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 II. THE MIDDLE AGES
II-1. MUSIC IN THE MIDDLE AGES (450-1450)
Objectives
The section provides a brief overview of the medieval period (dark ages, Romanesque, and Gothic
periods) and defines the roles of the three principal social classes of the time: nobility, peasantry, and
clergy. The uses of instruments in the predominantly vocal music of the period are discussed, as is the
ambivalent attitude of the church authorities toward musical instruments.

Suggestions
1. Discuss the prejudice inherent in the term “Middle” Ages. Can we conceive of 1,000 years of
western history (thirty generations!) in which virtually nothing of significance occurred? Try to develop a
picture of medieval life with students through a free association exercise. Ask students to name people or
events from the Middle Ages. Personalities should include legendary ones, for often the students can
associate more quickly and familiarly (assuming the associations are correct). Robin Hood, Richard, John,
and the Magna Carta can be discussed briefly, for they bring the time alive, and anchor the people and
events to a specific date (1215). The heroes of the medieval romances (a genre that will serve as the
impetus for romanticism) such as Roland, Siegfried, Ilya Mourometz, el Cid, Leminkeinen, et. al., could
also be mentioned.
2. Discuss the social groupings of the Middle Ages, and then compare to present day America. Do
we have a nobility and a peasantry? How does the power of the church today compare with then? If there
are classes today, are there musical associations?
3. The mention of Hildegard of Bingen should whet one’s appetite for more information on the
status of women in music. There is no question that women have been ignored in standard writings on the
subject, and it is time their roles are recognized by examples of women composers and performers. A
highly recommended resource for further information is Women Making Music, edited by Jane Bowers
and Judith Tick (WMM).
4. In discussing the restrictions, formulas, and sacred emphasis of the Middle Ages, consider that
the pictorial arts were under similar restraints. The Byzantine icon Madonna and Child Enthroned is a
perfect example of how an anonymous painter transcended the strict formal rules. As described by H. W.
Janson (History of Art, Prentice Hall, 1966, p. 178), the work, although painted in the thirteenth century,
“reflects a type several hundred years earlier. Echoes of the Classicism of the Second Golden Age
abound: the graceful pose, the rich play of drapery folds, the tender melancholy of the Virgin’s face, the
elaborate, architectural perspective of the throne (which looks rather like a miniature replica of the
Colosseum). But all these elements have become oddly abstract. The throne, despite its foreshortening, no
longer functions as a three-dimensional object, and the highlights on the drapery resemble ornamental
sunbursts, in strange contrast to the soft shading of hands and faces. The total effect is neither flat nor
spatial but transparent, somewhat like that of a stained-glass window.” Does this icon have a “calm,
otherworldly” vision comparable to the “calm, otherworldly” sound of Gregorian chant mentioned in the
text? Can further analogies be fruitfully discussed?

Questions and Topics

1. What was the attitude of the church toward the use of musical instruments?
2. Describe the musical life of a major cathedral.

1|IM-Part 2
 3. Plato and medieval music.
4. The attitude of the church fathers toward music.
5. Music’s place in the medieval university.

II-2. GREGORIAN CHANT

Objectives
The nature of chant is defined, and the role of Pope Gregory in its organization is explained. The
“otherworldly” sound of chant is partly traced to its characteristic scales, the so-called church modes. One
chant, the Alleluia: Vidimus stellam, is singled out for study in both modern and medieval chant notation.
Hildegard of Bingen’s O successores is presented as a late example of Gregorian chant.

Suggestions
1. In order to help students understand the church modes and their use, play the familiar major and
minor scales first, and then help the students sing several of the modes. For fun, sing the song mentioned
in the text, What Shall We Do with the Drunken Sailor? Explain that the modes can be defined by means
of the white notes on the piano, and help students to write them out in notation.
2. Compare the medieval chant notation of the Alleluia: Vidimus stellam, its modern transcription,
and standard notation. Since there are no bar lines, how can there be rhythm? Quickly review the basic
rules for pronouncing church Latin, and then ask a student to read the text. After following the transcribed
notation, encourage the students to follow the chant notation.
3. With over twenty CDs to her credit, Hildegard of Bingen has become a major personality in
early music. Her fame is deserved: not only did she compose a significant number of antiphons,
responsories, and sequences, but also the earliest extant liturgical morality play, Ordo virtutum, which
“predates by about two centuries any other works in this genre” (WMM, p.28; the work has been recorded
by Sequentia, BMG 05472-77394-2). Three of her works, with commentary by Barbara Jean Jeskalian,
are included in James R. Briscoe’s Historical Anthology of Music by Women (HAMW). Three of her
antiphons are available from the Hildegard Publishing Company (HPC), and the fact that the company
was named after her gives some indication of her renewed stature. The text gives brief biographical
details, and then provides a Vocal Music Guide with original text and English translation for the chant O
successores. An amazing work for its time, it is included in the recordings.
4. Discuss the merits of the second Vatican Council’s decision to institute the use of the vernacular
in place of the traditional Latin liturgy. Ask your Catholic students to describe the musical life of the
churches they attend. Is the ability of the congregation to understand every word worth sacrificing the
large body of chant that has sprung up around this liturgy?

Questions and Topics

1. What are the characteristics of Gregorian chant?
2. How are the church modes different from the major and minor scales?
3. What is the general structure and character of the chant Alleluia: Vidimus stellam?
4. Discuss the names of the church modes and the origins of these names.
5. The liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church.
6. Music in the Roman Catholic Church today.

2|IM-Part 2
II-3. SECULAR MUSIC IN THE MIDDLE AGES
Objectives
This section provides a very brief introduction to the secular music of the period. The life of the
jongleur is described, as is that of the musical poet of this age of chivalry, the knight. The subject matter
of their songs is discussed, and it is emphasized that, unlike chant, the secular songs probably had regular
meters with clearly defined beats. An estampie is discussed as an example of instrumental music.

Suggestions
1. Discuss the importance of dancing to the nobility, and the use of music for accompaniment.
Referring to the illustration in the text, discuss earlier forms of dancing. Possibly some of the students
have had experiences with country or square dancing that they can share. Have the students ever seen,
heard, or danced to music provided by only one or two musicians, such as those portrayed? Play the
estampie and review the above comments. Is it danceable? Would it be sufficient for a small group, as in
the illustration? What element of music is the most important for dancing? Must there be harmony?
2. Discuss the concept of the nobility as composer-poets. How does this compare with the standard
conception of the Age of Chivalry? As examples, see the trouvère virelai Or la truix and the minnelied
Willekommen Mayenschein by Neidhart von Reuenthal, both included in Parrish and Ohl’s Masterpieces
of Music Before 1750 (MM). Both pieces are quite short.
3. Recorded examples and illustrations of medieval instruments can be found in David Munrow’s
Instruments of the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Angel SBZ-3810) with the Early Music Consort of
London. The book contained in the record set has many illustrations, which should be used while the
recording is played. See also Instruments of the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Vanguard 71219/20) by
the Musica Reservata of London, or any number of CDs listed under “Early Music” in the Schwann Opus
guide. Comparisons can be made, both favorable and unfavorable, with modern instruments.
4. The passing mention of Beatriz de Dia is another opportunity for bringing in the role of women
in music. Information is scant, but her portrait and her song A chantar m’er de so, the only surviving
example of a troubadour song composed by a woman, are included in WMM, pp. 48-49. Considering that
half your class is probably female, the poem, contrasted with the typical male themes, should make for a
lively discussion.
5. Rebecca A. Baltzer (University of Texas) highly recommends Margaret Switten’s video
production of Jean Renart’s Romance of the Rose, or of Guillaume de Dole. “The video is charming, full
of knights, ladies, song and dance, a tournament, and a trial by ordeal. The heroine suffers grave injustice
that threatens to ruin her life, but she seizes the initiative by going to court and insisting on justice—and
she has an interesting way of achieving it.” Available from Margaret Switten, Teaching Medieval
Romance, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA 01075.
6. Discuss the status of the wandering minstrel in comparison to the composer-poets. Are there
similar differences today between the professional popular or folk musicians and other segments of
society?

Questions and Topics

1. What was the subject matter of French medieval songs?
2. Compare the rhythm of the Gregorian chant with that of the trouvère songs.
3. The Virgin Mary in the secular love songs of the French Middle Ages.
4. The rhythmic modes in troubadour and trouvère songs.
5. Instrumental accompaniment in the troubadour-trouvère repertory.

3|IM-Part 2
II-4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLYPHONY: ORGANUM
Objectives
The evolution of polyphony is traced from its beginnings in simple parallel organum, through the
addition of contrary motion and rhythmical independence, to the complex creations of the members of the
Notre Dame school, Leonin and Perotin. A three-voiced organum by Perotin, Alleluia: Nativitas, is
discussed as a representative composition of the Notre Dame school.

Suggestions
1. Review texture by asking the class to sing a familiar song (America, Mary Had a Little Lamb,
etc.) in unison. Discuss the natural division of voices, and the perfect intervals (octaves between sexes,
fourths and fifths between registers S, A, T, B). Introduce parallel organum, and ask them to sing the song
again, this time concentrating on the organum, or use the examples of parallel organum found in HAM (I,
25; recording MHS OR-350).
2. As a step toward the Notre Dame school, discuss melismatic organum. The section of the
Benedicamus Domino from the school of St. Martial (MM, 8) is suggested because it is short, and the
students should be able to hear the two voices distinctly, concentrating on the chant.
3. Discuss Paris as the intellectual and artistic capital of Europe after 1150, and the importance of
Notre Dame Cathedral (note the illustration in the text). Discuss the school of Notre Dame, and Perotin’s
Alleluia: Nativitas. Play or sing the chant given in the text. After playing the recording (on CONNECT
MUSIC and the mp3 set, or via the music download card), point out the two distinct styles of writing in
the tenor, unmeasured and measured. Considering the physical environment for which this work was
intended (the great open spaces of the Gothic cathedral), are there any acoustical reasons for the sustained
nature of the music?

Questions and Topics

1. Trace the evolution of organum from its simplest to its most complex style.
2. Describe measured rhythm and the rhythmic innovations of the Notre Dame composers.
3. Describe the sound of medieval polyphony, based on your experience with Perotin’s Alleluia:
Nativitas.
4. Medieval theorists on consonance and dissonance.
5. The music of Leonin.
6. The music of Perotin.

II-5. FOURTEENTH-CENTURY MUSIC: THE “NEW ART” IN ITALY AND

FRANCE
Objectives
This section discusses the ars nova in Italy and France during the fourteenth century and explains
the cultural milieu in which this musical development took place. The rhythmic characteristics of the new
music are defined, and the increasing secularization of music during this period is illustrated by Landini’s
Ecco la primavera. The career of the leading French composer of the time, Guillaume de Machaut, is

4|IM-Part 2
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chair would do.”
Georgia sighed and dumped the ornaments of the dresser top, cover
and all, into her upper drawer. “A gargoyle party is a thing that grows on
your hands,” she said sadly. “Let’s go and eat. If there’s anything else to
clear off, we’ll do it later.”
When the gargoyle party opened it was certain that, whether or not it
had grown on Georgia’s hands, it was every bit her room could hold.
Betty and Babbie, who had been too busy enjoying Harding to bother
about costumes, were the only guests who were not wearing some sort of
fantastic disguise. Bob had bought a box of paints and made her own
mask, modeling it and her drapery of brown denim after the imp that the
“B. A.’s Abroad” had given her. Eugenia Ford was a gryphon,—or at
least Mary Brooks said so,—with the most beautiful pair of wings that
had ever appeared at a Harding party. Polly Eastman was the elephant
that sits on the tower of Notre Dame. Georgia had planned to be the
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matter of elephants and other four-footed creatures. But at the last minute
she discovered that the Notre Dame elephant wasn’t four-footed.
“Gargoyles never are,” said Lucile wisely—it was she who had
pointed out the mistake. “But never mind, Georgia. You can be one of
my two heads. I was going to be a two-headed beast if I could. Only
Vesta White changed her mind afterward and wanted to be an eagle.”
There were other gargoyles, as impossible to classify as the real ones,
and they squatted in rows on Georgia’s bed and her big window-box,
popped up mysteriously from behind her desk, or lounged in strange
attitudes in her easy chairs. Bob Parker actually did get up on the
chiffonier, off the edge of which she hung in such realistic gargoyle style
that the judges, Babbie and Betty, unhesitatingly awarded her the prize.
“Not a bit fair,” objected young Eugenia, flapping her beautiful
gryphon’s wings disconsolately. “We should all have looked a lot grander
on chiffoniers.”
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Georgia pacifically.
“Having a gargoyle of your own makes you notice the attitudes
more,” declared Bob proudly. “Never mind, Miss Ford. The prize is
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to materialize.”
“You haven’t forgotten your Harding manners, Bob,” said Betty
severely.
“No, you don’t any of you act a bit like alums,” declared a tall junior,
taking off her mask to breathe.
“You lovely thing!” cried Bob, scrambling down from the chiffonier
to give the appreciative junior first choice of the prize candy.
And then the gargoyles had a dance and a parade, and delicious
“eats,” on which Georgia had rashly spent all that was left of her month’s
allowance. And after that, when the five 19—’s were having the very
best time of all, just sitting around talking and realizing what a dear, dear
place Harding was, it was time to pull Bob out of her beloved costume
and rush for trains.
Later in the evening the five classmates sat in the station at the
junction, Babe and Betty waiting to go west, Bob, Babbie and Roberta
bound for New York.
Babbie looked critically at Babe and Betty. “I shall tell mother that it
worked,” she said. “You went to bed at three, and got up at seven this
morning to go canoeing. You’ve eaten four meals to-day and as many
ices. You’ve been horseback and trolley-riding. You’ve made dozens of
calls. It’s now ten p. m., and you’re fresh as the daisies in Oban. How’s
that for the Harding cure?”
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“Not last June, but a regular June, you know, and we were all just going
home for the summer.”
“Exactly,” agreed everybody, and then a sleepy silence settled upon
the group.
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asked Betty Wales suddenly. “Not intervals, but something like that.”
“You mean Interludes, don’t you?” asked Roberta. “They came right
after the Moralities.”
Betty nodded. “That’s what this summer has been—an Interlude.”
“With Babe for the fascinating heroine,” put in Babbie.
 “Yes,” agreed Betty hastily. “And when I get home to-morrow the
real business of life is going to begin.”
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that sound serious? But it won’t be. You’ll play tennis with Nan, and go
to dances with your brother and other people’s brothers, and amuse that
darling little sister of yours, and be nice to everybody who needs it, just
as you always have, except that you won’t be home on a snippy little
vacation.”
“Oh, I hope so,” said Betty, laughing at Roberta’s choice of details.
“But then I want to do something that counts, too.”
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Ayres if it doesn’t. If you can make fun out of hard work, then, according
to Madeline, you really know how to live.”
“But we’re not the working contingent,” objected Babbie. “K. and
Rachel and Helen are the workers.”
“They are!” breathed Bob indignantly. “Just try taking care of certain
fresh-air youngsters for two weeks.”
“Or typewriting most particular briefs for your most particular father,
who always wants things in a terrific hurry,” added Roberta.
Betty considered. “I’ve helped in little ways of course, but I never
did any one big thing. I’m going to now, though.”
“Here’s to a winter of hard work!” cried Babe. “I shall have to sew,
and I hate it.”
“But you must make fun out of it all the same,” Betty told her, with
the flash of gay courage in her eyes that had won over Mr. Morton. “I
shall, no matter what happens, and whatever we do, think of the fun
we’ll have talking it over when we all get together again. Oh, is that our
train, Babe?” And with her curls flying and her eyes dancing with
eagerness Betty Wales turned merrily from her happy summer’s
Interlude to “the real business of life.”
THE END
 T ’ N :
Minor corrections (addition or deletion) of double quote marks have been made on
pages 188, 196, 230 and 317, to conform to accepted usage.
Splended, on page 153, has been changed to splendid.
Cooperation, on page 218, has been changed to coöperation, to conform to other
occurrences in this e-book.
On page 270, Louxembourg has been changed to Luxembourg.
All other hyphenation and variant and archaic spellings have been retained as
typeset.
Illustrations have been moved to avoid interrupting paragraphs.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BETTY WALES,
B. A.: A STORY FOR GIRLS ***

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