Name: Hanna Rolish J.

Digamon - This model shows that communication is a

social
Section: BSIA11

PRELIMS
Lesson 1: Communication Models and
Processes
What is Communication?
- It is the exchange of ideas, thoughts, and
information from one source to another interaction
- The communicators share a common set of
understanding or interpretation of the
message

Transactional Communication Model

- By Barnlund in 1970
- This model posits that how the individual
communicates determines the way the
Shannon & Weaver Communication Model

- By Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in

1949
- Mirroring the radio and telephone
technologies
-
-
- message will be interpreted
- - Factors in communication may include
- gender, age, culture, value system and many
- more
- 1.2: Communication Processes
-
-
First major model for communication
Sender
SMCR Communication Model
- It
- By David Berlo in 1960 is
- Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver the
- Still derived from Shannon-Weaver’s model
but changed and enhanced by another
theorist.
source of the message, the one who encodes
the message
- Transforms thoughts into message
- The primary responsibility of the sender is
to convey the message in the most
SMRC Communication Model comprehensible way possible
Message
- By Wilbur Schramm in 1954 - It is the body of information that is sent by
the sender to the receiver
 - Refers to anything that is communicated by Intrapersonal communication
the sender to the receiver
- The latin prefix intra means “within” or
Channel “inside”
- Interpersonal communication then means
- It is what connects the sender to the
talking to oneself (inner talk, inner
receiver
monologue, or inner dialogue)
- It is the means of accessing the message
- Psychologists call it with other names such
sent by the sender to the receiver
as self-verbalization or self-statement
Receiver
For example: Saying “I can do it” to yourself in
- It is the recipient of the message from the times when you lack or need motivation
sender
Interpersonal Communication
- The receiver is the one who decodes and
process the information conveyed by the - The latin prefix inter means “between,
sender among, and together”
- The primary responsibility of the receiver is - It is an interactive exchange
to understand the message - A communication situation is interpersonal
if it is meant to establish or deepen one's
relationship with others
Noise Barrier - It is less serious and less formal
- It is what impedes the communication - Interpersonal talks are meant for
process maintaining social relationships
- It refers to the distractions that interfere Extended Communication
with the accurate transmission and
reception of the message - This type of communication involves the use
of electronic media
Feedbacks - With the use of electronic media, messages
- It is the response of the receiver to the are transmitted quickly
sender - Unlike before when there is just television
- When this is made, the role of the and radio, nowadays, the description of
participants in the process is reversed extended comm may be expanded as to
include tele, audio, or phone conferencing,
video conferencing, and other technological
means
Lesson 2: Types of Communication
Types of Communication According to:
Organizational Communication
Mode
- With these types, the focus is on the role
Verbal-non-verbal communication that communication plays in organizational
contexts
- Effective communication calls for the
- You should know that each organization has
blending of these two
expectations that you as a communication
For example: (1) giving instructions, (2) professional should meet or that you as the
express feeling owner may establish
Intercultural Communication
Visual Communication
- As the term implies, it is communication
- A type of communication that uses visuals between or among people having different
to convey information and/or messages linguistic, religious, ethnic, social, and
professional backgrounds
For example: signs, symbols, maps, graphs,
charts, illustrations
Style
Context
Formal Communication
 - Employs formal language delivered orally or
in written form
Examples: Lectures, public speeches, research and
project proposals, reports, business letters
- Texts have been thought out carefully and
written well before delivered
- To inform, entertain, and persuade are the
main objectives of this type of
communication
Informal Communication
- This type certainly does not employ formal
language
- It involves personal and ordinary
conversations with friends, family members,
or acquaintances about anything under the
sun
- The purpose is simply to socialize and
enhance relationships
Lesson 3: Communication Principles and Ethics
“Since communication is a two-way process, it is
important that you know the principles to be
observed to make it effective.”
Principles in Communication
Know the purpose in communicating
- Are you communicating basically to inform,
to entertain, or to persuade?
- While you have more than one purpose,
there is still dominant objective or reason
why you communicate
Know your audience
- In both speaking and writing, you should
know your audience as it will dictate the
speaking or writing style you are going to
employ
- Consider the age, educational background,
profession, culture, and other salient
features of your listeners
Know your topic
- You communicate essentially because you
want to share something
- This is like a direction, it will keep you focus
on the messages that you want to say or
write
- Utilize several communication techniques to
easily catch the attention of the audience
Adjust your speech or writing context of the
situation
- The environment in which your speech or
writing is to be delivered determines the
kind of language you will use
Work on the feedback given
- Once you receive comments from the
listeners/readers, work on them
- Take kindly the criticisms
- In the long run, constructive criticisms will
prove beneficial to you as you learn to
address them
Ethic in Communication
Communication Ethics emphasizes that morals
influence the behavior of an individual, group, or
organization thereby affecting their communication
It is important to note that one’s behavior should be
regulated by honesty, decency, truthfulness,
sincerity, and moral uprightness
Be truthful
- Truthfulness is fundamental to all forms of
communication.
- Communicators who are caught lying will
lose their credibility and the goodwill of the
audience, which are essential to influencing
them.
Show respect for the power of words
- Words are powerful.
- They can make or break careers, launch
wars, or bridge peace among others.
For example
▻ It is common for our government leaders to
sit down and discuss peace negotiations. And
they do that with words.
▻ One wrong statement from a celebrity may
cause his or her downfall.
Invoke participatory democracy
- Communication ethics is a joint
responsibility between the speaker and the
audience.
For example, speakers should put themselves in
the shoes of the listeners and see if they are
treating the listeners as they would like to be
treated, with respect.
Demonstrate mindfulness of cultural diversity
- Ethical communicators construct their
speeches being mindful of cultural
differences, which means being careful not
to offend others with the things that they
say.
- Our practices and beliefs vary from culture,
but we can be both respectful and mindful
of other people's culture without entirely
accepting their cultural practices.
Lesson 4: VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF
SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE VARIETIES
A specific set of linguistic terms or human speech
pattern (sound, words, grammatical features)
which can be associated with some external factors
(geographical area, social group).
DIFFERENT KINDS OF LANGUAGE VARIETIES:
Pidgin
- Is a new language which develops in
situations where speakers of different
language needs to communicate but don’t
share common language. The vocabulary of
the pidgin comes mainly fromone paticular
language.
- No native Speakers. Mixing of languages.
Reduced grammar and vocabulary.
- Example: Conyo - It has a colloquial
meaning differs from its origin, and isn’t
vulgar at all times.Itrefers to the way of
speaking or one who speaks taglish and/or
with an English accent,
usuallyassociatedwith ipper-class citizens
because such is the stereotype in Filipino
pop culture.
Creole
- When people and children start learning a
pidgin as their first language and it becomes
the mother of
- community or becomes as Creole.
- It is distinct language which was taken most
of its vocabulary from another language, but
has unique grammatical rules.
Regional Dialect
- It is not a distinct language but a variety of
language spoken in a particular area of a
country. Some regional dialects have been
given traditional names which mark them
out as being significantly different varieties
spoken in the same place
Indigenized Variety
- These are mainly spoken as second
languages in ex-colonies with multilingual
populations. The differences from the
standard variety may be linked to English
proficiency or may be part of a range of
identities.
Minority Dialect
- Sometimes, members of a particular
minority ethnic group have their own
variety which they use as a marker of
identity , usually alongside a standard
variety.
LANGUAGE REGISTERS
- The perceived attitude and level of formality
associated with a variety of language
- A variety of language used in a particular
social setting, using certain words, phrases,
and contractions that arenot normally used
in other settings (or if they may sound
strange or out of place
MAJOR DIVISIONS OF LANGUAGE REGISTERS:
FORMAL REGISTER
Appropriate for professional writing such as:
o Business Letter
o Complaint Letter
o Reports o Official speeches
o Announcements o Professional e-mails
Formal Language
- Does Not Use Contractions
- Contraction refers to the shortening a word,
syllable, or word group by omission of a
sound or letter
- Instead of using “don’t” in a sentence, use
“do not”, spell out the words
- Contractions can be use if you are quoting
someone’s exact words in your writing
- Formal Language Does Not Use
Colloquialisms: Colloquialism refers to local
 or dialect expression or language which is
common to spoken English
- As much as possible use the appropriate
and formal words in formal writing
Formal Language Focuses More on Vocabulary
Choice
FOR EXAMPLE:
- (Informal) The research assistant checked
out the incident and got back to him the
next day.
- (Formal) The research assistant
investigated the incident and reported to
him the following day. Formal Language
Spells Out Numbers Less Than One Hundred
INFORMAL REGISTER
Use conversational language and appropriate when
writing or talking to friends and people you know
very well such as:
o Chatting with friends and family o Diaries and
journals
o Friendly Letters o Personal e-mails
o Phone texts o Messenger conversations
o Short notes o Blogs/ vlogs
Common Informal Register
- Slangs and cliches Figurative Languages
- Symbols and abbreviations
- Acronyms
- Incomplete and Short Sentences
- Personal Opinions and Jokes
- First person, Second person and Third
person point of view.
- Extra punctuation (!!!)
- Passive and Active voice
JARGON
Refers to the specialized language of a professional
or occupational group. Such language is often
meaningful to outsiders.
COLLOQUIALISMS
- The everyday use of language commonplace
parlance or vernacular language that lends
people their identity.
- The informal use of language consisting
words or expression used by common
people. Examples: Kamo, Ewan, Teka,
What’s Up, Watcha doin’ SLANG
(PABALBAL)
- - The usage of language, especially by
certain groups of people such as teenagers,
and specific fields or professions.
- More informal than colloquialisms and used
in any culture or society
- Examples: Yosi, Bagets, Syota, Omsim,
Babae, Kool
LEVELS OF THE REGISTERS OF LANGUAGE
INTIMATE REGISTER
- This communication is private.
- It is reserved for close family members or
intimate people.
- For example: Husband and Wife, Siblings,
and Parent.
CASUAL REGISTER
This is informal language used by peers and friends.
- Slang, vulgarities and colloquialisms are
normal.
- This is "group" language. One must be a
member to engage in this register.
CONSULTATIVE REGISTER
Used for the purpose of seeking assistance
- May use a standard or non-standard variety
of English yet a level of detachment is
maintained.
- It is a professional discourse
- For example: Communications between a
superior and subordinate, Doctor and
Patient, Lawyer and Client.
FORMAL REGISTER
This language is used in formal settings.
- This use of language usually follows a
commonly accepted format.
- It is used in impersonal and formal settings.
- For example: Sermons, Speeches,
Pronouncements made by judges
STATIC / FROZEN REGISTER
This style of communications rarely or never
changes. It is "frozen" in time and content. For
example: The Lord's Prayer, Philippine Constitution.

MIDTERMS
Lesson 5: Public Speaking
What is Public Speaking?
- A form of communication wherein one
delivers a message or speech in front of an
audience
- A skilled public speaker has the ability to
get across his/her message effectively to an
interested audience so that the audience
can arrive at a good decision… thus
influencing people’s outlook and character
- Styles and strategies play an important role
in achieving the power to influence your
audience to act and do something
Elements of Vocal Delivery
Pitch
- This refers to the highness and the lowness
of the tone of the voice.
- The speaker’s knowledge of when to raise
or lower the tone of his/her voice is
important
- The pitch must be varied
Volume
- This refers to the loudness or softness of the
sound.
- Modulating is one thing while shouting is
another. The speaker must know which
parts he/she should speak louder or softer.
- Likewise, he/she should be sensitive
enough too notice whether or not his/her
voice is audible, particularly to those who
may be seated at the farthest end of, for
instance, a hall.
Rate
- This refers to the speed at which words are
spoken.
- The rate must be adapted to the type of
audience with which speaker
communicates.
- It is wise to maintain a moderate speed to
enable the listeners to follow the
presentation and grasp the message more
clearly.
- The rate can also change once in a while for
emphasis.
Pause
- This refers to the temporary stop in the
vocal delivery, which serves a good purpose.
- It allows the listeners some time to process
the information while, at the same time,
allowing the speaker to recall something
that he/she might have forgotten about the
presentation. He/she must learn when to
pause.
Animation
- This refers to the liveliness of the voice.
- The speaker's ability to animate his/her
voice will definitely make the presentation
dynamic.
Vocal Clarity
- This refers to proper pronunciation. The
speaker must be able to utter the words
properly and clearly.
- He/she must likewise avoid disruptive
speech sounds such as uh, well, um, and you
know.
Vocal quality
- This refers to the distinct characteristic of
one's voice.
- It can be thin, hoarse, hinky, rough, or airy,
etc.
- Since vocal quality can be improved and
even changed, it is important for the
speaker to explore the beauty of his/her
own voice, knows its strengths and
weaknesses, and optimize it to his/her
advantage.
Elements of a Physical Delivery
Facial Expression
- No matter how speakers project their voice
or dancers move their body, if they do not
show appropriate facial expressions, they
fail.
- Their facial expressions must be reflective
of the message they wish to express to the
audience.
Eye Contact
- Effective eye contact will establish
connection with the audience.
- Looking directly at the audience will make
them feel that they are significant part of
the presentation.
- The eyes must be directed not toward the
ceiling nor the floor, but the audience.
Gestures
- This refers to the movement of the body
that expresses or emphasizes an idea,
sentiment, or attitude.
- Too much gestures might be an overkill; too
little of them might make the presentation
dull.
- Hence, it is imperative that speakers
consider the size of the audience, that is,
whether or not their gestures must involve
only the fingers or the wrist or if they must
be extended to the use of the elbow or the
shoulder.
Posture
- Good posture does not have to be very stiff
like that of a police officer when coming to a
position of attention nor does it have to be
too relaxed that the speaker appears lousy
or even arrogant.
- Standing straight and tall, with both feet flat
and slightly apart, chin up, shoulders
relaxed, coupled with that charming smile
can make up a good posture. Just do it
naturally!
Movement
- Knowing when to move to and from must be
clear to every speaker. Moving too much and
aimlessly can be very distracting.
- Effective movements must be purposeful,
that is, the speaker moves only when
making or emphasizing a point.
- Especially in formal settings, movement
must be limited such that it reinforces the
message instead of distracting its
presentation. Observe timing, and move
smartly.
Appearance
- While people are basically there to listen to
what the speaker has to say, how he/she
looks can make the audience interested and
pay attention to his/her presentation.
- Dress appropriately for both your audience
and the occasion.
▻ Avoid flashy jewelry.
▻ A little makeup for women and a clean
haircut for men will definitely be appealing.
Elements of Public Speaking
Lesson 6: Speeches According to Delivery
Speech Delivery is one of the most important aspect
in delivering a speech aside from the preparation of
the speech which entails research, organization,
outlining, and practicing. Delivery is a result of the
combination of two kinds of communication which
is verbal and nonverbal communication.
IMPROMPTU SPEAKING
- Is the presentation of a short message
without advance preparation.
- Impromptu speeches often occur when
someone is asked to "say a few words" or
give a toast on special occasion.
- You have probably done impromptu
speaking many times in informal,
conversational settings. Self-introductions
in classes are examples of impromptu
speaking.
- The advantage of this speaking is that it's
spontaneous and responsive in an animated
group context.
- The disadvantage is that the speaker is
given a little or no time to contemplate the
central theme of his or her message. As a
result, the message may be disorganized
and difficult for listeners to follow.
EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING
- It is the presentation of a carefully planned
and rehearsed speech, spoken in a
conversational manner using brief notes. By
using notes rather than a full manuscript.
- This speech can establish and maintain eye
contact with the audience and assess how
well they understand the message as it
progresses.
- The opportunity to assess is also an
opportunity to restate more clearly any idea
 or concept that the audience seems to have
trouble grasping.
- Advantages: Promotes the likelihood that
you, as speaker, will be as knowledgeable
and credible; audience is likely to pay better
attention to the message because it is
engaging both verbally and nonverbally
- Disadvantage: It requires great deal of
preparation for both verbal and nonverbal
components of the speech
MANUSCRIPT SPEAKING
- This speech is the word-for-word iteration
of a written message
- The success o this medium depends on: (1)
the speaker is already an accomplished
public speaker who has learned to use a
conversational tone while delivering a
prepared script; (2) the speech is written in
a style that sounds conversational
- Advantage: This speech is the exact
repetition of original words
- Disadvantage: Typically an uninteresting
way to present, unless the speaker is
rehearsed just like in poetry interpretation,
declamation, etc.
MEMORIZED SPEECH
- It is the rote recitation of a written that the
speaker has committed to memory.
- Memorization can be useful when the
message needs to be exact and the speaker
doesn’t want to be confined by notes
- Advantage: Enables speaker to maintain eye
contact with the audience through the
speech
- Disadvantage: Forgetting the lines and
might end up speaking in a monotone or a
sing-song that fails to emphasize the most
important points
Lesson 7: Speeches According to Purpose
There are four basic types of speeches that are
used: to inform, to demonstrate, to persuade, and to
entertain. All of these are not mutually exclusive of
one another. For example, you may try to inform
your audience in an entertaining style, but you
might also inform the audience by persuading them
to act on the information.
INFORMATIVE SPEECH
This speech serves to provide interesting and
factual information to the audience. To deliver
this information, the message must be
delivered clearly to the audience.
Example:
• College professor lecturing on a specific topic
during a class.
• Guest speaker presenting information to a
group of students about how
to apply for college.
• Company president presenting information
about last quarter's sales to
a group of board members.
Main elements in writing an informative speech:
1. Knowledge. Expertise and knowledge of the
subject is shown when the information is
adequately enough for your audience.
2. Key Points. Repeat all key points to ensure
knowledge retention.
3. Interest. Convey your speech with
confidence and include unusual facts about
the subject.
DEMONSTRATIVE SPEECH
This speech is written to explain and show people a
step-by-step instruction on how to do something.
This involves various types of visual aids to ensure
effectiveness of the instructions.
Example:
How to write a speech
How to bake a cake
A step-by-step instruction on how to assemble a
miniature house
Elements in writing a Demonstrative Speech:
1. Instructions. Provides clear and concise
instructions to your audience.
2. Task Breakdown. The task must be
understandable in a logical way, step-by-
step.
3. Key Points. This must be emphasized
including safety issues.
PERSUASIVE SPEECH
This speech is written to persuade or convince your
audience of the validity of your argument. This
involves persuading someone to change their
opinion or take into account some elements that
have not really been considered before. The speech
is arranged in such a way to hopefully cause the
audience to accept all or part of the expressed view.
It is usually the most difficult to deliver.
Example:
Be a blood donor
Become a volunteer and change the world
Elements in writing a Persuasive Speech:
1. Credibility. Establish your credibility by
demonstrating expertise, evidence, and
knowledge of your subject. Present factual
information, statistics combined with your
personal experience to make your argument
even more believable.
2. Passion. Convey the subject with confidence,
passion and conviction to appeal to the
emotions of the audience.
ENTERTAINING SPEECH
This speech's sole purpose is to have your audience
enjoy the presentation. The purpose of this speech
is to make your audience laugh, relax, enjoy, and
even laugh their heads off.
Entertainment speech has the nature to transmit a
feeling of pleasure as well as goodwill to the
audience of listeners. The speaker should be
gracious, good natured as well as relaxed to his/ her
audience.
How do you make a speech entertaining?
Tell jokes
Tell funny stories
Over dramatize an anecdote.
Guidelines in Creating an Entertaining Speech
1. Choose an appropriate topic. The topic
should not be too dense, complicated or
heavy. Your audience came to have a good
time, not to have a greater understanding of
anything.
2. Enjoy yourself. It is hard for an audience to
enjoy your presentation if it looks like you
are not having fun. Be confident and enjoy.
3. Keep it simple. Your presentation should be
easy to follow. Do not make it hard for your
audience to keep up with you mentally.
4. Make it visceral. Use vivid word pictures;
this enables your audience to use their wild
imagination so that your presentation will
not be dull and boring.
Lesson 8: Speeches According to Special
Occasions
These speeches are given during a ceremony or a
ritual that observes formality or etiquette. Different
types of ceremonies tend to be very special to some
people, so it shouldn't be surprising that these are
opportunities for speech making.
SPEECH OF INTRODUCTION
A speech of introduction should be a complete
speech and have a clear introduction, body, and
conclusion.
For an introduction, think of a hook that will make
your audience become interested in the upcoming
speaker.
The body of your introduction should be about the
speaker's topic, why he is qualified and why the
audience should listen.
The final part is the conclusion; this is generally
designed to welcome the speaker to the lectern
SPEECH OF PRESENTATION
This speech is given to accompany a prize or
honor. When creating a speech of presentation,
it is important to ask how long the speech will
be.
Firstly, you should ask what the award or honor
is and why the whole presentation is
important.
Second, you can explain what the recipient of
the award has accomplished in order for the
award to be bestowed. Did he/she win a race?
Did he/she write an important piece of
literature?
Whatever the recipient has done, you need to
clearly highlight his or her work.
SPEECH OF DEDICATION guidance to other students, and look to the
future.
This speech is delivered when a new store
opens, a building is named after someone, or a
a new library is completed, and so on.
These speeches are designed to highlight the
DRAMATIC SPEECH
importance of the project and those whom the
project has been dedicated. It is a speech of some duration addressed by
character and usually performed on stage with
characters on play or role-playing a story.
TOAST
TYPES OF DRAMATIC SPEECHES
This speech is designed to congratulate, or
Monologue - a long interrupted speech
appreciate.
delivered by a character to other characters on
First, toasts can be delivered for the purpose of stage.
congratulating someone for an honor, or getting
Soliloquy - a speech in where a character, alone
married. You can also toast someone to show
on stage, reveals private thoughts that audience
your appreciation for what they've done.
is allowed to overhear.
Lastly, we toast to people to remember what
Aside - a brief remark a character makes to the
they have accomplished in life.
audience rather than to other characters.
Dialogue - the playwright's main tool for
EULOGY developing characters and furthering the plot.
It's more on conversing with each other.
A eulogy is a speech given at a funeral or
memorial service praising the deceased
INSPIRATIONAL SPEECH
While a eulogy is not mandatory, it can be the
most important part of the service. An Inspirational speech is written to persuade,
or convince the listeners, that they can succeed.
Many attendees may not know the deceased
well, or may have only known the deceased for This might involve relating optimistic and
a portion of his or her life. uplifting stories, or anecdotes, based on faith or
real life situations taken from the lives or
ordinary or famous people from history, sports,
SPEECH OF FAREWELL
politics and the Business world.
This speech allows someone to say goodbye to
a part of his/her life as he/she will move on to
GOODWILL SPEECH
the next chapter that awaits him/her.
Goodwill speeches are both informative and
This could be that you are graduating from
persuasive.
college and entering the work force or leaving
your current job. You seek to persuade your audience to be in
favor of you and who or what you represent.
SPEECH OF PROMOTION Goodwill speeches highlight shared values,
customs, beliefs, and morals.
Speeches are a form of writing in which the
writer imparts an important, often galvanizing This speech is mostly done by pastors and
message to an audience. priests.
Promotion Speeches also recognize others for
their contributions to your success, offer

SEMI FINALS
Lesson 9: Local and Global Communication in
Multicultural Setting
Globalization is the increasing economic,
political, and cultural integration and
interdependence of diverse cultures – the
worldwide integration of humanity.
Globalization requires that we pay attention to
a related concept – diversity – the recognition
and valuing of difference, encompassing such
factors as age, gender, race, ethnicity, ability
religion, education, marital status, sexual
orientation, and income.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Whenever cultural variability influences the
nature and the effects of communication,
intercultural communication is at work. Thus,
when we speak about it, we are concerning
ourselves with the process of interpreting and
sharing meaning with individuals from
different cultures.
In actuality, intercultural communication
comprises a number of forms:
• Interracial Communication
• Interethnic Communication
• International Communication
• Intracultural Communication
Interracial Communication
• It is interpreting and sharing of meanings
with individuals from different races
• It occurs when the interactants are from
different races
Interethnic Communication
• It refers to interaction with individuals of
different ethnic origins
• It occurs when communicating parties have
different ethnic origins
International Communication
• It is the communication between persons
representing different nations
• It occurs between persons representing
political structures
Intracultural Communication
• It is the interaction with members of the same
racial or ethnic group as yours
• It includes all forms of communication among
members of the same racial, ethnic, or other co-
culture groups
CO-CULTURE STRATEGIES
CULTURE
System of knowledge, beliefs, values, customs,
behaviors, and artifacts that are acquired,
shared, and used by its members during daily
living Understanding One Another
CO-CULTURE
Within culture as a whole are co-cultures; these
are composed of members of the same general
culture who differ in some ethnic or
sociological way from the parent culture
Assimilation
- The means by which co-culture
members attempt to fit in with members
of the dominant culture
Accommodation
- The means by which co-culture
members maintain their cultural
identity while striving to establish
relationships with members of the
dominant culture
Separation ▪ Superiors and subordinates in this culture
are likely to view each other differently
- The means coculture members use to
resist interacting with members of the ▪ Subordinates are quick to defer to superior
dominant culture
POWER
VARIABLES IN DISTINGUISHING CULTURES ▪ Power should be used only when legitimate
INDIVIDUALISM ▪ Emphasizes their interdependence by displaying
▪ Refers to cultures in which individual goals a preference for consultation, subordinates will
even contradict their bosses when necessary
are stressed

Individualism vs. Collectivism
COLLECTIVISM
▪ Refers to cultures in which group goals are
stressed 14
• This means that, while the “I” may be most
important in individualistic cultures, the “we” is
the dominant force in collectivistic ones
• While in collectivist cultures the individual is
expected to fit into the group, in individualistic
cultures emphasis is placed on developing a
sense of self
High-context vs. Low-context Communication
HIGH-CONTEXT
Lesson 10: Cultural and Global Issues Affecting
Communication
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Our cultural identity is based on our group
memberships which are determined by gender, age,
racial, ethnic, religious, socioeconomic, political or
even national affiliations.
• Culture as a social group's system of meanings.
You are part of a culture because you've been taught
to attach meanings to almost everything - persons,
places, ides, rituals, things, routines, and even
communication behavior.
Our experiences are different from others what
with the different social education and upbringing
that we had.

▪ Communication system depends on How we define gender roles, for instance, affects the
indirectness way males and females present themselves,
socialize, work, perceive their futures, and
▪ Their cultural traditions shape the behavior communicate.
and lifestyle of group members, causing them
American men tend to adopt a problem-solving
to appear to be overly polite and indirect in
orientation, while women tend to be relationship-
relating to others oriented. We also have ideas regarding the meaning
LOW-CONTEXT and significance of age, including how persons
particular age should look and behave. In the United
▪ Communication system encourages States, large numbers of people place great value on
directness looking youthful and appear to be younger than
they are. In contrast, in Muslim, Asian, and Latin
▪ Members tend to gather background American cultures, people respect, rather than
information when meeting someone for the deny, aging.
first time
Our racial and ethnic identities are similarly socially
constructed. Some racial and ethnic groups, for
High-power Distance vs Low-power Distance example, share experiences of oppression. Their
attitudes and behaviors may reflect their struggles,
Power distance measures the extent to which influencing their attitudes toward contemporary
individuals are willing to accept power issues such as affirmative action.
differences
• Religious Identity is at the root of countless
HIGH-POWER contemporary conflicts occurring in the Middle
East, India and Pakistan, and Bosnia and
Herzegovina. The proselytizing that occurred at the
U.S Air Force Academy by Evangelical cadets and
officers illustrates the strength and influence of
religious identity. Even the conflicts in some areas
in our country especially in Mindanao, were caused
partly if not mainly by conflicting religious
orientations.
Similarly, socioeconomic identify frames how we
respond to issues of our day. The widening gap
between the ultra wealthy and the middle and
lower classes in the different parts of the world is
contributing to their developing different attitudes
on a wide array of issues.
• National identity refers to legal status or
citizenship. People from different countries have
been U.S. citizens for generations, yet some still
perceive them as foreigners.
ETHNOCENTRISM vs. CULTURAL RELATIVISM
When cultures meet, when we interact with
persons whose values are different from ours or
whose behavioral norms differ from our own, we
must first recognize and acknowledge our
differences. We must come to accept diversity if we
are to be able to process other cultures' influences
and communicate with each other in a meaningful
way.
Ethnocentrism, the tendency to see your own
culture as superior to all others, is a key
characteristics of failed intercultural
communication efforts.
Cultural relativism is the opposite of ethnocentrism.
When you practice cultural relativism, instead of
viewing group to which you belong as superior to
all others, you work to try to understand the
behavior of other groups on the basis of the context
in which the behavior occurs rather than from your
own frame of reference.
STEREOTYPE AND PREJUDICE
Stereotypes are mental images or pictures we carry
around in our heads, they are shortcuts, whether
positive or negative, that guide our reactions to
others. When attached to the way we view the
world, stereotypes generate unrealistic pictures of
others and prevent us from distinguishing an
individual from a group. Racial profiling is just one
example of how stereotyping affects worldview
Racial Profiling - one of the more common
stereotype examples is stereotypes surrounding
race. For example, saying that all Blacks are good at
sports is a stereotype, because it's grouping the
race together to indicate that everyone of that race
is a good athlete.
Gender Profiling
There are also some common stereotypes of men
and women, such as:
• Men are strong and do all the work.
• Men are the "backbone."
• Women aren't as smart as a man.
• Women can't do as good of a job as a
man.
• Girls are not good at sports.
• Guys are messy and unclean.
• Men who spend too much time on the computer
or read are geeks
COMMON STEREOTYPES:
Groups of Individuals- A different type of stereotype
also involves grouping of individuals. Most of this
stereotyping is taking place in schools.
• Goths wear black clothes, black makeup, are
depressed and hated by society.
• Punks wear mohawks, spikes, chains, are a
menace to society and are always getting in trouble.
• All politicians are philanders and think only of
personal gain and benefit.
• Girls are only concerned about physical
appearance.
Cultures- stereotypes also exist about cultures an
countries as a whole. Stereotype examples of this
sort include the premises that:
• All white Americans are obese, lazy, and
dimwitted. Homer Simpson of the TV series The
Simpsons is the personification of this stereotype.
• Mexican stereotypes suggest that all Mexicans are
lazy and came into America illegally.
• All Arabs and Muslims are terrorists.
• Italian or French people are the best lovers.
• All Blacks outside of the United States are poor.
• All Jews are greedy.
• All Asians like to eat rice and drive slow.
• All Irish people are drunks and eat potatoes.
Sexual Stereotypes
Sexual stereotypes, on the other hand, suggest that
any feminine man is gay and any masculine woman
is a lesbian. Those who believe gay stereotypes may
also believe that homosexuality is immoral, wrong
and an abomination.
Prejudice describes how we feel about a group of
people whom, more likely than not, we do not
personally know. A negative or positive pre-
judgement, prejudice arises either because we want
to feel more positively about our own group, or
because we feel others present a threat, real or not.
Ex: In Colorado, a same-sex couple wanted to order
a cake for their wedding day. Based on his prejudice
toward gay couples, the owner of the bakery
refused to bake their cake. The issue was even taken
to the Supreme Court in a ruling that sided with the
baker. The baker claims he is not prejudiced but,
rather, was simply abiding by his religious beliefs.
While culture is a tie that binds, the creation of the
global village makes it essential that you leave the
comfort of your cultural niche, become more
knowledgeable of other cultures, and strive to be
culturally aware.
It is important to familiarize yourself with the
communication rules and preferences of members
of different cultures so that you can increase the
effectiveness of your communication encounters
Your ability to develop intercultural communication
skills depends in large part on how many of the
following promises you are willing to make:
Always remember, that communication must be
placed into a framework of understanding or it is
meaningless. That framework is based on
assumptions from our home culture and any other
cultures that we have come into contact with. To
bridge the intercultural communication gaps, we
should be familiar to the different terms,
expressions, and images reflecting different
cultures because some aspects of intercultural
communication are somewhat embarrassing,
complicated, and mysterious to other cultures.
Lesson 11: SEMIOTICS
Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols and
their use of interpretation. Usually, semiotic
analysis studies the roles of signs and the part they
play on a social and cultural scale.
At one level, we all interpret signs every day of our
lives, we negotiate the signage of human
interactions, purchases, work, travel etc. In most
cases we do this successfully because we have
learned how to decode and use the signs in our
everyday lives.
What is sign?
• A sign is the smallest unit of meaning.
• In order to create or define a sign, you will need
two pieces:
1. The signifier (any material or physical form of the
sign – the object that exists)
2. The signified (a cultural or social concept that a
signifier refers to – what it means)
The diagrams above are examples of the
“Sausserean” models (named after Ferdinand de
Saussure, who helped create the model).
• The tree represents the concept of what we think
about when we hear the word “tree.” (the signified)
• The sound of the word “tree” - or reading the
word in print – brings up the mental image of an
actual tree. (the signifier)
• The line between the signified and signifier
represents the link the mind triggers whenever the
two are placed together. The arrows represent that
constant interaction between concept and
sound/visual.
TYPES OF SIGNS
SYMBOLIC
- The signifier (the physical/material) does
not resemble the signified (concept), so the
relationship between the two must be
taught.
 - Some examples of these are: traffic
signs/traffic lights, foreign language/sign
Mythology – the combination of paradigms and
language, national flags, punctuation, and
syntagms that make up a well-told story with
Morse code.
regards to cultural association
ICONIC
▻ Example: the American cowboy mythology/the
- The signifier (the physical/material) Wild West mythology)
resembles the signified (concept), so the Semiotic situation – a moment when we try to make
relationship is obvious. sense of our surroundings and interpret one aspect
- Some examples are: a photograph or based on the signs of our situation
portrait of someone, a cartoon, a
gesture, or a metaphor
Denotation – the most basic literal meaning of a
sign. Denotative interpretations help associate
the signifier (the physical/material) with the
actual definition of the signified (concept).
▻ Example: a rose is a sign for a type of flower
in a garden.
▰ Connotation - the secondary, cultural
meaning of a sign. Connotative interpretations
help associate the signifier (the
physical/material) with emotions, feelings, or
cultural “stories” of the signified (concept).
▻ Example: a rose is a sign for passion or true
love (think Romeo and Juliet or the enchanted
rose in Beauty and the Beast)
Other Semiotic Terms to Know
Ideology – a set of ideas that create a culture's
expectations, goals, and actions; in semiotics,
this relates usually to social or political issues.
Paradigm – a set of associated signifieds
(concepts) or signifiers (the physical/material)
which belong to the same category;
▻ Example: when working with film and
television, a paradigm may include ways of
transitioning, or moving, from a shot/camera
angle (dissolve, cut, fade, etc.)
Syntagm – a sequential chain that combines
interacting signifiers (the physical/material)
and forms a meaningful whole within a
semiotic text
▻ Example: courses to different meals – each
meal (breakfast, lunch, and dinner) holds a
separate meaning, so the sequential chain
would dictate what courses to serve.

FINALS
Lesson 12: Evaluating Messages of Different
Types of Texts Across Cultures
A “text” is not limited to something written down.
▪ Text can be a film, an artifact, anything in
language and culture that conveys meaning
Multicultural literature serves as a powerful tool in
enabling students to gain a better understanding of
both their own culture and the cultures of others.
Students therefore develop greater cognitive skills
as they learn to engage with and critically evaluate
the texts that they read.
WHAT IS MULTIMODAL TEXT?
Multimodal Text is the strategic use of two or more
communication modes to make meaning. For
example, image, gesture, music, spoken language,
and written language.
While the development of multimodal literacy is
strongly associated with the growth of digital
communication technologies, multimodal is NOT
synonymous with digital.
• A multimodal text can be:
Paper - such as books, comics, posters.
Digital - slide presentations, e-books, blogs, e-
posters, web pages, and social media, through to
animation, film and video games.
Live - a performance or an event.
Transmedia - use of multiple delivery channels'
through a combination of media platforms, for
example, book, comic, magazine, film, web series,
and video game mediums all working as part of the
same story
EXAMPLES OF MULTIMODAL TEXTS
VIDEO ADVOCACY CAMPAIGN (VAC)
- A video for a reason, not about something.
- “Advocacy” refers to the process of bringing
about change in policies, law, or people's
behavior and attitudes.
- Video is the medium, advocacy is the
purpose, change is the goal
PUBLIC SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENT(PSA)
- Any message that promotes the programs,
services or activities of any national
government agencies or any non-profit
organization.
- Often in the form of commercial and print
ads.
- Created to persuade an audience to take a
favorable action.
- Using media as a strategic tool to engage
people to create change.
MEDIA CAMPAIGN (MC)
Media campaigns are planned series of newspaper
articles, television interviews, infographics, etc. that
are intended to achieve a particular aim.
EVALUATING MESSAGES IN A MULTIMODAL TEXTS
Evaluating messages/images is necessary to check
the truth, accuracy, and relevance of any
information. Doing so will develop or enhance your
critical thinking skill
• Messages are constructions. Someone thinks long
and hard about any print or electronic message that
is produced.
• Messages have unique forms, language, symbols,
and other features. The type of message determines
the form, language, symbols, and images that are
used in it.
Lesson 13: Writing Business Letters and
Memos
Business letters and memos are two of the most
common formal communication documents which
contain information. Such type of documents are
forms of information dissemination within and
outside organizations. However, these said
documents have similarities and differences in
terms of goal, types, format etc.
Business letters are formal paper communications
between, to or from businesses
• Business letters’ goal is typically to exchange
messages ranging from routine, informational
matters to complex, and even controversial matters.
• It has types raging from sales and inquiry letters
to adjustment and follow-up letters.
• Memos or Memorandum is used to communicate
something of immediate importance to people
within a business or organization
• Like a business letter, a memo is a permanent
record of your communication. It is used in both
paper and electronic formats.
• This document is utilized to trade information
within and beyond organization
As far as professionalism is concern, transactions
within and outside the organization – formality
should not be forsaken in choosing the most
appropriate form of written communication in
every writing situation.
PRINCIPLES IN BUSINESS WRITING
Observing the principles in writing business letters
and memos are the key to help writers attain the
objectives.
• These are important elements to be considered so
as to convey messages or information effectively
WORD CHOICE
The correct choice of words provides clear and
effective letters and memos.
- Writers should be careful in choosing words
to be used when writing because insensitive
usage of words can lead to unclear
messages which would lead to frustration,
miscommunication, and other possible
problems.
- Since writers purpose is to relay messages,
the use of familiar or everyday words helps
your reader to comprehend your message.
- Writers should avoid wordiness, slang,
clichés, and pretentious words
- The formula in writing effective business
letters and moms is to express complicated
ideas with strings of words that readers can
easily understand
Lesson 14: Writing Research-based
Argumentative Essay
ENGLISH AS AN ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
“Academic writing in English” refers to a style of
expression that researchers use to define
intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and
their specific areas of expertise. Characteristics
of academic writing include a formal tone, use
of the third person rather than first person
perspective, A clear focus on the research
problem under investigation, and precise word
choice (James, 2008). Hence, it requires
formality in language and structure of writing.
It strictly follows writing rules and guidelines
even including the requirement for the font
style and fun size that you will use in presenting
your idea.
Academic English is not the daily-kind of
spoken or written in English because it may be
used for a specific purpose like explaining the
formal definition, describing how something
works or classifying items.
There might be varied accepted forms of
academic writing depending on preferred style,
purpose, context and the target audiences.
However, most academic writing papers
demand particular considerations to the
following elements:
Organization
Unlike other writing styles, the general
construct of academic writing demands
formality and logic.
Cohesion and logic bring together the various
parts in an organized manner to create a unified
idea that is to be communicated. It is important
to note that the transitions between sentences
and paragraphs must be very clear to guide the
readers. be reminded that the function of the
introduction of any academic writing is to show
flow of the whole paper.
The Tone
any academic writing inherently has a stance or
point of view that shapes The kind of arguments
or explanations presented. balance and
accuracy are expected in the presentation of
these arguments. Thus you, the writer, having
the authoritative point of view in exposing the
relevant insignificant details must “state the
strengths of your arguments confidently, using
language that is neutral, not confrontational or
dismissive.
The Choice of Words- words to be used in any
academic writing make the difference. Since
words can be interpreted in varied ways
because of cultural influence, your choice of
words must show definiteness for you to
express the intended purpose and meaning
 within the context of your writing without
confusing the readers.
The Language- with the intention to convey an
idea in a formal and structured manner, you
must not be ambiguous with the language used
for your readers to follow your line of thoughts
without being confused and lost. As a writer,
you must inhibit from using general
terminologies, colloquial expressions, and
irregular punctuations and abbreviations. The
most appropriate and effective language that
you use should be to the point (conciseness),
specific (preciseness), and proper (formality) to
develop the intended meaning.
Punctuations
Since language is very crucial in conveying the
intended meaning of the academic writing, all
necessary elements associated with it like
punctuations must be critically selected and
used. Exclamation points, dashes, hyphens if not
properly make use of suggest informality of
tone. be sure that you correctly use periods and
semicolons so that your paper will not look like
dramatic poetry. If you are not confident with
your use of punctuation in your sentences, all
you need to do is revise your sentence to avoid
incomprehensible line of thoughts.
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that
requires the student to investigate a topic; collect,
generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a
position on the topic in a concise manner.