Test Bank for Counseling Across Cultures 7th Edition by Pederse Lonner

Draguns Trimble ISBN 9781452217529

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Chapter 2. Counseling Encounters in Multicultural Contexts: An Introduction

1. Counseling is principally concerned

with a. Directing
b. Advising c.
Warning *d.
Facilitating
Cognitive domain: Application
Answer location: Preliminary Considerations
Question type: MC

2. The counselor’s role can be likened to that

of *a. A catalyst
b. Principal
c. Chief
d. Teacher
Cognitive domain: Knowledge
Answer location: Preliminary Considerations
Question type: MC

3. Paul Pedersen has proposed that culture is transmitted by a multitude

of a. Culture healers
*b. Culture teachers
c. Culture elders
d. Culture leaders
Cognitive domain: Knowledge
Answer location: The Ubiquity of Cultural Concerns
Question type: MC

4. Arthur and Collins (2010), describe _ as “the conscious and purposeful

infusion of cultural awareness and sensitivity into all aspects of the counseling process”
*a. Culture-infused counseling
b. Client focused counseling
c. Minority-centered counseling d.
Consumer counseling Cognitive
domain: Comprehension
Answer location: Preliminary Considerations
Question type: MC

5. is a complex concept with an elusive core and fuzzy boundaries

a. Awareness
*b. Culture
c. Therapy d.
Empathy
Cognitive domain: Knowledge
Answer location: Cultures: Multiple, Complex, National, and Global
Pedersen et al, Counseling Across Cultures, Seventh Edition, Instructor Resource

Question type: MC

6. Culture refers to the distinctive, part of the environment (Herskovits, 1948)

that encompasses both the artifacts created by the human species and the mental products that
have accrued over many millennia.
a. Nature-made
b. Natural
*c. Human-made
d. Ordinary
Cognitive domain: Knowledge
Answer location: Cultures: Multiple, Complex, National, and Global
Question type: MC

7. Culture is represented as artifacts, roles, and institutions

a. Generally
b. Internationally
c. Internally
*d. Externally
Cognitive domain: Analysis
Answer location: Cultures: Multiple, Complex, National, and Global
Question type: MC

8. Culture is represented as values, beliefs, attitudes, epistemology,

consciousness, and biological functioning.
a. Generally
b. Internationally
*c. Internally
d. Externally
Cognitive domain: Analysis
Answer location: Cultures: Multiple, Complex, National, and Global
Question type: MC

9. encompasses the constructive, reality-based aspects of the relationship

between the therapist and the client.
a. Counter-transference
b. The culture alliance
*c. The therapeutic alliance d. The
conscious vibe Cognitive domain:
Comprehension
Answer location: Relationships That Work: The Therapeutic Alliance
Question type: MC

10. In metaphorical terms, the interdependent self can be likened to

Pedersen et al, Counseling Across Cultures, Seventh Edition, Instructor Resource

a. A wall
b. A tree
*c. A bridge
d. A pot
Cognitive domain: Comprehension
Answer location: Self in Culture
Question type: MC

11. self is malleable in response to situations and experiences.

*a. Interdependent
b. Independent
c. Relational d.
Interpersonal
Cognitive domain: Comprehension
Answer location: Self in Culture
Question type: MC

12. pertains to societies in which persons are integrated into strong cohesive in-
groups which protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty
a. Capitalism b.
Autonomous c.
Individualism
*d. Collectivism
Cognitive domain: Comprehension
Answer location: Individualism–Collectivism in Persons and Cultures
Question type: MC

13. Norcross and Wampold (2011a) conclude that evidence-based practice rests on the following
three pillars EXCEPT?
*a. Counselor authenticity
b. Clinical expertise
c. Patient characteristics d.
Best available research
Cognitive domain: Analysis
Answer location: Evidence-Based and/or Culturally Sensitive Services: Isolation, Divergence, or
Integration
Question type: MC

14. According to Leong (1996), all of the following are called for during all counseling
experience EXCEPT?
a. Maximal flexibility
b. Spontaneity
*c. Constraint
d. Authenticity
Cognitive domain: Analysis
Answer location: Toward Integrating Universal, Cultural, and Individual Threads in Counseling
Pedersen et al, Counseling Across Cultures, Seventh Edition, Instructor Resource

Question type: MC

15. In societies, the ties between individuals are loose and everyone is expected
to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family.
*a. Individualistic
b. Collectivist
c. Asian
d. African
Cognitive domain: Application
Answer location: Individualism–Collectivism in Persons and Cultures
Question type: MC

16. Which self is crystallized, explicit, differentiated, and slow and difficult to change?
a. Interdependent
*b. Independent
c. Relational
d. Interpersonal
Cognitive domain: Comprehension
Answer location: Self in Culture
Question type: MC

17. In metaphorical terms, the interdependent self can be likened

to *a. A wall
b. A tree c.
A bridge
d. A pot
Cognitive domain: Comprehension
Answer location: Self in Culture
Question type: MC

18. The _ self is prevalent in Euro-American countries.

a. Interdependent
*b. Independent
c. Relational d.
Interpersonal
Cognitive domain: Comprehension
Answer location: Self in Culture
Question type: MC

19. Miserandino (2012) describes the self as

a. All that a person can call his
*b. The set of ideas and inferences we hold about ourselves
c. Complete “me”
d. The flexible identity
Cognitive domain: Knowledge
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 (2.) SPEARING THE WALRUS.
(See page 1340.)

Bows and arrows are also employed by the Esquimaux. The former
are made of horn, bone, or wood, and are almost always composed of
several pieces lashed firmly together. As is the case with the bows of the
North American tribes, the chief strength is obtained, not so much from
the material of the bow, as from a vast number of sinew strings which
run down its back. There are often a hundred or more of these sinews,
which are put on sufficiently tight to give the bow a slight curvature
against the string. The shape of the bow is rather peculiar. And though
the weapon is so powerful, it is seldom used at a greater distance than
twelve, or at most twenty yards. The length of the bow is on an average
three feet six inches.
The arrows are extremely variable. Some have wooden shafts tipped
with bone, but the shafts of the best specimens are half bone and half
wood, and the points are armed with a little piece of iron. The arrows are
contained in a quiver, and the bow is kept in a case. This quiver and
bow-case are generally made of seal skin, as being impervious to wet,
though they are frequently made of other materials. My own specimen is
formed from the hide of the reindeer. When the Esquimaux shoots, he
always holds his bow horizontally. The bow-string is made of some
fifteen or twenty sinew strings, which are loosely twisted, but not made
into a cord.
The bow and arrows are chiefly used in the capture of the reindeer and
in shooting rabbits, birds, and other small game. The mode of deer
hunting is very ingenious. When the hunter sees some deer feeding on
the level plain, he takes his bow and arrows, draws his hood well over
his head, and creeps as close as he can to the spot where the deer are
reposing. Here he begins to bellow in imitation of the cry with which the
deer call each other, and thus attracts the animals within the short
distance at which an Esquimaux archer shoots.
Even if he should not use the bellowing call, he has only to lie
patiently on the ground to be sure that, sooner or later, some of the deer
will come and look at him. They are most inquisitive animals, and when
they see any strange object, they cannot resist satisfying their curiosity
by inspecting it. Providing the object of their curiosity does not move
after them, they approach in a series of circles which they gradually
narrow, capering and tossing their heads capriciously, and at last will
come within a yard or two of the motionless hunter, and so fall a victim
to the arrow which he has already fitted to his bow.
Sometimes the deer hunters adopt an ingenious ruse. Two of them
walk near the deer, and purposely show themselves. When the animals’
attention is fixed upon them, they walk slowly away, knowing that the
innate curiosity of the deer will induce them to follow. They direct their
course past some stone or similar object, when one of them quickly steps
behind it, while the other walks onward as before. The deer do not notice
that one of the men has disappeared, and so follow the other, thus
coming within a yard or two of the deadly arrow.
The arrow is also used for shooting birds, which are always killed
when sitting. The arctic grouse are killed in great numbers by the arrow.
They pack closely together, so that an arrow shot at random among them
can scarcely avoid hitting one of them; and the birds are so apathetic
that, when the missile falls among them, they only fly a few yards further
and then settle, so that the hunter can pick up his arrow and shoot it at
them again, until he has shot the greater number of the covey.
In order to save the wrist from the recoil of the bow-string, the
Esquimaux wears a very ingenious guard, composed of several pieces of
bone tied together and fastened on the wrist by a bone button and loop.
The pieces of bone are about four inches in length. Below the wrist-
guard, which is shown on the 1353d page, some curiously formed hooks
are represented. No bait is required with them. They are simply moved
up and down in the water so as to attract the attention of the fish, and
then are jerked sharply upward, so as to catch the fish on one of the
projecting points. There are many varieties of this curious hook, but
those which are illustrated are the most characteristic.
There is also an instrument called the kakeeway, or little nippers,
which is used in a similar manner by the Esquimaux boys. They take a
model of a fish made of ivory, tie a string to it, and troll it about in the
water in order to attract the fish, when they are struck with the kakeeway,
and hauled out of the water. The artificial fish are about three inches
long, and are very neatly made, with eyes of iron pyrites. This is a very
slow process of fish catching, but the boys, to whom time is of no object,
are very fond of it, and will sit on their heels all day for the chance of
catching two or three little fish.
The foxes and wolves are generally taken in traps. There are several
kinds of traps, but they are mostly made on one or the other of two
principles. The usual trap is very like a common mouse trap, except that
it is made of ice instead of wood. It is so long and narrow that a wolf
cannot turn himself in it, but, if he wishes to retreat, must do so
backward. The door is a heavy slab of ice, which moves up and down in
two grooves. The door being raised, it is held in position by a line which
passes over the top of the trap, through a hole at the end, and is then
slightly hitched over a peg. A bait is then attached to the end of the line,
and when the wolf pulls it, the door is released, and effectually secures
the animal in the icy prison. A hole is then made in the side of the trap,
and the wolf is speared where he lies.
 Foxes are also taken in these traps, but the usual kind of fox trap is
made on a different plan. It is built in a form somewhat resembling a
lime-kiln, and the aperture is covered with a piece of whalebone, along
which the animal must walk to get at the bait. As it steps on the
whalebone, the elastic material gives way, lets the fox into the trap, and
then resumes its former position, ready for another victim.
It has already been mentioned that birds are often shot with arrows as
they are sitting. The Esquimaux have a singular instrument by which
they can capture birds on the wing, provided that they do not fly at any
great height from the ground. It consists of seven or eight pieces of bone
or ivory, or stone, the latter being preferred on account of its weight. To
each of the weights is attached a sinew cord about two feet six inches in
length, and all the ends of the cords are tied together, their junction being
usually ornamented by a tuft of feathers. When the Esquimaux sees a
bird flying so that it will pass tolerably near him, he whirls the sling
round his head and flings it at the bird. As it leaves his hand, all the
weights fly apart, on account of the rotatory motion which has been
communicated to them, so that the weapon covers a space of five feet.
Should one of the weights or strings strike the bird, the whole of the
sling becomes wrapped round it, and the bird falls helpless to the ground.
The reader will doubtless see that this sling is in fact a modification of
the Patagonian bolas.
In bear hunting the Esquimaux use either the walrus harpoon or the
spear, and often both. They set their dogs at the bear, and while he is
engaged in repelling their attacks, which are always made at his back and
hind-quarters, the hunter drives the harpoon at him, and fastens the end
of the line to the ice, so as to prevent the bear from escaping. He then
attacks the animal with another harpoon and with his lance, and,
avoiding skilfully the repeated attacks which the bear makes upon him,
drives the sharp weapon into the animal’s heart.
The Esquimaux are always very careful not to kill a young bear
without previously killing its mother. Should one of them, pressed by
hunger, commit so rash an act, the whole party to which he belongs are
obliged to take the strictest precautions lest they should be assailed by
the mother, who will assuredly follow on their track. They therefore
proceed for some five or six miles in a straight line, and then suddenly
turn off at right angles, so that the bear may overrun their track as she
presses eagerly forward. This manœuvre is several times repeated. When
the houses are reached, the weapons are laid ready for use by the
bedside, and the sledges are stuck upright outside the house. This is
intended by way of a warning to the sleepers. The bear is suspicious
about the erect sledge, and always knocks it down before attacking the
house, so that the noise of the falling sledge awakens the sleepers, and
puts them on their guard.
The two means of transport used by the Esquimaux are the boat and
the sledge, both of which deserve description.
There are two kinds of boats, those of the men and those used by
women. The man’s boat is called kajak or kia, according to the dialect of
the people, and is a very remarkable piece of workmanship. It is shuttle
shaped, both ends being sharply pointed. It is made of a very slight
framework of wood and whalebone, over which is stretched a covering
of skin. In the middle there is a hole just large enough to admit the body
of the rower, and when he takes his seat, he gathers his skin together and
ties it round his waist, so that the boat is absolutely impervious to water.
The average length is twenty-five feet, and so light are the materials of
which it is made, that a man can carry his kia on his head from the house
to the water.
These slight canoes have no keel, and sit so lightly on the water that
they can be propelled over, rather than through, it with wonderful speed.
The paddle is a double one, held in the middle, and used in a manner
which is now rendered familiar to us by the canoes which have so largely
taken the place of skiffs. It is between nine and ten feet in length, small
in the middle, which serves as a handle, and gradually widening to the
blades, which are about four inches in width, and edged with ivory, not
only for ornament but for strength.
The paddle acts much the same part as the balance pole to the rope-
dancer, and by its aid the Esquimaux canoe man can perform really
astonishing feats. For example, if two kias are out together, one of them
will remain still, the canoe man keeping his boat exactly in the same
place, by delicate management of his paddle. The other goes to a
distance at right angles to him, and then, urging his kia to the utmost
speed, drives it fairly over that of his friend. In performing this
remarkable feat, the skill of both is equally tried, for it is quite as
difficult to preserve the balance of the stationary kia as to drive the other
over it.
There is one feat which is sometimes performed in order to show the
wonderful command which an Esquimaux has over his little vessel. He
does not, however, attempt it unless another kia is close at hand. After
seeing that the skin cover is firmly tied round his waist, and that his neck
and wrists are well secured, the man suddenly flings himself violently to
one side, thus capsizing the kia, and burying himself under water. With a
powerful stroke of his paddle he turns himself and canoe completely
over, and brings himself upright again. A skilful canoe man will thus
turn over and over some twenty times or so, almost as fast as the eye can
follow him, and yet only his face will be in the least wet.
In the illustration on page 1347 both these feats are shown.
The paddler is so tightly tied to the kia, that he is unable to change his
position without assistance, or even to lift a heavy weight, such as a seal.
In such a case, he asks assistance from a companion. The two kias are
placed near each other, and paddles are laid from one to the other, so that
for the time they are formed into a double canoe, which cannot be upset.
Small lines of whalebone are stretched across the end of the kia, and
under them are thrust the points of the spears and harpoons, so that they
cannot roll off the boat, and yet are always ready to hand. An inflated
seal’s bladder is always attached to the canoe. When the kia is not in use,
it is taken out of the water, and rested in a reversed position upon the
snow houses, as is seen on page 1327.
The second kind of boat is that which is called the oomiak, and is used
by the women. It is evident that the slight and fragile kia, useful as it is
for hunting purposes, cannot be employed for the conveyance of
baggage, or for the transport of more persons than one, and that therefore
some other kind of boat must be made. This is a large, clumsy, straight
sided, square ended, flat bottomed vessel, more like a skin trough than a
canoe, to which it bears about the same analogy as a punt does to a
racing skiff. The framework of the oomiak is made of wood and
whalebone, and the covering is of seal skin, from which the hair has been
removed. When wet, these skins are nearly transparent, so that the forms
of the persons sitting in the boat can be indistinctly seen.
The sides of the boat are about three feet in height, and the weight
which a well-made oomiak will carry is really wonderful. Captain Lyon
mentions that in one of these boats, measuring twenty-five feet in length
by eight in width and three in depth, more than twenty human beings
were conveyed. There are two very clumsy paddles by which the boat is
slowly propelled, and it is steered by another paddle in the stern. The
post of steerer is usually occupied by an old man, who is unable any
more to manage the kia, but is still capable of guiding the oomiak, and of
flinging a knife, a harpoon, a seal hook, or anything that may come to
hand, at the women, if they neglect their paddling.
 To each oomiak there can be attached a very primitive mast, with its
sail. The mast is but a short one, and is stepped in the fore-part of the
boat. Toward the top it is pierced, and in the hollow is placed a sheave,
or deeply grooved wheel of ivory, on which the halyards run. The sail is
that simplest of all sails, the lug, and is made of the intestines of the
walrus, split open so as to form strips of some four inches in width.
These strips are sewed together, and produce a sail which is remarkable
both for its strength and its extreme lightness. The reader will doubtless
have noticed the singular contrast between the canoes of the hot and cold
parts of the world. In the former, the canoe and sails are entirely of
vegetable materials, without a particle of hide, sinew, or any animal
product; while, in the latter, the animal world furnishes almost the whole
of the materials.
We now come to the sledge, which is quite as important to the
Esquimaux as the canoe. The materials and form of the sledge differ
exceedingly, so that in these respects no two sledges are alike, while the
principle is identical in all. A sledge is nothing more than two runners,
connected with each other by a number of cross-pieces, on which the
driver can sit and the goods be packed.
The best sledges are those in which the runners are made from the
jaw-bone of a whale, sawn into narrow planks and cut into the proper
shape. They are always shod with a strip of the same material. Others are
made of wood, shod with bone, and in these cases the wooden part is
usually in several pieces, which are lashed together with hide thongs. In
the winter, the hide of the walrus is often used for runners. It is fully an
inch in thickness, and, when frozen, is very much stronger than a board
of the same thickness.
When neither wood, bone, nor walrus skin can be procured, the
Esquimaux is still at no loss for runners. He cuts long strips of seal skin,
and sews the edges of each strip together, so as to make two long tubes.
The tubes are next filled with moss and earth, and water is then poured
into them. In a minute or two they are frozen as hard as stone, and are
then ready to form the runners of a sledge. The lower edge of the runner,
whether it be of bone, wood, or skin, is always shod with a coating of
ice, which is renewed as soon as it is worn off by friction, which not only
causes the sledge to glide faster over the frozen surface, but preserves the
valuable material of the runners from being rubbed to pieces.
The cross-bars of the sledge are generally of bone. They project a little
beyond the runners on either side, and are so arranged that the sledge is
narrower in front than behind. They are not lashed too tightly, as they are
required to yield to the jerks and continual strain which the sledge
undergoes in its travels.
The sledge is drawn by a team of dogs, varying from seven to ten, or
even more, according to the weight to be carried. They are very simply
harnessed to it by a strong cord, or trace, made of seal hide, the trace of
the leading dog being considerably longer than that of any of the others.
Being accustomed to the work of the sledge, as soon as they can walk,
their training is very complete, and a good team will do almost anything
but speak.
A team of seven dogs drew a heavy sledge, full of men, a mile in four
minutes and a half; and Captain Lyon mentions that three dogs drew him
the same distance in six minutes, the weight of the sledge being one
hundred pounds. Several times, when returning to the ships, the
sagacious animals brought him and his companions safely to the vessels,
though the night was pitchy dark and the snow-drift blowing about in
clouds. They kept their noses to the ground, and galloped on at full
speed, in absolute certainty of their proper line.
The dogs are guided, not by reins, but by a whip, the lash of which is
from eighteen to thirty feet in length, and the handle only one foot in
length, much like the stock-whip of Australia. A skilful driver makes but
little use of the whip when he has a good team of dogs, but guides the
animals partly by his voice, and partly by flinging the lash of the whip on
one side or other of the leader, who perfectly understands the signal.
When they are required to stop, the driver gives a cry almost exactly like
the “Woa!” of our own country. He then throws the lash gently over their
backs, when they all lie down, and will remain couched in the snow for
hours even, during their master’s absence.
The worst of these dogs is that they are very quarrelsome, and are apt
to snap and snarl at each other as they gallop along. Sometimes a dog
will be exasperated with a bite, and turn furiously on his assailant, when
a general fight takes place, the whole of the dogs tumbling over each
other, and entangling the traces in a manner that none but an Esquimaux
could hope to disentangle. A plentiful application of whip is then made,
which is always resented by the dog that receives the stroke. He chooses
to think that his next neighbor has hurt him, and so bites his ear.
Sometimes a dog is so unruly that the driver is obliged to use his last
argument. Making a little hole in the snow with the toe of his boot, he
presses the dog’s snout into it, and pounds away at it with the ivory
handle of his whip. The dog never howls, nor tries to release himself, but
only utters a low whine. Such a punishment never has to be repeated, and
the dog always goes quietly for the rest of the day.
The endurance of these animals is wonderful. They are kept in the
open air when the temperature is from thirty to forty degrees below zero.
They are very ill fed, being forced to content themselves with the bones
of fish and seals, scraps of hide, and such very few fragments as their
masters cannot devour. Consequently they are always hungry, and can
eat almost anything. Captain Hall mentions that in one night they ate a
whiplash thirty feet long, and that on one occasion a single dog ate in
seven seconds a piece of walrus hide and blubber six feet long and an
inch and a half square.
Yet, in spite of all the hardships which they undergo, they can endure
almost any amount of fatigue without appearing to be the worse for it,
and a team has been known to eat nothing for at least forty-eight hours,
to traverse some seventy miles of ground, and yet to return to their
homes apparently as fresh as when they set out.
Many of them are possessed of singular intelligence, especially those
which are trained to chase the seal, the bear, or the deer. One of these
dogs, named Barbekark, belonging to Captain Hall, actually killed a deer
himself, took one morsel from the neck, and then went home and fetched
his master to the spot where he had left the dead deer. He had a brother
that equally distinguished himself in seal catching. He was the leading
dog in the team, and once, while drawing a sledge, he caught sight of a
seal on the ice. He immediately dashed forward at full speed, and just as
the seal was plunging into the water, caught it by the hind flippers. The
seal struggled frantically to escape, but the dog retained his hold, and,
aided by his fellows, dragged the seal firmly on the ice, when it was
secured by his master.
A very amusing example of the intelligence of these dogs is related by
Captain Hall. He fed the dogs on “capelins,” a small dried fish, and used
to make them stand in a circle round him, so that each received a capelin
in turn. “Now Barbekark, a young and shrewd dog, took it into his head
that he would play a white man’s trick. So every time he received his fish
he would back square out, move a distance of three or four dogs, and
force himself in line again, thus receiving double the share of any other
dog. But this joke of Barbekark’s bespoke too much of the game many
men play upon their fellow-beings, and, as I noticed it, I determined to
check his doggish propensities. Still, the amusing and the singular way in
which he evidently watched me induced a moment’s pause in my
intention.
 “Each dog thankfully took his capelin as his turn came round, but
Barbekark, finding his share came twice as often as his companions,
appeared to shake his tail twice as thankfully as the others. A twinkle in
his eyes as they caught mine seemed to say, ‘Keep dark; these ignorant
fellows don’t know the game I’m playing. I am confoundedly hungry.’
Seeing my face smiling at his trick, he now commenced making another
change, thus getting three portions to each of the others’ one. This was
enough, and it was now time for me to reverse the order of Barbekark’s
game by playing a trick upon him.

(1.) THE KAJAK AND ITS MANAGEMENT.

(See page 1344.)
 (2.) ESQUIMAUX SLEDGE DRIVING.
(See pages 1345, 1346.)

“Accordingly, every time I came to him he got no fish, and though he

changed his position three times, yet he got nothing. Now, if ever there
was a picture of disappointed plans—of envy at others’ fortunes, and
sorrow at a sad misfortune—it was to be found in that dog’s countenance
as he watched his companions receiving their allowance. Finding that he
could not succeed by any change of his position, he withdrew from the
circle to where I was, and came to me, crowding his way between my
legs, and looked up in my face as if to say, ‘I have been a very bad dog.
Forgive me, and Barbekark will cheat his brother dogs no more. Please,
sir, give me my share of capelins.’ I went the rounds three times more,
and let him have the fish, as he had shown himself so sagacious, and so
much like a repentant prodigal dog.”
Marriage among the Esquimaux is of the very simplest description,
and is generally arranged by the parents of the bride and bridegroom, the
latter having nothing to do with the affair. There is no marriage
ceremony, the parties merely going to live in the same igloo. A man may,
and often does, have several wives, and in this case one of them takes the
position of the chief, or igloo wife, and is supreme under her husband.
She has the largest lamp, the best bed, and the best provision. But she
also has the entire management of the household, such as cooking the
food, and drying the clothes on the “dry-net.” This is by no means a
sinecure, as it forces her to rise many times in the night for the purpose
of turning the clothes and drying them equally. She also has to see that
the boots are properly “milled.”
After a child is born, the mother is obliged to confine herself to her
own igloo for some months, and when the allotted time has expired, she
throws off all the clothing which she has worn, and never wears it again.
She then dresses herself in a totally new suit of clothes, and visits in
succession the inhabitants of every igloo. If a second or third child be
born, a separate igloo is always built for the mother, to which she repairs
before the birth of the child, and in which she remains until the
customary time has elapsed and she is able to call upon her neighbors.
The children begin their education at a very early age; the boys being
taught to paddle the kia, to hunt and to fish, and to build igloos; while the
girls learn to row the women’s boat, to dress skins, to manage the lamp,
to cook, and perform the multitudinous tasks that fall to their lot. The
carving of the Esquimaux women is wonderfully good. They make
spirited, though conventional, imitations of fish, ducks, dogs, and various
animals, from ivory, using in the manufacture nothing but a knife. In the
earlier days, before white men visited them, the Esquimaux were obliged
to rely entirely upon flint as a material for their knives, which were
exactly like those of the ancient and perished races. In chopping the
flakes off the flint, the Esquimaux employed a very simple instrument,
the use of which showed an exact knowledge of the fracture-line of flint.
It is made of bone and ivory, and is about six inches in length. Iron,
indeed, is of so late introduction, that when Captain Lyon visited the
natives, in 1821, he could purchase a complete harpoon, with its ivory
head, float, and line, for a nail; while a knife would purchase a kia, or
indeed anything that was asked in exchange for it.
As may be inferred from the climate, the games of the Esquimaux are
but few. They are wonderful experts at a sort of “cat’s-cradle,” producing
with a piece of string imitations of seals, reindeer, ducks, canoes, and
other objects. The little ivory models of ducks and other animals, which
have already been mentioned, are used in several of the native games.
Their dances are remarkable for their simplicity, the dancer inventing
the steps according to his own taste. There is a dance in which a number
of women stand in a ring, with their hands under the front flaps of their
jackets, and sing, with half-closed eyes, the inevitable Amna-aya song:
these are the band. The dancers are represented by one man, who takes
his place in the middle of the ring, swings his head and arms from side to
side, his long, lank hair flapping in the wind, while he utters sharp yells
at intervals, and occasionally flings one leg as high as his thick garments
permit.
The women have a special dance of their own, which consists in
kneeling on the ground, leaping to their feet as fast as they can. This is
really a difficult task when the heavy and clumsy boots are taken into
consideration. Sometimes the men challenge each other to dance, and in
that case the challenge is accepted by employing the “koonik,” or
national salutation, which is given by rubbing the noses together, and
inhaling strongly through the nostrils.
With regard to religion, the Esquimaux seem to have no very definite
idea of the subject, except that they believe in a future existence, in a
heaven and a hell—the latter being, according to their ideas, dark, full of
ice, with snow-storms always blowing, and no seals. They have also a
hazy description of a Supreme Being, and a secondary female divinity,
the special protector of the Esquimaux.
By way of worship, they have sundry medicine men, or “angekos,” as
they are called, who go through a series of strange ceremonies on various
occasions, such as illness, or when a party is setting out on a hunting
expedition. They make the people pay heavily for their services, and rule
with a rod of iron, so that no Esquimaux is likely to retain possession of
any valuable piece of property if an angeko should happen to be in the
neighborhood. They act upon a very simple and intelligent principle,
namely, that the amount of success in “ankooting,” or divining, is in
exact ratio with the amount of pay.
Sometimes, in order to impress awe upon their victims, the angekos go
through a series of imposing ceremonies, the performance of which
infers a vast amount of practice. By the present of a knife and some
beads, Captain Lyon induced a celebrated angeko, named Toolemak, to
have an interview with a Tornga, or familiar spirit, in the cabin of the
ship.
“All light excluded, our sorcerer began by chanting to his wife with
great vehemence, and she, in return, answered by singing the Amna-aya
(the favorite song of the Esquimaux), which was not discontinued during
the whole ceremony. As far as I could learn, he afterward began turning
himself rapidly round, and, in a loud, powerful voice, vociferated for
Tornga with great impatience, at the same time blowing and snorting like
a walrus. His noise, impatience, and agitation increased every moment,
and he at length seated himself on the deck, varying his tones, and
making a rustling with his clothes.
“Suddenly the voice seemed smothered, and was so managed as to
sound as if retreating beneath the deck, each moment becoming more
distant, and ultimately giving the idea of being many feet below the
cabin, where it ceased entirely. His wife, now, in answer to my queries,
informed me very seriously that he had dived, and that he would send up
Tornga.
“Accordingly, in about half a minute, a distant blowing was heard very
slowly approaching, and a voice which differed from that which we at
first had heard was at times mixed with blowing, until at length both
sounds became distinct, and the old woman informed me that Tornga
was come to answer my questions. I accordingly asked several questions
of the sagacious spirit, to each of which inquiries I received an answer by
two loud slaps on the deck, which I was given to understand was
favorable.
“A very hollow yet powerful voice, certainly much different from the
tones of Toolemak, now chanted for some time, and a strange jumble of
hisses, groans, shouts, and gabblings like a turkey succeeded in rapid
succession. The old woman sang with increased energy, and, as I took it
for granted that this was all intended to astonish the Kabloona, I cried
repeatedly that I was very much afraid. This, as I expected, added fuel to
the fire, until the form immortal, exhausted by its own might, asked
leave to retire. The voice gradually sank from our hearing, as at first, and
a very indistinct hissing succeeded. In its advance, it sounded like the
tone produced by the wind upon the bass-cord of an Æolian harp; this
was soon changed to a rapid hiss, like that of a rocket, and Toolemak,
with a yell, announced his return. I held my breath at the first distant
hissing, and twice exhausted myself; yet our conjuror did not once
respire, and even his returning and powerful yell was uttered without a
previous stop or inspiration of air.
“Light being admitted, our wizard, as might be expected, was in a
profuse perspiration, and certainly much exhausted by his exertions,
which had continued for at least half an hour. We now observed a couple
of bunches, each consisting of two strips of white deer-skin and a long
piece of sinew, attached to the back of his coat. These we had not seen
before, and were informed that they had been sewed on by Tornga while
he was below.” A similar exhibition has been seen by several travellers,
and they have expressed their astonishment at the length of time during
which an angeko can howl, hiss, and gabble without taking breath.
While he is below the earth, the angeko is supposed to visit the
habitation of the particular spirit whom he is addressing, and sometimes
gives a detailed account of the places in which he has been, and of their
inhabitants. One female spirit, for example, is called Aywilliayoo. She
commands all the bears, whales, seals, and walruses by means of her
right hand. So, when there is a scarcety of provisions, the angeko makes
a visit to Aywilliayoo and attacks her hand. If he can cut off her nails, the
bears immediately are set free, the loss of one finger joint liberates the
small seals, the second joint sends the large seals, the knuckles free the
whole herds of walrus, while the entire hand liberates the whale.
In figure this spirit is very tall, and has only one eye and one pigtail,
but this is as large as a man’s leg, and descends to her knee. Her house is
a very fine one, but Toolemak did not venture to enter it, because it was
guarded by a huge dog with black hind-quarters and no tail. Her father is
no larger than a boy of ten years old, and he has but one arm, which is
always covered with a large bear’s-skin mitten. His house is also
handsome, but its entrance is guarded by troops of bears and walruses,
who keep up a continual growling.
Unfortunately for his own credit, Toolemak got drunk one evening, as
he might well be, having consumed in succession nearly ten glasses of
rum, or “hot water,” as he was pleased to call it. During his intoxication
he became very good-natured, and betrayed the secrets of his magic art,
showing how he altered his voice by covering his face with his hands
and then with his jacket, so as to make the voice appear as if it came
from a continually increasing depth. He finished this singular exhibition
by drinking in succession eleven pints and one gill of water, and within a
few minutes became sober enough to leave the ship and walk to his
sledge.
Sometimes the Esquimaux say that they are annoyed by spirits. On
one occasion when a man nicknamed Kettle was eating in Captain
Lyon’s cabin, he became uneasy, and frequently ceased eating, a very
remarkable circumstance in a hungry Esquimaux. Presently he said that
there was a spirit sitting on the opposite side of the cabin, making
grimaces at him, and preventing him from eating. He asked leave to
drive his tormenter away, which he did by raising a long, bellowing
sound, and then blowing sharply on the ends of his fingers. He resumed
his meal quietly, and nothing would induce him to blow on his fingers or
raise the exorcising yell again, on the ground that the spirit was no longer
to be seen.
The Esquimaux possess wonderful powers of drawing. They know
scarcely anything of perspective, but they can make their sketches tell
their own tale; while in drawing from memory a chart of a coast, their
skill is really admirable. In Captain Hall’s book there are fac-similes of
several native charts and sketches, the most curious of which is one
which was not only drawn but engraved on wood by the native
draughtsman. It represents a woman with a child nestling in the hood
behind her back, and is quite equal in execution to wood-cutting in the
earlier stages of the art. The point about it which most strikes a practised
eye is the force and fidelity with which the artist has marked the texture
of the different parts of the dress; the fur coat and trowsers edged with
leather, and the white-edged, fur-lined hood, are most admirably
managed.
Of music and musical instruments the Esquimaux know little. They
have the Amna-aya song, which has already been mentioned, and they
possess one national musical instrument, called the “keeloun.” This is
something like a tambourine, being formed of a very thin deer skin, or
the envelope of the whale’s liver, stretched over one side of a wooden
hoop. A handle is attached to the hoop, and the instrument is struck, not
upon the membrane, but upon the hoop.
As a nation they are remarkable for two good qualities, honesty and
hospitality. There are, of course, exceptions to every rule, and such is the
case with the Esquimaux. But the early voyagers found that they might
leave their knives and axes on shore, and that not one of them would be
touched. Now, to an Esquimaux a steel knife or axe is more valuable
than a box full of sovereigns would be to us, and the honesty of the
Esquimaux was as much tried by the sight of these articles as would be
that of our London poor if a heap of sovereigns were left lying on the
pavement.
As to hospitality, their food is considered to be merely common
property, so that if one of the Esquimaux should kill a seal, all his friends
and neighbors assemble as a matter of course to assist in eating it; and
even though the family of the successful hunter should be starving, he
will nevertheless invite all his friends to partake of the food. In this way,
it often happens that an entire seal barely affords a single meal to all who
come to share it.
 Funerals among the Esquimaux are rather variable in their forms.
Generally, when a sick person is on the point of death, a new igloo is
built, and carefully fitted with lamp, provisions, and other furniture. The
dying person is carried in—not through the regular doorway, but through
a breach in the wall—placed on the couch, the lamp lighted, and the
provisions laid ready to hand. The attendants then leave the igloo, build
up the openings, and never trouble themselves again about the sick
person. The principal reason why the dying are left alone is, that if the
relatives are in the igloo at the moment of death, they are obliged to
throw away the dresses which they were wearing, and never to wear
them again. None of them can tell the reason for this strange belief, but it
is so strongly ingrained that no argument can induce them to abandon it.
Sometimes the body of a dead person is simply buried in a hole
scooped in the snow, and sometimes it is laid upon a ledge of rock,
accompanied by the lamp, kettle, knives, spears, and dresses which the
deceased used while in life. When a child dies, all its toys are placed
with it in the grave, that it may be supplied with them in the next world.
The demeanor of the Esquimaux with regard to their dead is a most
extraordinary mixture of affection and unconcern. After having buried
the body, whether alive or dead does not matter, they care nothing about
it, and this strange insensibility is even displayed before the burial. For
example, a man’s wife had died, leaving a child of a few weeks old,
which in a short time followed its mother. The father was very sorrowful
for his dying child, and was seen in the night lifting the curtains of its
bed as it lay ill on board ship, and sighing deeply. But, on the next day,
when he came to the ship, he made no scruple of laying his meat on the
body of the child, and using it as a table at breakfast.
Once, when Captain Lyon visited the grave where an Esquimaux
named Pekooya had been laid, he found that the wolves and dogs had
uncovered the body, and had eaten a considerable portion of it. He was
naturally shocked at the scene, but the natives treated it with absolute
indifference, and though the father and a brother of Pekooya were
witnesses of the desecration, they would not cover up the mangled body,
and only laughed when Captain Lyon remonstrated with them. Moreover,
when the body was buried, it was covered so slightly with snow that the
first day’s thaw would melt off all the snow, and leave it to the mercy of
the dogs.
Judging from such a fact as this, it might be thought that the
Esquimaux have but little natural affection, and that they are indifferent
to the loss of their nearest relatives. Such, however, is not the case. An
Esquimaux never passes the grave of an acquaintance without depositing
a piece of meat as an offering, and the surviving relatives often visit the
burying-place of their dead, and sit there for hours, talking to them as if
they were still alive. On comparing all the conflicting accounts
respecting the Esquimaux and their dead, it seems likely that they
consider the dead body as something that the deceased once possessed,
but cast away at death, and that, as their departed friend abandoned the
body, they need take no trouble about so worthless an article.
If the reader will refer to the illustration on page 1347, he will see that
the horizon is illuminated by strange and wild-looking dashes of light.
These represent the Aurora Borealis, as it often appears in those parts,—
not pale and flickering as we see it in these comparatively southern
regions, but blazing with all imaginable hues, and giving out a light that
stands the natives in stead of the sun, which in those latitudes is absent
for months at a time. The glory and magnificence of these displays can
only be described by those who have seen them, and very inadequately
even by such.
There is an account given by Captain Hall of one of these marvellous
exhibitions:—“I had gone on deck several times to look at the beauteous
scene, and at nine o’clock was below in my cabin, when the captain
hailed me with these words, ‘Come above, Hall, come at once! T
.’
“I knew his meaning, and quick as thought I re-dressed myself,
scrambled over several sleeping Innuits close to my berth, and rushed to
the companion stairs. In another moment I reached the deck, and as the
cabin door swung open, a dazzling and overpowering light, as if the
world were really ablaze under the agency of some gorgeously colored
fires, burst upon my startled senses. How can I describe it? Again I say,
No mortal hand can truthfully do so. Let me however, in feeble, broken
words, put down my thoughts at the time, and try to give some faint idea
of what I saw.
“My first thought was, ‘Among the gods there is none like unto Thee,
O Lord; neither are any works like unto Thy works!’ Then I tried to
picture the scene before me. Piles of golden light and rainbow light,
scattered along the azure vault, extended from behind the western
horizon to the zenith; thence down to the eastern, within a belt of space,
20° in width, were the fountains of beams, like fire-threads, that shot
with the rapidity of lightning hither and thither, upward and athwart the
great pathway indicated. No sun, no moon, yet the heavens were a
glorious sight, flooded with light. Even ordinary print could easily have
been read on deck.
“Flooded with rivers of light! Yes, flooded with light; and such light!
Light all but inconceivable. The golden hues predominated, but in rapid
succession prismatic colors leaped forth. We looked, we saw, and
trembled; for as we gazed, the whole belt of aurora began to be alive
with flashes. Then each pile or bank of light became myriads; some were
dropping down the great pathway or belt; others springing up, others
leaping with lightning flash from one side, while more as quickly passed
into the vacated space; some twisting themselves into folds, entwining
with others like enormous serpents, and all these movements as quick as
the eye could follow.
“It seemed as if there were a struggle with these blazing lights to reach
and occupy the dome above our heads. Then the whole arch above
became crowded. Down, down it came; nearer and nearer it approached
us. Sheets of golden flame, coruscating while leaping from the auroral
belt, seemed as if met in their course by some mighty agency that turned
them into the colors of the rainbow, each of the seven primary colors 3°
in width, sheeted out to 21°.
“While the auroral fires seemed to be descending upon us, one of our
number could not help exclaiming,—
“‘Hark! hark! such a display! almost as if a warfare were going on
among the beauteous lights above—so palpable—so near—it seems
impossible without noise.’
“But no noise accompanied this wondrous display. All was silence....
“I would here make the remark that the finest displays of the aurora
only last a few moments. Though it may be playing all night, yet it is
only now and then that its grandest displays are made. As if marshalling
forces, gaining strength, compounding material, it continues on its silent
workings. At length it begins its trembling throes; beauty anon shoots out
here and there, when all at once the aurora flashes into living hosts of
powdered coruscating rainbows, belting to the heavenly dome with such
gorgeous grandeur that mortals sometimes tremble to behold.”
These wonderful aërial phenomena are characteristic of the Arctic
regions. One of the most extraordinary appearances in the sky is called
the Parhelion, or Mock Sun. It assumes various and most astounding
forms, the sun appearing in the middle, and being surrounded with
dimmer imitations of itself, round which run circular bands of light.
There seems, indeed, to be no end to the extraordinary modifications of
aërial effects which take place in these regions. Captain Hall described
many of them, among which may be mentioned a moon distorted beyond
all recognition, its lower limb all crushed and shapeless, and the whole
appearance of the planet like that of a man under the influence of liquor.
Then the refractive powers of the atmosphere produce most wonderful
effects, destroying all perspective, and bringing into sight all kinds of
objects which, by the ordinary laws of optics, are far out of sight. All
sailors are familiar with the appearance of a vessel high in the air,
sailing, as it were, through the sky with her keel in the clouds, and the
tops of her masts pointing downward. In these regions the refractive
powers are even terrible to accustomed eyes, so wonderful are the sights
presented to them.
In one of these strange exhibitions, witnessed by Captain Hall, a vast
white inverted pyramid seemed to form in the sky, and at every roll of
the vessel to dip into the sea. Presently “some land that was seventy-five
miles distant, and the top of it only barely seen in an ordinary way, had
its rocky base brought full in view. The whole length of this land in sight
was the very symbol of distortion.
“Pendant from an even line that stretched across the heavens was a
ridge of mountains. Life hangs upon a little thread, but what think you of
mountains hanging upon a thread? In my fancy I said, ‘If Fate had
decreed one of the Sisters to cut that thread while I witnessed the
singular spectacle, what convulsions upon the land and sea about us
might not have followed!’ But Nature had an admirable way of taking
down these rock-giants, hanging between the heavens and the earth.
Arch after arch was at length made in wondrous grandeur from the
rugged and distorted atmospheric land; and, if ever man’s eye rested
upon the sublime, in an act of God’s creative power, it was when He
arcuated the heavens with such a line of stupendous mountains.
“Between those several mountain arches in the sky were hung
icebergs, also inverted, moving silently and majestically about as the sea-
currents shifted those along of which they were the images. In addition
to all this there was a wall of water, so it appeared, far beyond the
apparent horizon. This wall seemed alive with merry dancers of the most
fantastic figures that the imagination could conceive, and its
perpendicular columns were ever playfully changing. Oh, how
exquisitely beautiful was this God-made, living wall! A thousand
youthful forms of the fairest outline seemed to be dancing to and fro,
their white arms intertwined, bodies incessantly varying, intermixing,
falling, rising, jumping, skipping, hopping, whirling, waltzing, resting,
and again rushing to the mazy dance—never tired—ever playful—ever
light and airy, graceful, and soft to the eye.”

W - H .
(See page 1343.)
 Such, then, is a brief account of the remarkable and interesting Innuit
people—a people which, according to the observation of Captain Hall,
are gradually dying out, and in a few more years will cease to exist.
 CHAPTER CXLII.
VANCOUVER’S ISLAND.
THE AHTS AND NEIGHBORING TRIBES.

DEFINITION OF THE AHT TRIBES — APPEARANCE OF THE NATIVES — STRENGTH

OF GRASP — PECULIARITY OF THE LEGS — GAIT OF THE WOMEN — SPEED
OF THE MEN — DANCE — THE LIP ORNAMENT OF THE WOMEN —
CLOTHING — THE BOAT CLOAK AND HAT — WEAPONS — THE BOW AND
ARROW — INGENIOUS CONSTRUCTION OF THE BOW — ITS BACKING OF
ELASTIC STRINGS — THE ARROWS AND THEIR SPIRAL FEATHERING — THE
FISH SPEAR AND HARPOON ARROWS — THE HALIBUT HOOK — VARIOUS
MODES OF HUNTING — SALMON SPEARING BY TORCHLIGHT — THE
HERRING RAKE — HOW TO KEEP THE BOAT FROM SINKING — THE WHALE
FISHERY.

Before leaving this part of the world, we will cast a brief glance at the
tribes which inhabit Vancouver’s Island. They are singularly interesting,
inasmuch as they combine some of the habits which distinguish the
Esquimaux with others of the North American tribes, and add to them
several of the customs which have been already noticed among the
Polynesians, their insular position and peculiar climate no doubt
affording the cause for this curious mixture.
As a type of these tribes, we will take the Ahts, though other tribes
will be casually mentioned. The Ahts may rather be called a nation than
a tribe, being divided into some twenty tribes, the names of which all end
in “aht,” as, for example, Ohyaht, Muchlaht, Ayhuttisaht, Toquaht, etc.
Altogether they number about seventeen hundred. They do not, however,
act together as a nation, and each tribe is perfectly distinct, and often at
war with another.
They are not a tall people, the men averaging a little less than five feet
six inches, and the women being just above five feet. Possibly, from the
continual paddling which they practise almost from childhood, the upper
limbs of an Aht are exceedingly strong, so strong, indeed, that a slight-
looking native can carry with ease on his extended fingers a weight
which a white man can scarcely lift. Their power of grasp, probably from
the same cause, is more like the grip of a machine than the grasp of a
man; and those who have had to fight with them have found that if once
an Aht be allowed to seize either the clothing or the hair, the only way to
loosen his grasp is to knock him down with a blow in the throat or in the
ribs—he cares nothing for a blow on the head.
When he comes to such close quarters in a quarrel, he has an awkward
habit of grasping the enemy with one hand, and using with the other a
knife which he has kept concealed in his long hair. Fortunately for his
white opponent, so extraordinary a proceeding as a blow from the fist,
which deprives him for a time of breath, bewilders and alarms him to
such an extent that he seldom risks its repetition.
The legs of the Aht tribes are, as a rule, short, ill-made, bowed, and
apparently deficient in power. This peculiarity is especially noticeable in
the women, whose legs are so bowed, and whose toes are so turned
inward, that they waddle rather than walk, and at every step they are
obliged to cross their feet as a parrot does. The legs of the inland tribes
are, as a rule, better developed than those of the inhabitants of the coast.
Yet these unsightly limbs are by no means deficient in power. An Aht,
powerfully built above, will step out of his canoe, and exhibit a pair of
legs scarcely as thick as his arms, and yet he will walk in the woods for a
whole day without showing any signs of fatigue.
Owing to this form of limb, the natives, though enduring enough, are
not swift of foot, and can be easily overtaken by a white man on the open
ground, notwithstanding the impediments of clothing, and especially of
shoes, which hinder the progress of the pursuer, the pursued usually
throwing off the only garment that he wears. Should he once reach the
woods, pursuit is useless, as no white man can follow a naked native in
them.
The color of the Ahts is a dull, but not dark, brown. Their face is broad
and flat, the nose tolerably well formed when it is not dragged out of
shape by rings and other ornaments, and the cheek-bones are strongly
marked and broad, but not high. There is very little hair on the faces of
the men, but that of the head is long, straight, and is generally allowed to
hang loosely over the shoulders, though it is sometimes gathered into a
knot at the back of the head, merely covered by a cap or a wreath of
grass. They are very proud of their hair, so that when an Aht has been
guilty of some offence which is not very serious, the best punishment is
to cut off his hair, inasmuch as he will be an object of constant ridicule
until it has grown again. The women divide their hair in the middle, and
tie it in two plaits, one of which hangs at each side of the face, and often
has a piece of lead suspended to the end to keep it straight. Mr. Sproat
thinks that the physical characteristics of the Ahts have been modified by
means of a large importation of Chinese, which took place about the end
of the last century, and remarks that the peculiar Chinese eye is
sometimes seen among these natives. Still, even if this be the fact, the
modification can be but slight, as both people are undoubtedly members
of the same great race, though altered by the conditions in which they
have respectively been placed.
Some of the women have a hideously ugly ornament which they wear
in their under lip, just as do the Botocudos of Tropical America. This
practice exists only among the northern tribes, where it is carried out to
an enormous extent. As the size of the ornament is gradually increased
from childhood, the lip of an old woman will contain an oval ornament
three inches long by two wide. There is a shallow groove round the edge
so as to keep it in its place, and both sides are slightly concave.
Sometimes it is used as a spoon, the woman putting on it a piece of meat
that is too hot, and, when it is cool, turning it into her mouth by a
contraction of the lip.
The value that is set upon this horrible disfigurement is almost
ludicrous, a woman’s rank being due to the size of her lip ornament.
Possibly, on account of the long time which must be occupied in
stretching the orifice in the lip to the required size, the opinion of a
woman with a large lip is always held in respect; and, if she should be
opposed by a younger person of her own sex, she will contemptuously
decline to enter into argument with a woman who has so small a lip.
Some of them wear a shell ornament, like the stem of a clay tobacco-
pipe, one or two inches long, stuck through the lip and projecting
forward at a considerable angle with the chin. This ornament is called the
hai-qua.
As for clothing, the men wear a sort of robe made by themselves, for
which they have in later days substituted an European blanket. They are
not at all particular as to the disposal of this robe, and even if it should
fall off do not trouble themselves. The women also wear the blanket, but
always have a small apron in addition to it. In their canoes they wear a
cape. It is made of cedar-bark string, and is woven in nearly the same
manner as the mat of the New Zealander, which has already been
described; namely, by stretching the warp threads parallel to each other
on a frame, and tying them together at intervals with a cross-thread
which represents the woof. A specimen in my collection has the cross-
threads at intervals of half an inch.
 It is shaped exactly like the cross section of a boat, straight above, and
rounded below. It measures five feet three inches in width, and three feet
six inches in depth in the centre. As is usual with such robes, the upper
edge is adorned with a strip of marten fur a quarter of an inch wide,
wound spirally round the selvage so as to form quite a thick rope of fur.
These capes are the work of the women, who have the manufacture of all
the clothing. Fur bags are made by the simple process of skinning the
marten, the body being then extricated through a cut made across the
abdomen just below the tail. As the skin comes off it is reversed, and
when dry and properly dressed it is turned with the fur outward, and the
bag is complete, the tail serving as a handle. One of these bags in my
collection was presented to me by Lieut. Pusey.
The woof thread is also made of the white pine bark, and the needle is
nothing more than a sharpened twig. The same useful materials are also
employed for the curious hats which the natives wear in their canoes.
These hats are made on the principle of the sailors’ “sou’-westers,” and
are fashioned so as to shoot rain off the shoulders. The outside of the hat
is made of cedar bark, and the inside of white pine bark.
Depending largely upon animal food for their nourishment, the Aht
tribes are expert hunters, and make very ingenious weapons, some of
which are shown in the illustrations on page 1357, drawn from my own
specimens.
The bow and arrows used by these people are worthy of a brief
description. The bow is an admirable specimen of savage art, and must
be the result of long experience. It is four feet three inches in length, and
made of one piece of wood. In general shape it resembles the bow of the
Andamans, though it is not of such gigantic dimensions. In the middle
the wood is rounded, so as to form a handle which is nearly four inches
in circumference. From the handle to the tips, the wood is gradually
flattened and widened for about fourteen inches, where it is just two
inches wide. From this point it gradually lessens again to the tip, which
is rounded and thickened, so as to receive the notch for the string.
Were no addition made to the bow it would still be a very powerful
weapon, but the maker has not been satisfied with the simple wood, and
has strengthened it with a wonderfully complex arrangement of strings
made of twisted sinews. In my specimen there are rather more than fifty
of these strings, which are laid on the bow and interwoven with each
other in a manner so strong and neat, that the most skilful sailor might be
envious of such a piece of handiwork. Each of these strings is double, the
two strands being about as large as thin whipcord, and when seen against
the light they are quite translucent.
They are put on in the following manner. Two deep notches, parallel to
the line of the bow, are made at each lip, these notches serving two
purposes: first, the reception of the bow-strings, and next the support of
the strengthening strings. Eight of the strings, measuring about eleven
feet in length, have been doubled, the loop passed over the tip of the
bow, and the strings led along the back over the corresponding notch at
the other tip, and brought back to the middle. These strings lie parallel to
each other, and form a flat belt from one end of the bow to the other.
About an inch below the tip, three other sets of strings are fastened in a
somewhat similar manner, so that four distinct layers of strings run
throughout the length of the weapon.

ARROWS.

Even these have not sufficed the maker, who has added six more
layers starting from the widest and flattest part of the bow, so that nearly
three feet of the centre of the weapon are strengthened by no less than
twelve layers of sinew strings. By referring to the illustration, the reader
will perceive the extreme ingenuity with which the strings are laid on the
bow, so that whether the weapon be bent or unstrung, they all keep their
places. So firmly are they lashed to the bow, that even when it is
unstrung they are all as tight as harp strings.
The string of the bow is made of the same material as those which
strengthen the back, and in consequence of the very great strength of the
material, it is much thinner than the string of an ordinary archer’s bow. It
is made of two strands, each strand being about as large as the back
strings.
By referring to illustration No. 3, on the next page, a good idea can be
gained of this singularly ingenious weapon. At first the bow is seen as it
appears when strung, fig. 3 giving a section of the wood. At fig. 2 is an
enlarged representation of one end of the bow, so as to show the manner
in which the various sets of strings are fastened. At the upper part are
seen the strings which form the first layer, passing over the end of the
bow, and filling up the notch in which they lie. Just below the tip come
the second and third sets, which pass down the bow, where they are met
by, and interwoven with, the remainder of the strings, the whole of them
being gathered in the rope with its spiral building. This beautiful weapon
was added to my collection by Lieut. Pusey, R. N.
The arrows are of various kinds, according to the object for which
they are intended. That which is used for ordinary occasions is shown in
the uppermost figure of the illustration. It is two feet three inches in
length, and is headed with bone.
There is a peculiarity about these arrows which is worthy of notice.
Some time ago an arrow was patented in England, which had the feathers
placed spirally upon the end of the shaft, so as to give it a rapidly
revolving movement when discharged from the bow. The principle was
exactly that of the screw which is applied to steam vessels; and those
who used the arrow acknowledged that the spiral setting of the feathers
not only increased the power of flight, but enabled the archer to drive his
arrow through the wind with greater ease and certainty than could be
obtained with the ordinarily feathered arrow. There is a very old saying
that there is nothing new under the sun, and this is the case with the
arrow in question, the savages of Northern America having adopted the
same principle long ago. In their arrows the feathers are set spirally, with
a bold curve, and there is really no difference between the weapon of the
savage and the toy of civilization, than the greater neatness and higher
finish of the latter.
(1.) AHT FISH-HOOK.
(See page 1359.)
 (2.) PIPES.
(See page 1370.)