure FR   g A h
Where,
  density of liquid
g  acceleration due to gravity
A  total area of the surface
h  depth of the plane surface
1.27 What is the Hydrostatic paradox?

The pressure exerted by a fluid is dependent only on
the vertical head of fluid and its specific weight; it is not
affected by the weight of the fluid present. In Fig. 1.16
the four vessels all have the same base area A and filled
to the same height with the same liquid of specific weight
w     g .

A re a A A re a A A re a A A re a A
Fig:1.16
Pressure on bottom in each case  P    g  h
Force on bottom = Pressure  Area  P  A    g  h  A
Thus, although the weight of fluid is obviously

different in the four cases, the force on the bases of the
vessels is the same, depending on the depth h and the base
area A. This is called the Hydrostatic paradox.
1.28 State Archimedes principle.
Archimedes principle states that any body, wholly or
partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Buoyant force = Weight of the fluid displaced by the body
1.29 Define Centre of Buoyancy.
The point through which the buoyant force is
supposed to act is called the centre of buoyancy. It acts
vertically upwards through the centre of gravity of the
volume of fluid displaced.
1.30 State the condition for a completely immersed
body to be in stable equilibrium.
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it is able
to return to its original position when slightly disturbed
and failure to do so denotes unstable equilibrium. The
equilibrium of a body is decided by the couple formed by

the weight of the body and the buoyancy force. In general,

for submerged bodies, stable equilibrium prevails if the
centre of gravity of the body locates below the centre of
buoyancy.
1.31 Define Metacentre (M).
It is the point of intersection of the normal axis of
the body and the new line of action of the buoyant force
created when the body is displaced or tipped, however little.
The metacentre remains directly above the centre of
buoyancy regardless of the tilt of a floating body.
1.32 What are the conditions of equilibrium for a
floating body?
The conditions of equilibrium for a floating body can
be expressed in terms of metacentric height as follows.
GM  0 (ie M above G ) - Stable equilibrium
GM  0 (ie M coinciding with G ) - Neutral equilibrium
GM  0 (ie M below G ) - Unstable equilibrium
1.33 What is Metacentric height?

It is the distance between the centre of gravity of a
floating body and its metacentre.
1.34 Give the expression for the time period of
oscillation of a floating body.
The time period of oscillation is given by the equation.


k2
T  2
GM  g
...(1.35)
where,

k – Radius of gyration about the normal axis.

GM – Metacentric height
g – Acceleration due to gravity
1.35 Give the expression for slope of free liquid
surface when subjected to uniform horizontal
acceleration.
a
tan  
g
Where
a - uniform horizontal acceleration
g - acceleration due to gravity
The above equation gives the slope of the free liquid
surface and the  ve sign shows that the surface is sloping
downwards. a/g is constant and hence tan  is constant.
1.36 What devices are used in the measurement of
pressure?
The pressure in a fluid is measured by the following
devices.
1. Manometers 2. Mechanical Gauges
1.37 List the types of Simple Manometers.
Common type of simple manometers are
(i) Piezometer
(ii) U-tube Manometer
(iii) Single column Manometer
1.38 What is a Differential Manometer?
Differential manometer consists of glass tube bent in
U-shape. Two ends of the U tube are connected to the two
different points in a pipe between which pressure difference
is to be measured.

1.39 Give the dimension and S.I units of the

following. (a) Surface tension (b) Pressure
(c) Kinematic viscosity (d) Dynamic Viscosity.
Surface Tension  = unit is N/m and dimension is MT 2
Pressure P  unit is N/m2 and dimension is ML 1 T2
Kinematic Viscosity   unit is m2/s and dimension is L2 T 1
Dynamic viscosity   unit is Ns/m2 and dimension is ML 1 T 1
Chapter 2
2.1 What are the different types of fluid flow.

The different types of fluid flow are
 Steady and unsteady flow
 Uniform and non uniform flow
 1D, 2D, 3D flows
 Rotational and Irrotational flow
 Compressible and Incompressible flow
 Laminar and turbulent flow
2.2 What are steady and unsteady flow.
A flow of liquid in which the velocity, pressure,
density, temperature, etc do not change with respect to time
at any point is called steady flow.
A flow of liquid in which the velocity, pressure,
density, temperature etc change with respect to time at any
point is called unsteady flow.

2.3 What are uniform and non uniform flow?

2.3.2 Uniform and Non-Uniform Flows
When velocity remains constant at all points in the
moving fluid, then the flow is called Uniform flow. In
uniform flow, the velocity does not change with respect to
‘the distance travelled by the fluid’ at any time.

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Fig:2.3 U niform an d No n - U niform Flow
Mathematically, the uniform flow can be written as

V
0
s
V  Change in velocity and (s  distance travelled

by fluid).
When velocity of fluid changes from point to point at
any time, then the flow is known as Non-uniform flow
V
Mathematically 0
s
2.4 What are Laminar ad Turbulent flow?
2.3.3 Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow
When the fluid particles flow in well-defined ordered
layers in such a way that one layer slides over another

Fig .2.4. La m in ar flo w

layer, then it is called Laminar flow. This flow is also
called, stream line flow and viscous flow. In laminar
flow,the fluid particles of one layer will not disturb another
layer or that layer itself.
In this flow, the fluid particles moves in a well
defined path and all layers are parallel to each other and
also parallel to the pipe wall.
The flow is highly influenced by viscosity. So the
velocity of fluid particle in any layer is low.
Turbulent Flow
When the fluid particles move in random order (not
layer by layer), the flow is called turbulent flow.
In this turbulent flow, the fluid particles does not have
any definite path. The fluid particles cross each other and
have full of turbulence. There is no layers in this flow. The
velocity fluctuations are violent and erratic.
Fig.2.5. Turbulent flo w

Laminar flow or turbulent flow can be determined by

a non-dimensional number called Reynold Number Re
VD
Re 

where V  Mean velocity of flow in pipe

D  Diameter of pipe
  kinematic viscosity of fluid.
when Re  2000 , it is laminar flow
Re  4000 , it a turbulent flow
when 4000  Re  2000 i.e when Reynold number lies
between 2000 and 4000, then it may be laminar flow (or)
turbulent flow. (Transient flow)
2.5 What are Incompressible and compressible flow?
2.3.4 Incompressible and Compressible Flow
In Incompressible flow, the density of fluid remains
constant
  constant
Though liquids are slightly compressible, it is

assumed to be incompressible.
In compressible flow, the density does not remain
constant. It varies with pressure and temperature.

' ' '
'
In co mp ressib le Fluid C om pressib le Flu id
Fig:2.6 Com pressible & Incom p ressib le Fluid

P P
For ideal gas,  RT;  
 RT
Gases are compressible, since their densities vary

with P and T as per the characteristic equation.
2.6 What are Rotational and Irrotational flow?
2.3.5 Rotational Flow
and Irrotational Flow
When fluid particles
move along stream lines,
they rotate about their own
axis. This type of flow is
rotational flow. In case of (a) R otatio nal Flow
irrotational flow, when fluid
particles move along stream
lines, they do not rotate
about their own axis.
(b) Irrotatio nal Flow
Fig:2 .7 R otation al &

Irro tational F low
2.7 Differentiate between rotation and circularity in

fluid flow.
A fluid is in rotation when the fluid particles rotate
about their mass centers while moving along a streamline.
Circularity is defined as the fluid flow along a closed
curve. Mathematically the circularity is defined as the line
integral of the tangential velocity about a closed curve.

2.8 Mention the methods used to study fluid

characteristics.
Fluid characteristics are studied by using two
methods namely (i) Lagrangian method (ii) Eulerian
method
In Lagrangian method, a single fluid particle is
taken into consideration and it is analysed and followed to
study its properties
In Eulerian method, a particular space (or) region
may be selected and fluid flows through this region.
2.9 Mention the ways in which a flow pattern can be
described.
Patterns of flow can be visualized in several ways.
A flow pattern may be described by
1. Stream lines
2. Stream tube
3. Path line
4. Streak line
2.10 What are stream line and path line?
A stream line is an imaginary line drawn through a
flowing liquid in such a way that the tangent at any point
on it indicates the velocity at that point.
A path line is the line traced by a single fluid particle
as it moves over a period of time.
2.11 What is a Stream Tube?
Group of stream lines passing through a small closed
curve form a stream tube as shown in Fig.

S trea m lines
Fig.2.9 S tream tu be
2.12 Define local acceleration and convective
acceleration.
Local acceleration is defined as rate of increase of
velocity with respect to time at a given point in the flow
field.
Convective acceleration is defined as the rate of
change of velocity due to the change of position of fluid
particles in a fluid flow.
2.13 Give the continuity equation in three
dimensions.
   
 u   v   w  0
x y z t
This equation is the general equation of continuity in

three-dimensions and is applicable to any type of flow and
for any fluid whether compressible or incompressible.
 
For steady flow   0  of incompressible fluids
 dt 
  constant the equation reduces to
u v w
  0
x y z

2.14 Define Vorticity.

Vorticity is defined as the ratio of the differential circulation
around an infinitesimal closed curve enclosing the point to
the area of the closed curve. Vorticity is denoted as  (Greek
letter xi)
d v u
Vorticity  z   
dx dy x y
2.15 What is stream function?

Stream function is a scalar function of space and time.
Mathematically for steady flow, stream function is defined
as   f x, y. If a stream function exists, then it is a
possible case of fluid flow.
2.16 What are the properties of stream function?
2.11.1 Properties of Stream Function
1. If the stream function satisfies Laplace equation
2
  2
  0, then the flow is irrotational flow.
x2  y2
2. If the stream function  exists, it is a possible
case of an irrotational flow.
2.17 What is potential function? Give its properties.
Potential function is a scalar function of space and
time. It is denoted by  Phi. Mathematically, the velocity
potential is defined as   f x, y, z for steady flow.
The negative partial derivative of potential function

 with respect to any direction gives the velocity of fluid
in that direction.


i.e u
x ... (i)

v
y ... (ii)

w
dz ... (iii)
where u, v and w are the velocity components in
x, y and z direction respectively. The negative sign indicates
that the flow takes place in the direction in which 
decreases.
For an incompressible steady flow, the continuity
equation is
u v w
  0
x y z ... (iv)
  
Substitute u   ;v ;w in the equation
x y z
(iv), we get
           
     0
x  x  y  y  z  z 
2 2 2
i.e   0
x2 y2 z2 ...(2.10)
This equation is known as Laplace equation for
three dimensional flow.
Laplace equation for two dimensional flow is
2 2 
 0
x2 y 2 ...(2.11)

2.10.1 Properties of Potential Function

If the potential function  satisfies the Laplace
equation, then there is a possibility of fluid flow i.e. it
represents the flow is possible and it is incompressible
steady and irrotational flow.
2.18 Give relationship between stream function and
potential function (or) Give Cauchyremann
equations.
   
u  ;V 
x y y x
2.19 Define Equipotential line.

A line along which the velocity potential  is constant,
is called equipotential line. i.e.
  consta nt (for equipotential line)
 d  0
2.20 What is flow net?

FLOW NET
A grid obtained by

drawing a series of - 2

streamlines and -  + 2 
equipotential lines is  s
o n  + 
90 o
known as a Flow Net. It is 90

an important tool in
analyzing two dimensional
S trea m s t ia l
irrotational flow problems, lines u i p o te n
E q li n e s
when the mathematical Fig. 2.23
calculation is difficult and
tedious.

Flow net is a graphical representation of a family of

streamlines intersecting orthogonally a family of
equipotential lines and in the process forming small
curvilinear squares. [Refer Fig. 2.23]. It is actually a
graphical solution of laplace’s equation in two dimensions.
2.21 Name the different methods of drawing flow
nets.
The various methods used for drawing flow nets are:
 Analytical (or Mathematical) method
 Graphical method
 Electrical Analogy method
 Hydraulic models
2.22 Give any two uses of flow nets.
 The flow problems where mathematical analysis
of difficult, can be solved easily by flow nets, like
for example, the flow through a Francis water
turbine rotor.
 Once the flow net is constructed, it can be used
for different discharges.
2.23 What are the limitations of flow nets.
 In case where viscous flow is predominant, like
near to the boundary surface, flow net analysis
cannot be applied.
 In sharply diverging flow passes, the actual flow
pattern is not represented by the flow net, so
cannot be applied.
 Flow nets cannot show accurately the formation
of wakes, resulting from eddy formation and
separation.

2.24 The path followed by a fluid particle in motion

is called a ........
Ans: path line
2.25 A ....... is an imaginary line within the flow so
that the tangent at any point on it indicates the
velocity at that point.
Ans: stream line
2.26 ....... is a curve which gives an instantaneous
picture of the location of the fluid particles
which have passed through a given point.
Ans: streak line
2.27 If the flow is irrotational as well as steady it is
known as ......
Ans: potential flow
Chapter 3
3.1 State Bernoulli’s Theorem.

Bernoullis theorem states that for an ideal, steady,
continuous and incompressible fluid flow, the sum of
pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy is
constant along the stream line.
P V2
  Z  constant
w 2g Potential
Pressure Kinetic
Energy
Energy Energy

3.2 State the assumptions made in Bernoulli’s

equation.
3.2.5 Assumptions for derivation of Bernoullis
Equation
1. The fluid is ideal (or) non viscous. [there is no
viscosity]
2. The fluid flow is steady flow.
3. The flow is incompressible
4. The velocity is uniform over the cross section of the
passage.
5. The flow is irrotational
3.3 Mention two flow measuring devices?
Venturimeter and orifice meter.
3.4 Define Velocity Coefficient?
Velocity coefficient is ratio of actual velocity of fluid
to theoretical velocity
Vactual
Coefficient of velocity C V 
Vtheoretical
3.5 What is Vena contracta?

When fluid is flowing through orifice, the diameter of
liquid jet will be reduced (contracted) in front of the orifice.
This one, refers to vena contracta. When a fluid flows
through the orifice, it contracts and its dia reduces at a
d
distance from the orifice. The point where the flow
2
contracts is called vena contracta. Beyond this vena
contracta, the fluid jet diverges. At venacontracta, the cross
sectional area is less than the orifice. The stream lines of
the flow is parallel here.

3.6 Define Coefficient of contraction.

The ratio of the area of venacontracta to the area of
the orifice is known as coefficient of contraction.
Coefficient of contraction
Area of jet at vena contracta
Cc 
A rea of the orifice
3.7 What is impulse momentum equation?

dmV
F  This is momentum principle.
dt
The above equation can be written as
F dt  d mV 
Impulse  Change in momentum
The above equation is called Impulse-momentum

equation.
3.8 State moment of momentum equation.
Moment of Momentum principle states that the
resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal to the
rate of change of moment of momentum.
Let V1, V 2  Velocity of Fluid at section 1 and Section 2

r1, r2 = radius of curvature at section 1 and section 2
Q = Rate of flow of fluid
 = Mass density of fluid
Then, Resultant Torque, T   Q [V 2r2  V 1r1]
The above equation is called moment of momentum.

3.9 What are the applications of moment of

momentum.
1. Torque exerted by water on sprinkler.
2. Flow Analysis in turbines and centrifugal pumps.
3.10 Write a brief note on Pitot-tube.
Pitot-tube is a device used for measuring the velocity
of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel. It is based on
the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes
zero, the pressure there is increased due to the conversion
of the kinetic energy into pressure energy. In the simplest
form, the pitot tube consist of a glass tube, bent at right
angles.
3.11 Define Notch. What are the different types of
notches?
A Notch is defined as an opening in the side of a
tank or reservoir which extends above the surface of the
liquid. It is a device, generally made of metal, for
measuring discharge of a liquid.
Notches can be classified according to the shape of
the opening as
(a) Rectangular notch
(b) Triangular notch
(c) Trapezoidal notch
(d) Stepped notch
3.12 What is a Wier?
A weir is a concrete or masonary structure, placed in
an open channel (like a stream or river) over which the
flow of liquid occurs. A weir is a notch on a larger scale

which is sharp crested but also may have substantial width

in the direction of flow. It is used as both a flow measuring
device and a device to raise water levels.
3.13 Classify weirs according to the nature of
discharge.
(ii) According to the nature of discharge, weirs are
classified as
(a) Ordinary weir
(b) Submerged or drowned weir
3.14 Define nappe and crest.
Nappe or Vein: The sheet
of liquid flowing through a
notch or over a weir is called N a pp e
nappe or vein.
Sill or Crest: The bottom C re st
edge of a notch or the top of Fig:3.9 Nap pe & C rest
a weir over which the liquid
flows is called as the sill or crest.
3.15 Write the expression for discharge over a
trapezoidal notch or weir.
Discharge over the trapezoidal notch,
Q Discharge over the rectangular notch
 Discharge over the triangular notch
2 3 8  5
Q 2g
Cd L   H 2  Cd  2g tan  H 2

3 1 15 2 2

3.16 Give the expression for time required to empty a

reservoir or tank with a rectangular notch.
With a Rectangular notch or weir:
If,
A  Cross-sectional Area of the tank
L  Length of crest of the notch or weir
H 1  Initial height of liquid above the crest
H 2  Final height of the liquid above the crest
C d  Coefficient of discharge
Then, the time required to lower the height of liquid

from H 1 to H 2 is given by the expression,
3A  1 1 
T 
2g 
Cd  L   H
 2  1 
H

3.17 Define velocity of approach.
Velocity of approach is defined as the velocity with
which the water approaches or reaches a notch/weir before
flowing over it.
If A  Area of cross-section of the channel
and, Q  Discharge over the notch/weir

Q
Then, Va 
A
3.18 What is meant by End contractions?

If the length of the weir is less than the width of the
channel, then the nappe contracts at the sides. This results

in the width of the nappe at the crest being less than the
crest length and the weir is said to have end contractions.
3.19 What is suppressed weir?
If the crest length equals the width of the channel,
such a type of weir is called a suppressed weir, where
there is no effect of end contractions.
3.20 What is a Cippoletti weir (or Notch) and state
its purpose?
A cippoletti weir is ‘ a contracted weir of
trapezoidal shape in which the sides incline
outwardly at a slope of one horizontal to 4 vertical.
The purpose of the slopes is to obtain an increased
discharge through the triangular portions of the weir, which
otherwise would have been decreased due to end
contractions in a rectangular weir.
3.21 The piezometric head is the summation of .......
Ans: pressure head and elevation head
3.22 Moment of momentum equation is applicable to
..... flows.
Ans: Incompressible.

Chapter 4
4.1 What are laminar and turbulent flow?

A laminar flow is a flow in which the particles move
along a well defined path or stream line and all the stream
lines are straight and parallel.
A Turbulent flow is the type of flow in which the fluid
particles moves in a zig-zag way.
The type of flow can be determined by Reynolds
number. If, Reynolds number is less than 2000 the flow is
laminar. If the Reynolds number is more than 4000 the
flow is turbulent. If the Reynolds number is between 2000
to 4000, the flow may be either laminar or turbulent.
4.2 What is Reynolds number.
VD
Reynolds number is given by relation Re 
u
Where   density of fluid
V  Average velocity of fluid
D  Diameter of pipe
  Viscosity of fluid
4.3 What is the significance of Reynolds number?
Reynolds number gives information on whether the
inertial or viscous force is dominant in the flow. It tells us
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
4.4 What is Critical reynolds number?
The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes
turbulent is called the critical Reynolds number, Recr. The

value of the critical Reynolds number is different for

different geometries and flow conditions. For internal flow
in a circular pipe, the generally accepted value of the
critical Reynolds number is 2300.
4.5 High velocity flow in a conduit of large size is
known as .......
Ans: turbulent flow
4.6 If the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow
in a pipe is ........
Ans: laminar flow
4.7 What is a viscous flow.
A flow is said to be viscous if the Reynolds number
is less than 2000 or fluid flows in layers.
4.8 The shear stress for viscous flow through pipe is
 p r
given by   
x 2
4.9 The velocity distribution for a viscous flow
through pipe is given by.
1 p 2
u  [ R  r2 ]
4u x
4.10 The Ratio of maximum velocity to average

velocity for a viscous flow through a pipe is
given by.
U max
 2.0
u
4.11 Write Hagen Poiseuille equation?

Hagen Poiseuille equation for loss of pressure head,


32uL
hL 
gD 2
In the previous questions, we have
p
 p r e s s u re g rad ie n t
x
 - Radius of pipe
R
u - Average velocity
D - Diameter of pipe
r - radius at any point
U max - maximum velocity
 - coefficient of viscosity
L - Length of pipe
 - Density of liquid
4.12 Define coefficient of viscosity.
The coefficient of viscosity is defined as the viscous
force acting per unit area between two layers moving with
unit velocity gradient.
4.13 For a viscous flow between two parallel plates
the velocity distribution is given by
1 p
u ty  y 2
2 x
4.14 For a viscous flow between two parallel plates

the ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity
given by.
U max
 1.5
u

4.15 Loss of pressure head hL for viscous flow between

two parallel plates is given by

12 uL
hL 
gt2
4.16 The shear stress distribution for viscous flow

between two parallel plates is given by.
p
  1/2 [t  2y]
x
The various terms are

t-thickness or distance between plates
y-distance in vertical direction from lower plate

u - Average velocity
L - length of pipe
 - shear stress at any point
 - coefficient of viscosity
4.17 What is kinetic energy correction factor ?

Kinetic energy correction factor is the ratio of kinetic
energy per second based on actual velocity to kinetic energy
per second based on average velocity.
kinetic energy per second based on actual velocity

kinetic energy per second based on avera ge velocity
  2.0 for circular pipe
4.17 What are the laws of fluid friction?

William Froude gave the following laws of fluid
friction for turbulent flow on the basis of his experiments.
The friction resistance for turbulent flow is:

(i) proportional to Vn , where n varies from 1.5 to 2.0

(ii) proportional to density of fluid 
(iii) proportional to surface area in contact

(iv) dependent on nature of surface in contact and
independent of pressure.
4.18 What is momentum correction factor?
Momentum correction factor
momentum per second based on actual velocity
 
momentum per second based on average velocity
4.19 What are the various methods of determining

viscosity?
(i) Capillary tube method
(ii) Falling sphere resistance method
(iii) Rotating cylinder method
(iv) Orifice type viscometer
4.20 Write Darcy-weisbach equation and explain the
terms.
Darcy Weisbach equation for head loss due to pipe
4f LV 2
friction is given by, hf 
2gd
where f - friction factor

L - length of pipe
V - Velocity of flow
d - diameter of pipe

4.21 The shear stress due to prandtl’s mixing in

turbulent flow is given by.
 2
 du 
  l2  
 dy 
4.22 What are hydrodynamically rough and smooth
boundaries.
If the average height of irregularity projections (K) is
large, then the boundary is called rough boundary.
If the average height of irregularity projection (K) is
small, then the boundary is called smooth boundary.
4.23 What is the use of Moody’s chart?
The chart developed by Prof. L.F. Moody for
commercial pipes is a convenient and more reliable tool for
solving practical problems in pipe. Moody’s chart gives the
value of friction factor f of any pipe provided its relative
K
roughness and Reynolds number of flow Re are known.
D
4.24 What are the various losses of energy in pipes?

The various losses in energy are
(I) Major Energy losses : Losses due to friction
(II) Minor Energy losses : Due to
(a) Sudden expansion of pipe
(b) Sudden contraction of pipe
(c) Bend in pipe
(d) Pipe fittings
(e) Pipe obstructions
4.25 Write the Chezy’s formula for head loss in pipe.
Chezy’s formula is given by, V  C 

mi

g
 A hf
where C  , m ,i
f1 P L
 - density of fluid
f1  4f
m - Hydraulic mean depth

A - Area of flow
p - perimeter (wetted)
hf - Loss of head
L - Length of pipe
Loss of head due to friction can be calculated if
velocity and C are known.
4.26 Loss of Head due to sudden enlargement is given
by.
2
V1  V 2 
he   
2g
4.27 Loss of head due to sudden contraction in pipe

is given by.
0.5 V 22
hc 
2g
4.28 Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe is given

by.
0.5 V2
hi 
2g

4.29 Loss of head at the exit of a pipe is given by

V2
H0 
2g
4.30 Loss of head due to an obstruction in pipe is

given by.
2 2
 A  V
hobs  
C A  a  2g
 c 
4.31 Loss of head due to bend in pipe is given by
kV 2
hb 
2g
4.32 Loss of head due to various pipe fitting.

kfV 2
hfit 
2g
4.33 What is Hydraulic Gradient line.

Hydraulic Gradient line (H.G.L.) is defined as the line
which gives the sum of pressure head P/g and datum
head (Z) of the flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some
reference line.
4.34 What is total energy line?
Total energy line (T.E.L) is defined as the line which
gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic
head of a flowing fluid in pipe with respect to some
reference line.
4.35 What is a syphon?
Syphon is a long bend pipe which is used to transfer
fluid from a reservoir at a higher elevation to another

reservoir at a lower level when the two reservoirs are

separated by a hill or high level ground.
4.36 In flow through n pipes in series, the discharge
is given by.
Q  A 1V1  A 2V2  A 3V3 AnV n
4.37 In flow through n pipes in parallel the discharge

is given by.
Q  Q1  Q2    Qn
4.38 Power transmitted at outlet of pipe is given by

P  gQ H  hf
4.39 Define efficiency of power transmission.

Efficiency of power transmission
Power available at outlet of the pipe
 
Power supplied at the inlet of the pipe
H  hf
Also  
H
4.40 What is the condition for maximum transmission
of power?
Condition for maximum transmission of power is
hf  H  3
4.41 What is water hammer?

When a pipe having a valve, through which water
flows, is suddenly closed (valve closed), a wave of high back
pressure is developed. This wave of high pressure has an
effect of hammering action on the walls of pipe called water
hammer.

4.42 Define cavitation.

Cavitation is defined as the process of formation of
the vapor phase of a liquid when it is subjected to reduced
pressures at constant ambient temperature.
4.43 What is cavitation number?
An indication of the possibility of vapourization is
often expressed by the cavitation number, which is the
ratio between static pressure and the vaporization pressure.
4.44 What are the Effects of cavitation.
Cavitation produces undesirable effects on piping
system and components. The effects are:
 excessive vibration and undesirable noise
 erosion (pitting)
 pipe failure
 loss of efficiency
 fluctuations of flow and pressure, and
 calculated flow rates are inaccurate
4.45 How to prevent cavitation?
The following precautions must be taken against cavitation.
 The pressure of the flowing liquid should not be
allowed to fall below its vapour pressure in any
part of the system.
 Cavitation resistant materials or coatings should
be used.
4.46 Write down the expression for the diameter of
equivalent pipe for a system of pipes in series
......
L L1 L2 L3
   5
d 5
d51 d52 d3

4.46 The total energy-line is always higher than the

hydraulic gradient line, the vertical distance
between the two representing .......
Ans: the velocity head
4.47 The Darcy Weisbach friction coefficient which
depends on Reynold’s number is given by the
equation .......
16
f where R e  2000 Viscous flow or Laminar flow 
Re
0.079
f 1
w here R e  4000 turbulent flow
R e4
Chapter 5
5.1 What is a boundary layer?

When a fluid flows past a solid body or solid wall
there is a variation of velocity from zero velocity at
stationary boundary to stream velocity in the direction
normal to the boundary, taking place in a narrow region
in the vicinity of solid boundary. This narrow region of fluid
is called boundary layer.
5.2 What is laminar zone with respect to flow over a
flat plate?
Length of plate x from leading edge upto laminar
boundary layer is called Laminar zone AB. The distance
AB is calculated by Reynold’s number
Vx
R ex 

V Free-stream velocity of fluid.

x Distance AB from Leading edge.

Re  Reynold’s number  5  105
(for laminar boundary layer for a
plate)
 Kinematic viscosity of fluid.
If V and  are known then x can be calculated.
5.3 Write a brief note on Laminar sub-layer.

Layer adjacent to the plate in turbulent boundary
layer is called Laminar (or viscous) sub - layer. Here there
is no room for large eddies. In this zone, velocity is
influenced only by viscous effects. Due to small thickness,
 du 
 dy  becomes constant and hence the shear stress in the
 
u
sub-layer is 0   
y
5.4 What is boundary layer thickness?
It is defined as the distance from the boundary of
solid body measured in y-direction to the point, where the
velocity of fluid is approximately 0.99 times of stream line
velocity.
5.5 Define displacement thickness.
Displacement thickness  is defined as the distance,

measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body,
by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate
for the reduction in flow rate on the account of boundary
layer formation. It is denoted by .
Displacement thickness is given by.


u
  1  v  dy
0
5.6 Define Momentum thickness.

Momentum thickness is defined as the distance,
measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body,
by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate
for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on
account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by 
Momentum thickness is given by

u u
  v  1  v  dy
0
5.7 Define Energy thickness.

Energy thickness is defined as the distance, measured
perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which
the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the
reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account
of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by 
Energy thickness is given by.


u u2 
   1  2  dy
v v 

0
5.8 What is coefficient of drag?

Coefficient of drag is defined as the ratio of shear
1
stress 0 to the quantity AV 2
2

0
Average coefficient of drag C D 
1
AV 2
2
5.9 What is Boundary layer separation?

When a solid body is immersed in a flowing fluid, a
thin layer of fluid called boundary layer is developed near
the solid body.
Along the length of the solid body, at a certain point
the boundary layer may not be able to keep sticking to the
solid body. In other words the boundary layer will be
separated from the surface. This phenomenon is called
boundary layer separation.
5.10 What is point of separation
The point on the body at which the boundary layer
is on the verge of separation from the surface is called
point of separation.
5.11 What are the conditions for separation, attached
flow, and detached flow?
 u 
(i)  y   0  0 for separation
 y
 u 
(ii)    0   ve for attached flow
 y y
 u 
(iii)    0   ve for detached flow.
 y y

5.12 Mention any four methods of controlling

boundary layer separation.
The various methods to avoid boundary layer
separation are as follows:
 Suction of low momentum layer by a suction slot.
 Providing a bypass in the slotted wing.
 Supplying additional energy from a blower.
 Rotating boundary in the direction of flow.
Chapter 6
6.1 Give the uses of dimensional analysis.

The uses of dimensional analysis are:
(i) Testing the dimensional homogeneity of any
equation of fluid motion.
(ii) Deriving equations expressed in terms of
non-dimensional parameters to show the relative
significance of each parameter.
(iii) Planning model tests and presenting experimental
results in a systematic manner in terms of
non-dimensional parameters; thus making it possible
to analyse the complex fluid flow phenomenon.
6.2 What is the importance of dimensional analysis?
Dimensional analysis makes use of the study of
dimensions as an aid to the solution of several engineering
problems. It helps in determining a systematic arrangement
of the variables in the physical relationship and combining
dimensional variables to form non-dimensional parameters.

6.3 What is a model study?

More time, money and energy goes into the design,
construction and erection of hydraulic machines and pumps,
etc. To minimize the chances of failure, it is always desired
that the tests be performed on small size models of the
machines or pumps. Model testing is always economical and
easy, since the design and construction of the model can
conveniently be changed number of times. On the basis of
the results from the model, the performance of the
prototype (actual type) can be predicted.
6.4 What do you understand by dimensional
homogeneity? (or)
6.5 Explain the term dimensionally homogeneous
equation.
If the dimensions of each term on both sides of an
equation are same, the equation is known as dimensionally
homogeneous equation. The powers of fundamental
dimensions (M, L, T) on both sides of the equation will be
identical for a dimensionally homogeneous equation. Such
equations are independent of the system of units.
Consider the equation for velocity of a fluid through
a nozzle,
V 
 2gH
Substitute the dimensions of the quantities on both

sides,


L L L
 2
L 
T T T

Since the dimensions on both sides are same, it is

dimensionally homogeneous equation.
6.6 Explain the principle of similitude.
Similitude is the similarity between the model and its
prototype in every respect, which means that the model and
prototype have similar properties or model and prototype
are completely similar.
6.7 Enlist the non-dimensional numbers (or)
What are non-dimensional numbers?
Non-dimensional numbers are those numbers, which
are obtained by dividing the inertia force by viscous force
or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension. As this
is a ratio of one force to the other force, it will be a
dimensionless number. The important dimensionless
numbers are :
(i) Reynold’s number, (ii) Froude’s number, (iii) Euler’s
number, (iv) Weber’s number and (v) Mach’s number.
6.8 Check whether the following equations are
dimensionally homogeneous.
N
P  d2
a N s   b Q  Cv 
2gH
H 5/4 4
Yes, the abo ve equatio ns are dimensio nally

ho mo geneo us
equatio ns.
6.9 What is kinematic similarity?
Kinematic similarity implies the similarity o f mo tio n,
i.e., the ratio s o f velo c ity, ac c eleratio n, disc harge, etc., are
same in bo th the mo del and the pro to type at all
ho mo geneo uspo ints(geo metric allysimilarpo ints).Thisalso

implies that the path of moving particles is same at the

homogeneous points. Such ratios will be as follows.
Tm
Time scale ratio T r 
Tp
L m/T m Lr
Velocity scale ratio C r  
Lp/T p Tr
6.10 What is hydraulic similarity? .

To know the complete working and behaviour of the
prototype (actual) from its model, there should be a
complete similarity between the prototype and its scale
model. This similarity is known as hydraulic similitude (or)
hydraulic similarity. The three hydraulic similarities are :
(i) Geometric similarity, (ii) Kinematic similarity and
(iii) Dynamic similarity.
6.11 What is dynamic similitude?
Dynamic similarity means the similarity of the forces
between the model and prototype, if the ratios of the
corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points are
equal. Also the directions of the corresponding forces at the
corresponding points in the model and prototype should be
same.
Let  F i   Inertia force at the point in proto type

 p
 F v   Viscous force at the point in proto type

 p
 F g   Gravity force at the point in proto type and

 p

 F i  ,  F r   F g   corresponding values of the forces

 m  m, m
in the model
 Fi   Fv   Fg 
 p  p  p
 Dynamic similarity    F r  Force
 Fi   Fv   Fg 
 m  m  m
ratio.
6.12 What is meant by geometric, kinematic and
dynamic similarities?
Geometric similarity: A model and its prototype are
geometrically similar, if the ratios of the corresponding
length dimensions are equal.
Let Lp, bp, D p, A p, V p and L m, bm, Dm, A m, Vm are the
length, breadth, diameter, area and volume of a model and
prototype respectively.
For geometric similarity between model and prototype,
the relation
Lp bp Dp
   L r  length scale ratio .
Lm bm Dm
Ap L p  bp
Area scale ratio    L r  Lr  L 2r
Am L m  bm
Note: For kinematic and dynamic similarities refer

previous questions.
6.13 What are the types of physical quantities which
are used in dimensional analysis?
(i) Fundamental quantities, (ii) Geometric quantities,
(iii) Kinematic quantities and (iv) Dynamic quantities.

6.14 Write the fundamental dimensions of power and

dynamic viscosity.
Dimensions
Power  ML 2 T3
Dynamic viscosity  ML  1 T 1
6.15 Give the significance of Reynold’s number and

Froude’s number in fluid flow problem.
Inertia force
Reynold’s number 
Viscous force
Inertia force
Froude’s number

 Gravity force
From the above relations, it is observed that a higher

value of a dimensionless number signifies the predominance
of the inertia force. Thus a higher value of the Reynold’s
number means a large inertia force compared to the viscous
force and the flow is non- viscous or turbulent. A low value
of the Reynold’s number indicates a relatively small inertia
force as compared to the viscous force and the flow is called
viscous (or) laminar flow.
6.16 Show that Reynold’s number is non-dimensional.
2 2
Inertia force  L V
Reynold’s number  
Viscous force  VL
V ML  3  L  L 1
 L  
 ML 1T  1  T 1
By substituting the dimensions for the symbol, the

numerator and denominator will have the same units.
Thus, Reynold’s number is a non-dimensional one.

6.17 Define specific head or head co-efficient.

It is the ratio of the kinetic energy of the fluid
spouting under the head ‘H’ to the kinetic energy of the
fluid running at the rotor tangential speed. The term
gH
is called the “specific head”.
N2 D2
6.18 State Buckingham  Theorem.

Buckingham--Theorem states that, “If there are n
variables (independent and dependent variables) in a
physical phenomenon and if these variables contain ‘m’
fundamental dimensions (M, L, T), then the variables are
arranged into n  m  dimensionless terms called  term.”
6.19 What is the significance of Euler Number?

1. Used in fluid flow calculations where local pressure
drop is necessary. (Pressure drop dp  upstream
pressure – downstream pressure)
2. Used to characterize the losses in the flow.
3. E u  1 corresponds to a perfect frictionless fluid flow.
6.20 What is the significance and application of
Mach Number?
1. To check whether the fluid can be considered
compressible or not.
2. If M  0.2  0.3 . Then the fluid medium can be
considered steady and isothermal and hence
incompressible.
3. Used for fluids flowing with high speeds in channels,
nozzles, diffusers, etc.
4. It is analogous to Froude number.

6.21 Define Cauchy number.

(f) Cauchy Number C a
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to elastic
force (compressibility force).
Ine rtia force
Ca 
Elastic force
 V2 L2  V2
 
KL2 K ...(i)
The bulk modulus of elasticity, k has the dimension
pressure and is commonly used to characterise the
compressibility of a fluid.
6.22 Write two advantages of Dimensional Analysis.
 used to validate the correctness of physical
equation.
 to reduce the number of variables ie to obtain
relationship between the variables influencing a
flow problem in terms of dimensionless
parameters.
6.23 What are model laws?
The laws on which the model are designed for
dynamic similarity are called model laws or laws of
similarity. The dynamic similarity laws are:
 Reynold’s model law
 Froude model law
 Euler model law
 Weber model law
 Mach model law

6.24 State Reynolds model law.

Reynolds model law (Viscous forces are predominant in
fluid flow)
The law states that the Reynold number for the model
must be equal to the Reynold number for the prototype.
[Re ]m  [Re]p
V m m L m V p  p L p
 
m p ...(i)
where,
V m  Velocity of fluid in model
m  Density of fluid in model
L m  Length or linear dimension of the model
m  Viscosity of fluid in model
and Vp, p, L p and p are the corresponding values in

prototype.
6.25 What are the applications of Froude model law.
Models based on Froude model law include
 free surface flows (flow over spillways, weirs,
sluices, channels, etc)
 jet from an orifice or nozzle
 flow of fluids of different densities over one
another
 flows where waves are likely to be formed on
surface

6.26 What are the applications of Euler’s model law?

Euler’s model law is applied
 where flow is taking place in a closed pipe in
which turbulence is fully developed.
 where the phenomenon of cavitation takes place.
6.27 Why does a partially submerged body experience
resistance its motion?
The drag force or resistance experienced by a partially
submerged body (consider a ship) in water is due to
 the wave resistance, offered by the waves on the
free sea surface
 the frictional or viscous resistance, offered by
water on the surface of contact
6.28 How are hydraulic models classified?
Hydraulic models are classified as
 Undistorted models
 Distorted models
6.29 What are distorted models?
Those models which are not geometrically similar to
their prototypes are called distorted models ie one or more
of the similar requirements are not satisfied. Here different
scale ratios for the linear dimensions are adopted.
6.30 Write two applications of model testing.
 The merits of alternative design can be predicted
and hence the most economical and safe design
can be finally adopted.
 Models can be used to test in extreme conditions,
not possible in real environments. Also, some

applications may operate in dangerous or

expensive fluids, so, testing on models can be
carried out by replacing the operative fluid with
a more convenient substitute.
6.31 What are the limitations of model testing?
 Useful information about the performance of the
prototypes can be obtained from models only if
complete similarity exists between the model and
prototype. It is possible that the predictions from
models can be made in error and not get detected
until prototype is found not to perform.
 Scaling effects: Full geometric similarity
requires that not only the main dimensions of
objects but also the surface roughness (for mobile
beds, the sediment size) be in proportion. This
would put impossible requirements on surface
finish or grain size, so in practice, it is sufficient
that the surface be aerodynamically rough.

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Short Questions and Answers SQ.

SHORT QUESTION AND ANSWERS

MECHANICS OF FLUIDS - KERALA

1.1 What is fluid mechanics?

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1.4 What are the types of fluids?

1.6 What are Newtonian fluids? Give examples.

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1.7 Distinguish between vapour and gas.

Specific weight is defined as weight per unit volume.

1.9 Define Specific volume and specific gravity.

1.10 Define Compressibility and viscosity of fluid?

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Compre ss ive Strain

Viscosity is the resistance offered to the movement of

where : Kinematic viscosity

1.12 Give the relationship between viscosity and

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1.13 Why it is necessary in winter to use lighter oil

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Where P : Pressure in N/m 2,  : Surface tension in

 diameter d  0.02 m  20 mm

1.18 Suppose the small air bubbles in a glass tap

 The pressure will be 80,000 times that of the

suppose   0.1 N/m , then pressure

 0.1  80,000  8000 N/m 2

1.19 Define Capillarity.

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phenomenon is due to the combined effect of cohesion and

1.21 Define gauge pressure and vacuum pressure?

Absolute pressure  Atmospheric  gauge pressure.

‘’ for gauge pressure (above atmospheric pressure).

‘’ for negative gauge pressure (below atmospheric

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pressure using liquid columns in vertical or inclined tubes.

1.27 What is the Hydrostatic paradox?

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Pressure on bottom in each case  P    g  h

Force on bottom = Pressure  Area  P  A    g  h  A

Thus, although the weight of fluid is obviously

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the weight of the body and the buoyancy force. In general,

GM  0 (ie M coinciding with G ) - Neutral equilibrium

GM  0 (ie M below G ) - Unstable equilibrium

1.33 What is Metacentric height?

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k – Radius of gyration about the normal axis.

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1.39 Give the dimension and S.I units of the

Pressure P  unit is N/m2 and dimension is ML 1 T2

Kinematic Viscosity   unit is m2/s and dimension is L2 T 1

Dynamic viscosity   unit is Ns/m2 and dimension is ML 1 T 1

2.1 What are the different types of fluid flow.

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2.3 What are uniform and non uniform flow?

Mathematically, the uniform flow can be written as

V  Change in velocity and (s  distance travelled

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Fig .2.4. La m in ar flo w

Fig.2.5. Turbulent flo w

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Laminar flow or turbulent flow can be determined by

where V  Mean velocity of flow in pipe