Propagation Methods 1.8.1.

2 Endogenous
1.8.2 Methods to break seed dormancy
1.8.2.1 Stratification
1.8.2.2 Scarification
1.8.3 Hormonal Control of Seed Dormancy
1.8.3.1 Growth promoters
1.8.3.2 Growth Inhibitor
1.8.4 Advantages of Seed Dormancy
1.9 Rest Period
1.9.1 Quiescence
1.9.2 Rest Period
1.10 Transplanting Seedlings
1.11 Advantages of Sexual Propagation
1.12 Disadvantages of Sexual Propagation
1.13 Let Us Sum Up
1.14 Key Words
1.15 Further References
1.16 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
explain different methods of sexual propagation,
aspects of seed production,
describe seed germination,
define dormancy, and
advantages and disadvantages of sexual plant propagation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You might have noticed the way gardener propagates good plants for its use in
current or next season. Over centuries plants are being propagated knowingly or
unknowingly. Plant propagation is an important prerequisite to carry on good
characteristics of a particular plant from one generation to next. Different methods
may be used for propagation of horticultural plants. These include sexual and
asexual methods. When the plant is propagated primarily through seeds, through
production of zygotic embryos, the method is termed as sexual propagation.
While, when the propagation is either through segmentation of vegetative parts
or through vegetative embryos (nucellar embryos), this is termed as asexual
propagation. Depending upon the importance and utility of horticultural plant,
either sexual or asexual method may be used for plant propagation. Sexual method
of propagation is generally used to breed new varieties.

1.2 PROPAGATION METHODS

As you are aware that the plants can be propagated through different methods.
6 These include through vegetative and non vegetative means. The earlier is
commonly known as propagation through asexual means and later as through Sexual Method of
Propagation
sexual methods. In this unit you will learn primarily about sexual methods of
plant propagation.

1.3 SEXUAL METHODS

When the plant is propagated through seeds, it is termed to be the sexual method
of propagation. It is said so because seed is formed through fusion of male and
female gametes of the parents. You might be eager to know how seed is produced
and utilized for propagation in different plants, especially the horticultural plants.
Fruit plants like papaya is commercially propagated through seeds. Likewise, as
woody fruit plants are commercially composite structures having two components
i.e. rootstock and scion, the rootstock is primarily propagated through seeds.

1.4 SEED PRODUCTION

Seed production depends upon the state of seed when harvested from plant,
environment around such as soil type and moisture conditions necessary for
germination, as well as the proper isolation distances maintained in cross
pollinated crops. Above all, for commercial seed production, the seed should
stay viable for longer periods of time. To get involved and have success in seed
production, you must know about seed, the process of seed production, maturity,
ripening and about the chemicals which can protect seed in soil after sowing or
during storage as well as the factors which affect seed production.

1.4.1 Seed
Botanically seed is a matured ovule containing an embryo that is usually the
result of sexual fertilization. Seed may arise either from the fusion of male and
female gametes to form a single cell called zygote, within the ovule of the flower
or from vegetative or unfertilized reproductive cells within the ovule.

1.4.2 Components of Seed

Seed has three major components, namely seed coat, endosperm and embryo.
These components provided by nature have definite role to play. Seed coat protects
the growing embryo in the seed, from odd conditions of nature, such as
unfavourable temperature, light and humidity while endosperm provides nutrition
to the young embryo, till it is self sufficient for its own survival.

1.4.3 Quality Seed Production

The production of quality seeds should be the mandate of each and every nursery
grower. The desirable attributes of quality seed are as follows:
1) Seed should be genetically true to type, as in nucellar seeds.
2) Seed should be uniform is shape and size.
3) It should not be a mixture of other seeds or weed seeds.
4) It should have longer viability period.
5) Seed should be free from insect pest and disease damage.
7
Propagation Methods 1.4.4 Process Involved in Seed Production
1.4.4.1 Pollination

The process at the time of flowering, during which the pollen grains from anther,
falls on the stigma of flower and germinates to form pollen tube. For proper
pollination to occur, the pollen should be mature/viable and stigma should be
receptive. On the basis of pollination requirement, the horticultural plants may
be self or cross pollinated. In self pollination, the pollen from the same flower
pollinates the stigma, while in case of cross pollination; the pollen may come
from any other flower. Before pollination test for pollen viability, pollen
germination and stigma receptivity should be done.

a) Pollen viability : Pollen viability can be determined by using biochemical

test. In this test, pollen grains are taken on a cavity slide and stained with
acetocarmine (1-2 %) solution. The pollen grains which get stained are
considered viable, whereas the unstained pollen grains are considered non-
viable. The living protoplasm gets the stain.

A B

Fig 1. Guava (Psidium guajava) unstained (A) and stained (B) pollen.

b) Pollen germination : The pollen germination studies done before actual

pollination, makes sure the success of fertilization and healthy seed
production. The germination of pollen is studied in cavity slides in different
concentrations of sugar solution ranging from 10-30 per cent. The incubation
time in sugar solution depends upon the pollen origin i.e. variety and species.

c) Stigma receptivity : In general, the stigma is considered to be receptive

when it is sticky in nature. Stickiness helps to hold pollen for a particular
period of time before it grows in the form of pollen tube towards ovary. This
is true especially in case of citrus fruits and some flower plants, Stigma
become shining, sticky and brightly coloured when it is receptive.

A B

Fig 2: Citrus flower showing Receptive (A) and Non Receptive (B) stigma.

8
Most of the horticultural plants are naturally cross pollinated. Cross pollination Sexual Method of
Propagation
may be carried out either naturally or through manual (especially in case of hybrid
seed production) means. Natural cross pollination is carried out by either bird,
insects like honey bees (Citrus and flower) or house flies (Mango), wind (Date
Palm).

1.4.4.2 Fertilization

In this process, two male gametes from the pollen tube are discharged into the
embryo sac; the one unites with a female gamete and produces zygote. In other
words, after successful pollination, the pollen grains germinate on the stigma of
the flower and reach the ovule. The two nuclei of the pollen grains are discharged
into the embryo sac. In the mean time, there is development of eight nuclei in the
ovule, consisting of egg cell, two synergists at one end, three antipodal nuclei at
the other end and two polar nuclei near the centre. One of the nuclei of the pollen
tube fuses with the egg cells, producing the embryo of the seed and the other
with two polar nuclei to produce endosperm.

Srigma

Style Anther

Ovary

Fig 3: Reproductive parts of citrus flower.

1.4.5 Maturity and Ripening of Seed

Seed is mature when it can be removed from the plant without impairing the
seed germination. Usually seed crop is harvested after the seed has reached
physiological maturity. This is the stage on the plant when no further increase in
dry weight will occur. In physiologically immature seed, the embryo is
insufficiently developed. Moreover the moisture content may not be adequate.
In other words, the seed should be harvested just before the fruit is fully ripe.
The seed of pulpy fruits such as grapes etc. should be separated from the pulp
washed and thoroughly dried before storage.

1.4.6 Chemicals Used to Protect Seeds

The seeds either during storage for a long time or while sown in soil, need to be
protected from micro organisms. The fungal infection is most commonly observed
in such seeds. The broad spectrum fungicides like Captan or Thiram can protect
seeds during sowing. These treatments are especially beneficial where germination
9
Propagation Methods is delayed due to adverse environmental conditions like excessive water. The
common term used for decaying seedlings is “damping off”. The treatment will
not improve germination in seeds with genetically low potential for germination
or in mechanically injured seeds.

1.4.7 Seed Storage

The seeds generally lose viability when allowed to dry for a long period. If the
seeds are to be stored for several months, they should be surface dried quickly
after thorough washing and then mixed with equal parts of powdered charcoal,
packed in a tight wooden box or tin container and kept in a dry cool place at a
temperature of 3-12°C.

1.5 POLYEMBRYONY
It is the condition during which more than one embryo develops within a single
seed. This phenomenon occurs in many plant species, but is most prominent in
fruit species such as citrus and mango. In polyembryonic species, both zygotic
and apomictic embryos are produced and the stimulus of fertilization is not
required.

Fig 4: Nucellar embryos in citrus rootstock rough lemon (C.jambhiri Lush).

1.6 APOMIXIS
It results from the production of an embryo that bypasses the usual process of
meiosis and fertilization. The obtained seedlings will represent same genotype
as that of seed parent. In other words, the seed production is asexual. Citrus is an
important example of apomixis. Most important use of apomictic seedlings is
for raising rootstocks because of their vigour, uniformity and lack of viruses.

1.7 SEED GERMINATION

Germination, refers to the process of formation of a new plant from the mature
seed. In other words, germination means emergence of the radicle (root) and
plumule (shoot), leading to production of seedling.

For the germination to be initiated the seed must be viable, that is, the embryo
must be alive and capable of germination and the environmental conditions must
be appropriate. Seed germination involves different phases such as i) rapid
increase in water uptake, ii) followed by a period where there is little water
10
uptake called the lag phase, and iii) there is increase in fresh weight of seed, Sexual Method of
Propagation
which leads to the emergence of roots.

1.7.1 Seed Viability

Seed germinates only if it is viable. In other words, only those seeds germinate
which have live embryo. Seed viability may range from few hours to several
years depending on plant species, the surroundings and several other factors.

1.7.1.1 Factors Affecting Seed Viability

There are several factors which affect seed viability:

i) Environmental Conditions : The weather conditions prevailing at the time
of maturation, ripening and harvesting of seeds affect seed viability. A warm
and dry weather at the time of seed maturity usually favours the production
of quality seeds, whereas, adverse weather conditions like occurrence of
frost, excessive rainfall or even drought at the time of seed harvest may
affect their viability adversely.

ii) Mechanical Injuries : If the seed suffers mechanical injury at the time of
harvest or during transit, it adversely affects seed viability. In particular
when developing embryos are affected by injury, it affects seed viability vis
a vis seed germination.

iii) Genetic Factors : Seeds belonging to different species or of different varieties

within species may have different viability patterns.

iv) Storage Conditions : The temperature, light and humidity at the time of
seed storage play an important role in maintaining seed viability. In general,
high relative humidity shortens life of the seeds. Seeds can be kept viable
for longer durations of time, if stored at ultra low temperature (cryo
preservation). However, all types of seeds cannot be stored at ultra low
temperature. Aeration is another important factor affecting seed viability.

1.7.1.2 Method to Detect Seed Viability

Seed viability can be tested by several methods; the commonly used methods
are as follows:

a) Germination Test : This includes germination of seed on artificial media

and counting the number of seeds germinated to the seeds cultured. This is
routinely used for ensuring viability of seed in several plant species including
horticultural crops. Seeds are germinated either in filter paper layers, petri
dishes or in sand, soil, perlite, vermiculite contained in plastic trays or boxes.

b) Excise embryo Test : The embryo excised from mature seed is cultured on
synthetic media or in petri dishes lined with moist filter papers. Excised
embryo test is generally used to test the seed viability in tree species whose
embryo require long periods of “after ripening” before true germination takes
place.

c) Tetrazolium Test : The conventional methods for testing the germination

capacity of seeds in petri dishes or in sand are time consuming and laborious.
11
Propagation Methods Most of the non dormant fruit seeds require 7-21 days and the dormant seeds
require few months to carry out germination tests. Citrus seeds loose their
viability within a short period and are stored under special storage conditions.
Therefore, a quick test which will give rough estimate of seed germinability
is desirable. The tetrazolium test makes it possible to determine the seed
viability within 4-24 hours. Its special advantage over other biochemical
tests is that it can be performed on individual seed organs and tissues, vital
for growth. The embryo of seeds capable of normal germination and growth,
contain reducing enzymes which convert the almost colourless
triphenyltetrazolium chloride solution into a clearly visible red stain upon
the cut surfaces of the embryo tissue.

During this test, seeds are soaked in 2, 3, 5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride

(TTC) solution (0.1-1.0 %) for few hours. Living tissue changes the TTC to
an insoluble red compound. Thus the viable seeds turn red partly of fully
depending upon the time of incubation, while non viable tissues/seeds do
not change colour.

Fig 5: Viable Citrus seeds- (A) Without TTC (B) After TTC treatment.

1.7.2 Seed Sowing

As the seeds of different fruits are of different sizes, shape, have variable seed
coat and chilling requirement, they may or may not need pre-treatment before
sowing.
1.7.2.1 Pretreatment

The seeds of fruits like papaya, phalsa, citrus, jamun, mango and loquat do not
require any special treatment before sowing. While in ber, the germination of
seed is quite difficult on account of stony endocarp which contains the seed.
Before sowing, seeds should be dipped into 17-18 % salt solution for 24 hours.
The seeds can also be sown by cracking hard shell. The seeds of guava should be
soaked in water for about two weeks before sowing. Placing the seeds in boiling
water for about five minutes also reduces the time required for germination. The
seeds of pear, peach and plum need stratification before they are sown in the
field or on raised nursery beds. Depending upon the culture media, the seeds can
be sown in different states. For instance, the seed germination in citrus can be
enhanced, if outer seed covering (testa) is removed and seed is sown in soil or
polybags. If seedlings are to be raised in vitro, the removal of both testa and
12 tegmen (inner seed covering next to testa) should be done simultaneously.
 Sexual Method of
Propagation

A B C
Fig 6: Citrus seeds (A), without testa (B), without testa and tegmen (C).

1.7.2.2 Method of Sowing

The seeds can either be sown on flat or raised nursery beds. The seeds of mango,
ber, loquat and jamun are usually sown on flat beds while the seeds of citrus,
guava and phalsa are sown on 15-20 cm raised beds to facilitate drainage. The
soil of the seed beds, should be well pulverized and mixed with well rotten
farmyard manure. The seed beds usually 1.2-1.5 meter wide and 2.0-2.5 meter
long alternated with 60 cm wide irrigation furrows, are prepared. The seeds are
sown in lines at a distance of 10-15 cm and 2-3 cm deep. Seed is covered with a
thick layer of sand of leaf mould mixture to prevent crust formation. Seed
germination starts in about 2-3 weeks of sowing. Seedlings of evergreen fruits
are transplanted in February – March and August – September and of deciduous
fruit plants in December – January.

1.7.2.3 Media for Sowing Seeds

The seeds can be sown on different media as per the requirement and the value
of seed to be propagated. An appropriate media should have following
characteristics:
1) It should be economical.
2) It should allow proper drainage and aeration.
3) It should preferably be sterile.
4) It should be free from weed seeds.
5) It must provide adequate nutrition to support seedling growth.
6) It should have optimum pH.
The commonly used media for sowing seeds are as follows:
i) Soil : Garden soil is the most commonly used natural media for seed sowing.
Presence of organic and inorganic components in soil determines the structure
and texture of soil. The soil texture depends upon the relative proportion of
sand, silt and clay. In general soil should have good drainage and be rich in
nutrients to support seedling growth.
ii) Sand : This can also be used as media for seed sowing especially for those
seeds in which damping off is common problem. For instance, sand is the
preferred media for sowing papaya seeds.
13
Propagation Methods iii) Peat : It mainly contains the partially decomposed parts of aquatic vegetation.
Peat moss is most commonly used as propagation medium.

iv) Perlite : It is a grey white silicaceous material of volcanic origin. Perlite is

a sterile medium with pH of 6-8 and high cation exchange capacity and
water holding capacity. It contains no mineral nutrient and is useful in
increasing aeration in a mixture, when used in combination with other
propagating medium. Lightness and uniformity make perlite very useful for
increasing aeration and drainage.

v) Vermiculite : It is a micaceous material. Vermiculite has high cation

exchange capacity and can hold nutrients for longer time and release them
later. Its plate-like particles have a very high water holding capacity and at
the same time it helps in aeration and drainage. Thus, it overcomes the
problem of ‘damping off’ which, otherwise, is common in soil as the media.
Vermiculite has excellent exchange and buffering capacities as well as the
ability to supply potassium and magnesium.

A B

Fig 7: Rooting media (A) Perlite (B) Vermiculite.

vi) Mixture : Generally a mixture of soil, sand and FYM is the best media for
seed sowing. This is for the reason that this type of media fulfills almost all
the characteristics of an appropriate media.
Peat, perlite, vermiculite can be used as mixture among themselves or with
sand and soil. Generally a mixture of Peat: Perlite or Peat: Sand (2:1) and of
Peat: Pertlite: Vermiculite (2:1:1) can also be used. These rooting media are
relatively expensive seed sowing media, so they should only be preferred,
in case if conventional media like sand, soil and their mixture is unable to
support the growth of seeds or it is the mandatory requirement of the seed
importer.
Above all, it is very important to make sure that whatever media has been
selected should be made sterile (by pasteurization) before using it for sowing
seeds. Using pasteurized soil, prevents damping-off, a fungal disease that
kills young seedlings. Pasteurized soil also helps to avoid weeds, diseases
and pests.

1.7.3 Phases of Seed Germination

1.7.3.1 Water Uptake

Most of the seeds after complete development and extraction from the fruits
have low moisture content. During this phase of seed germination, water is
14
abruptly taken in by seeds. It is also called hydration phase in which water is Sexual Method of
Propagation
absorbed by the process of imbibation and osmosis by dry seeds, which softens
the seed coat and other coverings and causes hydration of the protoplasm. After
imbibation of water, the seed swells and seed coverings rupture, which helps the
protoplasm in resuming metabolic activity with the activation of enzymes. The
hydrolytic enzymes convert complex food material into simpler forms, which
can be readily translocated and absorbed by embryo, thus resulting in cell
elongation. The seed swells in size during this phase.

1.7.3.2 Lag Phase

There is reduced or no water uptake during this period. However, seed is

physiologically highly active. During this process the cellular activities critical
to normal germination take place.

1.7.3.3 Radicle Emergence

This is the first visible evidence of germination. The growing point of root is
called radicle.

1.7.3.4 Plumule Emergence

Plumule is a growing point of the shoot and it is a upper end of embryo axis,
above the cotyledons.

1.7.4 Environmental Factors Affecting Seed Germination

Several factors affect seed germination. The most important among these are
water, light, aeration, temperature and the incidence of infections.

1.7.4.1 Water
The availability or non availability of moisture is a critical factor affecting seed
germination. Moreover, the optimum amount of water should be available to
seeds. If the water content is low, the seeds die for the want of water and if it is in
excess, the seeds at developing stage die due to anaerobic conditions. The rate of
water uptake is influenced by many factors like nature of seed coat, prevailing
temperature and available moisture content.
1.7.4.2 Light
It is another important factor which affects the germination of seed. It should be
optimum. Different seeds have different requirements of light. Moreover, for
some seeds, light is not the limiting factor for the germination to take place.
Seeds of certain plants have specific requirement for light and will not germinate
in the absence of light. Light intensity has relatively less effects on seed
germination but photoperiod and wavelength have more pronounced effects on
seed germination. In general, red light stimulates seed germination, while far red
light is inhibitory to seed germination. Apart from presence or absence of light,
the quality of light also influences seed germination.
1.7.4.3 Aeration

Exchange of gases between germination medium and the embryo is essential for
rapid and uniform germination. Oxygen is essential for the respiratory processes
15
Propagation Methods in the germinating seed. Excess of water around seeds limit oxygen supply and
thus affect seed germination. In other words, germinating seeds respire at a
very high rate, thus adequate supply and exchange of gasses between germinating
medium and the embryo is necessary for rapid and uniform germination and
subsequent seedling growth. Aeration has direct co-relation with water availability.
More the water, less will be the leaching and thus less will be aeration in the
germination medium.

1.7.4.4 Temperature

It should be optimum. Minimum is the lowest temperature for effective

germination, while maximum is the highest temperature at which germination
occurs. The temperature requirement varies with the seed type. For instance,
seeds requiring low temperature for germination do not germinate at high
temperature and vice versa. Temperature affects germination percentage and
germination rate of the seeds. Usually every plant species have certain optimum
temperature requirement for germination, below and above which germination
is inhibited.

1.7.4.5 Incidence of Infections

Fungal or bacterial infections limit seed germination in the conditions especially

when humidity around the seed is not appropriate. Certain fungi attack young
seedlings and result in seedling mortality. Damping off is common problem in
papaya seedlings.

1.7.4.6 Salinity

Presence of salts, either in water or in soil, affects seed germination, particularly

when the concentration is higher than the optimum level. Salinity becomes a
problem, particularly when the growing medium is light and is irrigated with
poor quality water. Frequent light irrigation results in salt deposits on the upper
layer of soil in which seeds are usually sown, thus inhibit germination process.

1.8 SEED DORMANCY

Dormancy refers to lack of growth of viable seed either due to internal or external
factors. Seeds of tropical and sub-tropical fruits (citrus, mango) germinate
immediately after extraction from the fruits under favourable conditions of
moisture, temperature and aeration. However, the seeds extracted form temperate
fruit plants like pear, peach and plum do not germinate even under favourable
environmental conditions, even if they are viable; this condition is termed as
dormancy. Nature has provided protection to such fruit plants, as otherwise they
may not survive in harsh winters. Therefore it is essential for you to understand
the dormancy and the factors which are responsible for enhancing or overcoming
the seed dormancy of such seeds.
The dormancy, in seeds might be due to exogenous or endogenous factors. Most
commonly, the exogenous seed dormancy is either due to hard seed coat, which
does not allow the entry of water and gases to the developing viable embryo and
thus inhibits seed germination. In case of endogenous seed dormancy,
physiological immaturity of embryo, deficiency of some endogenous growth
promoters or excess of endogenous growth inhibitors are responsible for low
16 seed germination.
1.8.1 Types of Dormancy Sexual Method of
Propagation

There are different types of dormancy in the seed which are described below:

1.8.1.1 Exogenous

If the dormancy is imparted by external factors, which may either be due to

physical, mechanical or chemical reasons, we term it as exogenous factors. These
are given below:

i) Physical : Dormancy may be due to hard seed coat, which does not allow
the solutes/ water uptake and the aeration in the seed. It is worth mentioning
that the seed germination does not occur in such cases even if the embryo is
viable in such seeds. Thus the seeds having seed coat dormancy do not
germinate until hard seed coat is either cracked or removed. For example
peach or almond seeds have hard seed coat, which needs either rubbing with
sand paper or acid scarification to thin the outer seed layer. In nature, such
hard seed coats are either weakened by continuous weathering or by attack
of microorganisms or by passage of seeds through digestive tracts of animals.

ii) Mechanical : It refers to seed coverings that are too hard to allow the embryo
to expand during germination even though water can penetrate it. Hardening
of seed covering is never a sole cause of dormancy in any species but the
hardening in combination with other factors, may delay seed germination.
For example, some seed coats are apparently permeable to water and gases,
but have very high mechanical resistance to allow expansion of embryo, as
a result the germination does not occur unless such seed coats are softened.
So the removal of seed covering is must to overcome such dormancy.

iii) Chemical : Sometimes the seeds do not germinate due some chemicals or
commonly known as inhibitors present in the seed coverings. It is caused by
germination inhibitors which accumulate in the fruit and seed coverings
during development (e.g. phenols, ABA). Such inhibitors are accumulated
in either fruits or seed coats during fruit development. Leaching of inhibitors
is essential to ensure normal seed germination in such cases.

1.8.1.2 Endogenous

Unlike external factors, in this case dormancy is due to internal factors such as
morphological, physiological and some others.

i) Morphological : This type of dormancy is imparted if the embryo remains

under developed at the time of fruit ripening or maturity. Such seeds do not
germinate if planted immediately after harvesting of fruits. Warm
stratification can help to overcome this type of dormancy.

ii) Physiological : It is thought to be controlled by endogenous plant growth

substances and environmental factors such as temperature and light. Factors
within the embryo inhibit germination. This type of dormancy is common in
temperate fruits like apple, pear and peach which last for one to six months
and it disappears on storage. The seeds of these species have dormant embryos
and they do not germinate even under favourable conditions. This type of
dormancy may also be due to inappropriate temperature or light conditions
17
Propagation Methods at the time of seed germination. This type of dormancy can be overcome by
storage of seeds in between layers of moist sand at chilling temperature for
few days to few months, as per the requirement of a fruit crop. The low chill
requiring fruit crop seeds may require few days as compared to those varieties
which have high chilling requirement to break dormancy.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note : a) Space is given below for answers.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1) Define germination.
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2) How aeration affects seed germination ?
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3) What do you understand by morphological dormancy? And how it can be
overvome?
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4) How can a lay man tell whether stigma is receptive or not ?
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1.8.2 Methods to Break Seed Dormancy

Different methods like stratification, scarification, and chemical treatment are
used for breaking dormancy in seed to improve seed germination.

1.8.2.1 Stratification

The seeds of temperate fruits like apple, pear, peach, plum and cherry etc require
moist chilling for breaking their dormancy. This is obtained by stratifying their
18 seeds. Stratification consists of placing seeds in alternate layers of moist sand,
peat or loam soil and holding them at a temperature of 7.2°C. The time required Sexual Method of
Propagation
for stratification varies from 30-180 days depending upon the species. The
stratification of seeds can be done either under natural conditions or in cold
storage.

i) Natural Conditions : In peach, the stratification can be done either in wooden

boxes or by directly sowing the seeds in the nursery beds. In the wooden
boxes, seeds are placed during middle of November in layers with alternate
layers of sand and kept moist by regular watering. When the seeds from
upper layer start germinating, the stratification is considered to be complete.
In plum, strafication of seeds in the boxes is done in the beginning of
December.

ii) Cold storage : In peaches, wooden boxes containing seed and sand are
placed in chilling storage in December to meet the cold requirement of seed.
In the stratification boxes, proper moisture is maintained by periodical
watering. The boxes are taken out from cold storage in mid January when
the chilling requirement of the seed is met.

1.8.2.2 Scarification

It is a mechanical technique which involves breaking, rubbing or injuring the

seed coat so that it becomes permeable to water and gasses and thus helps in
improved germination. Seeds of peach, plum, ber etc. give better germination by
this treatment. Seeds can be scarified by many methods like rubbing them between
sheets of sand paper or blowing small seeds under pressure against abrasive
boards. The extent of scarification depends upon the nature of seed coat.
Insufficient scarification may not improve germination wheras over scarification
may injure the embryo.

i) Acid scarification : The seeds are soaked in concentrated sulphuric acid

for a particular period of time to remove their hardness so that seed coats
become permeable to moisture and gasses. The treatment period usually
varies between 15 minutes to 3 hours depending upon the nature of the seed
and the temperature. Seeds are stirred occasionally to have uniform effect.
After treatment period, seeds should be removed from acid medium and
they should be washed thoroughly in a stream of running water to remove
traces of acid from the seed tissues. This method requires very careful
handling otherwise the seed/embryo may get damaged by the concentrated
acid.

ii) Chemical treatment : In some of the seeds, the germination can be improved
with the use of specific chemicals like potassium nitrate (0.2 %), gibberellic
acid (200-500 ppm) or thiourea (0.5 %), hydrogen peroxide (2-5 %). Thiourea
is most effective in seeds that require light and moisture for breaking
dormancy. However, seeds must not be soaked in thiourea solution for more
than 24 hours. Soaking seeds in strong solution of hydrogen peroxide
stimulates germination, but prolonged exposure is harmful. Thus the optimum
dose and the incubation time is important in chemical treatment.

iii) Soaking seeds in water : Simple soaking of seeds in hot water can soften
the hard seed covering as well as remove the inhibitors of germination. The
seed lots are placed in 3 to 5 times their volume of hot water (77-100°C).
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Propagation Methods After the addition of seeds in hot water, heat source is turned off and the
seeds are allowed to stand in water for 12-24 hours. Soaking seed in water
promotes germination by softening the hard seed coat, activating enzymes
and diluting the effects of inhibitors. Time of soaking varies with the species
and with the nature of seeds.

1.8.3 Hormonal Control of Seed Dormancy

Hormones play an important role in regulating seed dormancy. Endogenous or
exogenous application of growth hormones have a role in controlling seed
dormancy. Hormones include a group of growth promoters as well as growth
inhibitors. Most common growth promoting hormones are gibberellins, cytokinins
and ethylene, while abscisic acid acts as a potent growth inhibitor.

1.8.3.1 Growth Promoters

Hormones which promote growth, if available in endogenous form and when

applied exogenously, are called growth promoters. These are of different types
as described below:

i) Gibberellins : It is a most common growth hormone found in germinating

seeds. At the time of seed dormancy, gibberellin concentration suddenly
drops thereby inhibiting seed germination. Gibberellins play vital role in
initiation of enzyme activity, when the quiescent embryo imbibes water and
later it helps in the induction of alpha amylase enzyme activity, which
converts the starch reserves of the embryo into sugars. These sugars are
then translocated to the growing points of embryo to provide energy for
further growth of the seedlings. Thus gibberellins play vital role in enhancing
seed germination in dormant seeds.

ii) Cytokinins : It allows proper activity of gibberellins in geminating seeds.

The cytokinin activity is quite high in growing fruits and seeds, but it
disappears as the seed matures. Role of cytokinins can be well understood
by application of synthetic cytokinins to enhance seed germination. It has
been observed that application of synthetic cytokinins like benzyladenine
(BA) or kinetin has been helpful in overcoming seed dormancy in many
plant species.

iii) Ethylene : It is a naturally occurring hormone, which is involved in many

aspects of plant growth. Exogenous application of ethylene has been found
to act as germination promoter hormone for some kind of seeds.

1.8.3.2 Growth Inhibitor

Hormones which inhibit growth of growing tissues or germinating seeds are

termed as growth inhibitors:

i) Abscisic acid : It is the most common inhibitor found in dormant seeds. In

contrast to gibberellins and cytokinins, the level of abscisic acid (ABA)
increases as seed matures. Its levels are quite high in seed coats of dormant
peach, apple and plum, which usually disappear as and when the seeds are
stratified. In general, application of ABA inhibits germination in non dormant
seeds.
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1.8.4 Advantages of Seed Dormancy Sexual Method of
Propagation
The onset of dormancy in nature has several advantages.
1) It helps seeds to survive in adverse environmental conditions.
2) Seeds survive for several years in dormant state.
3) Seeds can be dispersed to distant places without loss of viability.

1.9 REST PERIOD

To distinguish between dormancy imposed by internal and external conditions
two terms have been used:

1.9.1 Quiescence
Describes the condition where the seed or bud is under exogenous control i.e.
external conditions such as water supply, temperature or other environmental
conditions may be limiting.

1.9.2 Rest Period

Describe the condition where the seed or bud is under endogenous control i.e.
internal factors prevent growth even though environmental conditions are
favourable.

1.10 TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS

The complete rooted plantlets/seedlings should be transplanted carefully from
rooting media to field conditions. The foremost thing to understand is that the
seedlings should be transplanted in open field conditions, when the time is
optimum. To make is clearer, it is suggested that depending upon the nature of
fruit plant such as evergreen, deciduous. For instance citrus seedlings (of rootstock
rough lemon) are transplanted in July – August in the field, so as to achieve cent
percent success of the seedlings. While in grapes winter is the best time, when
seedlings are deciduous. The ideal time to transplant young seedlings is when
they are small and there is minimal transplanting shock. After transplanting firm
the soil and water regularly.

1.11 ADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL PROPAGATION

1) It is relatively inexpensive method of producing plants on large scale.
2) There is no need of specialized skill for raising nursery plants.
3) Plants propagated through seeds are usually free from viruses, as most of
viruses are not transmitted through seeds.
4) True to type plants can be produced through nucellar seedlings. This is true
especially in case of polyembryonic seeds like citrus.
5) Most of the rootstocks are propagated through seeds, as the seedling have
better root system.
6) Seed propagation is the only method of propagation in some fruit plants like
papaya and phalsa.
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Propagation Methods 7) Plants produced through seeds are usually vigorous and have long life as
compared to those produced through asexual means.
8) Seedling plants can tolerate biotic and abiotic stresses more than vegetatively
propagated plants.
9) Seeds can be stored for longer time as compared to the vegetative tissues.
10) Chance seedlings with improved horticultural traits may be produced, which
are superior to the mother plant.

1.12 DISADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL

PROPAGATION
1) True to type plants are generally not produced by seed propagation, except
for the propagation through nucellar seedlings.
2) All seeds are not naturally polyembryonic, thus uniform progeny is not
assured.
3) Seedlings have usually long juvenile phase as compared to the plants
propagated through asexual means.
4) Cultural operations are difficult, as the seedling plants are mostly tall and
vigorous.
5) Seeds of most plants loose viability very soon and thus cannot be stored for
longer periods.
6) Some fruit plants like pineapple and banana do not produce viable seeds
and their propagation through seeds is not possible.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note : a) Space is given below for answers.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1) How ‘rest period’ is different from quiescence ?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2) Differentiate between scarification and stratification ?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
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Propagation Methods 2.3.7.2 Tongue Grafting

This method is commonly used when the stock and scion are of equal diameters.
First, a long, smooth, slanting cut of about 4-5 cm long is made (Plate 5) on the
rootstock. Another downward cut is given starting approximately 1/3rd from the
top and about 3-4 centimeter in length. Similar cuts are made in the scion wood
exactly matching the cut given in the rootstock. The scion having 2 to 3 buds is
then tightly fitted with the rootstock taking care that the cambium layer of at
least one side of the stock and scion unites together. This is then wrapped with
polythene strip.

A B

Plate 5: Steps showing tongue grafting (A) making tongue in stock & scion; (B) grafting
and tying with polythene strip.

2.3.7.3 Cleft Grafting

This is also known as wedge grafting. This method is useful in the nursery where
the rootstock is thicker than scion and tongue grafting cannot be employed
successfully (Plate 6). The stock up to 8 cm in thickness can be grafted with this
method. The rootstock to be grafted is cut smoothly with a secateur or saw. It is
then split in the middle down to about 4 cm. The bud stick having 3 to 4 buds is
trimmed like a wedge at the lower end with outer side slightly broader than the
inner side. The lower bud on the scion should be located just well in to the stock
making sure that the cambium layers of both the stock and scion are perfectly
matched. Cleft grafting is done during the dormant season (period).

B
A

Plate 6: Steps showing cleft grafting (A) preparation of scion & rootstock; (B) grafting
and tying with polythene strip.

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