Teamwork

Chapter overview
This topic provides an understanding of some of the key concepts associated with teamwork
within projects, as projects generally involve a project team comprised of members with various
skill sets needed to ensure the successful completion of the project. Team roles and the different
stages of team formation should be understood by project managers. The project manager needs
to understand how to lead, motivate, and empower team members in order to foster an
environment of positivity, which can ultimately facilitate the success of a project. In addition,
diversity and inclusion is also briefly discussed in this topic in a project management context.
This topic is divided into four sub-topics:
• Explanation of teams in relation to organisational effectiveness
• Explanation of behaviours which support teamwork in projects
• Explanation of ways to evaluate and enhance the effectiveness of the project team
• Explanation of team contribution in effective projects
Theoretical knowledge will be enriched using case studies.
By the end of this workbook, you should be able to:
• Understand how to analyse how teams contribute to organisational effectiveness
• Understand how to develop behaviours which support teamwork in projects
• Understand how to critically evaluate ways to enhance the effectiveness of the project team
• Understand how to appraise how teams contribute to an effective project
1

Learning outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
• Analyse how teams contribute to organisational effectiveness
• Develop behaviours which support teamwork in projects
• Critically evaluate ways to enhance the effectiveness of the project team
• Appraise how teams contribute to an effective project
1

Chapter summary
In this topic, we discuss the following questions:
• How do we analyse how teams contribute to organisational effectiveness?
• How do we develop behaviours which support teamwork in projects?
• How do we critically evaluate ways to enhance the effectiveness of the project team?
• How do we appraise how teams contribute to an effective project?
Projects are rarely conducted by an individual operating solely and, as such, they almost always
involve a team of project professionals, technical experts, and other members which make up the
“project team”. High-performing teams do not simply occur but take time, and there are various
 ways in which the project manager can contribute to an effectively performing project team. In
order to do this, the various team roles and stages of team formation need to be understood at
first. This is relevant for all teams and not just project teams.
Various behaviours support teamwork in projects such as leadership, motivation, and
empowerment. Teams are dynamic and constantly evolving, so the project manager must be able
to adapt accordingly to the situation, the phase the team are in, and also must have the ability to
maintain a positive and supportive environment at all times. Behaviours known as “team killers”
should be equally understood in order to mitigate the potential damage this can cause to the
project. Ultimately, the success or failure of projects can often be attributed to how effective the
project team is.
The value of team diversity and inclusion should also be well understood, and any
misunderstandings or miscommunication arising from a lack of understanding from project team
members should be mitigated.
Working within a project team should be a satisfying and enjoyable experience where team
members enhance current skill sets and learn new ones. It is the responsibility of the project team
manager to foster project environments which are both conducive to camaraderie, and where the
project objectives can be met successfully in the process.
1

Context section
In this topic, we cover the areas of project teams and ways in which they can be enhanced to
perform at optimum levels conducive to the completion of successful projects. The project
manager requires a vast skill set comprising of both technical and “soft” skills. This section
exemplifies this with a focus on how the project manager can develop their skills in order to create
an encouraging environment for team members.
As globalisation increases, temporary project teams often consist of members from different
countries, different backgrounds, and across various time zones. This can lead to challenges
which the project manager must face and overcome. In addition, the project manager must lead
the project team to also work with and embrace these issues as they arise. As such, diversity and
inclusion are also relevant in this context.
Read the content in this book carefully and go through the learning material which is comprised
of a mix of readings, videos, and case studies. The case studies are important as they help you
understand the theoretical concepts which are applied in real life.

Teamwork 2
1 How do teams contribute to organisational
effectiveness?
Before we explore teams specifically in relation to projects, it is pertinent that we first look at how
teams in general contribute to organisational effectiveness. It is also important to distinguish
between groups and teams. According to Naylor (2004, p.393),

“A group comprises of at least two people, who continually interact with each other, have
something in common and recognise that they are members of the group”.
For example, a book club or a group of friends. In comparison to this, a team, according to Naylor
(2004), can be defined as:

“A team is a group chosen from members with complementary capabilities so that together
they can achieve a planned purpose”.
For example, a cricket team or a project team.
Salas et al. (2008) contend that when organisations are confronted with complex and difficult
tasks, teams become the strategy of choice. Teams are often used when the complexity of a task
exceeds the capacity of an individual and when the collective insight of individuals is required.
Whetton and Cameron (2016, p.426) state that:

“Teamwork has been found to dramatically affect organisational performance. Some

managers have credited teams with helping them to achieve incredible results.”
However, it should also be noted that teams do not work all the time in organisations, and
managers must decide when to organise teams (Whetton & Cameron, 2016).
Teams are dynamic as not only do they change, but individuals perform different roles at
different times. For example, sometimes a member might lead, or sometimes they may follow the
rest (Naylor, 2004). Whilst the diverse backgrounds of members that make up a team can lead to
organisational effectiveness, this can also make it harder to work together. Extensive research
regarding teams indicates that the composition of team members is crucial for success. One of
the most notable theorists on team roles within a team is Meredith Belbin. Belbin (1981) and his
colleagues conducted research by observing how individuals behaved in team environments. They
concluded that team members behaved in a way that corresponded to one of nine roles and that
the way in which these roles were balanced affected how well the team performed.
It should be noted that Belbin did not suggest that all teams should have nine different roles, but
that the team composition should reflect the task. The balance of roles is related to effectiveness
and, although the model is widely used in training, it is rarely used in shaping the selection of
team members. Trainers consider how the balance of roles within a team affects performance
(Boddy, 2014).

3 Teamwork
Belbin’s team roles can be defined as follows:
(Boddy, 2014. Adapted from Belbin, 2010)

Role Typical features

Implementer Disciplined, reliable, conservative, and efficient. Turns ideas into
practical actions.

Coordinator Mature, confident, a good chairperson. Clarifies goals, promotes

decision-making, delegates well.

Shaper Challenging, dynamic, thrives on pressure. Has the drive and

courage to overcome obstacles - likes to win.

Plant Creative, imaginative, unorthodox - the ‘ideas’ person who solves

difficult problems.

Resource investigator Extrovert, enthusiastic, communicative - explores opportunities,

develops contacts, a natural networker.

Monitor-evaluator Sober, strategic, and discerning. Sees all options, judges

accurately - the inspector.

Teamworker Cooperative, mild, perceptive, and diplomatic. Listens, builds,

averts friction, calms things - sensitive to people and situations.

Completer-finisher Painstaking, conscientious, anxious. Searches out errors and

omissions. Delivers on time.

Specialist Single-minded, self-starting, dedicated. Provides scarce

knowledge and skill.

According to Boddy (2014), the researchers noted that winning teams had an appropriate
balance, such as:
• A capable coordinator
• A strong plant - a creative and clever source of ideas
• At least one other clever person to act as a stimulus to the plant
• A monitor-evaluator - someone who finds flaws in proposals before it is too late
Ineffective teams usually had a severe imbalance, such as:
• A coordinator with two dominant shapers - since the shapers will not allow the coordinator to
take that role
• Two resource investigators and two plants - since no one listens or turns ideas into action
• A completer-finisher with monitor-evaluators and implementers - probably slow to progress
and stuck in detail
Although this model is useful in understanding the roles of team members within a team, there is
no substantial evidence that organisations use this model when forming teams from existing staff.
Teams are usually selected based on technical expertise, departmental representation, or simply
who is available at the time. How the team will work together is often a secondary consideration
where managers assume that people will be willing and able to cover any of the Belbin roles.
Whether the theory is used or not, it implies that the team will be better if there is a suitable mix of
team members, thus leading to successful outcomes and organisational effectiveness (Boddy,
2014).
It should be noted that the performance of a team and how well it performs also depends on how
well it moves through the stages to team development and what processes are in place to
facilitate this (Boddy, 2014).
Placing people in teams does not necessarily mean that the team will work well together or be
effective, as teams need to learn to work together, and this takes time - in reality, some teams

Teamwork 4
never perform well at all (Boddy, 2014). A widely known model for team development is the one
developed by Tuckman and Jensen (1977) and can be depicted as follows:

Performing

Norming

Storming
Adjourning
Forming
Existing teams might regress back
to an earlier stage of development

Adapted from Tuckman and Jensen (1977)

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According to Boddy (2014), each of these stages can be summarised as follows:

Stage Description
Forming • Members are chosen or told to join a team
• May be chosen for functional or technical expertise or some
other skill
• They begin to come together and exchange information
about themselves at a fairly superficial level
• Offer ideas about what the group should do
• Try to make an impression on the other group members
• Establish identity with other members

Storming • Conflicts may occur - can be an uncomfortable time for the

group
• As work begins, members begin to express differences of
interest/opinion previously withheld
• Members have different priorities and perhaps hidden
agendas
• Different personalities emerge
• Differences in values and norms emerge

Norming • Members begin to accommodate differences constructively

• They establish ways of working together
• They develop shared norms - expected ways of behaving
• Members create or accept roles so that responsibilities are
clear
• The leader may set them, or members may accept them
implicitly

Performing • The team is working well

• Gets on with the tasks at hand to the required standard
• Achieves its objectives
• Not all groups get this far

Adjourning • The team completes its tasks and disbands

• Members may reflect on how they performed and identify
lessons for the future
• A team that survives will go through these stages many times

As new members join or others leave, or if circumstances change, the team will generally revert to
earlier stages in the model, for example the forming and norming stages. This ensures that the
new member is psychologically aware of how they and other team members are expected to
behave. A change in task or conflict can take the team back to the storming stage. The process is
more iterative than linear (Boddy, 2014).
Despite the limitations of the Belbin model, it is particularly helpful in diagnosing why an existing
team is underperforming, and especially useful for project teams which tend to be more multi-
disciplinary than BAU (Business as Usual) teams. There are a number of other team role inventory
type models that can also be used, such as the Margerison-McCann (1995) Team Management
Profile (TMP) model (also known as the Margerison-McCann Team Management Wheel), which
helps to show the same concept from a different perspective. It is recommended that students
conduct their own research in this area.

Teamwork 6
 In conclusion, the research indicates that, for teams to contribute to organisational effectiveness,
managers must understand the varied roles that team members perform and how a good mix of
these roles should be present within a team, or whether the ability of team members to adopt
these roles once the team comes together is feasible. In addition, managers must understand the
different stages of team development in order to maximise team performance and organisational
effectiveness.

2 Developing behaviours which support teamwork in

projects
According to APM (2020), teams in projects are temporary and formed for the specific purpose of
delivering defined project outputs and outcomes. Project-based working relies on the formation of
multifunctional, multi-skilled teams which are temporary. Business expertise is often acquired
from other parts of the business and once project team members return to their usual roles, they
should also have increased their skill sets and knowledge.
The management of project teams is particularly challenging for the project manager as they
have the responsibility of overseeing the entire project to completion; however, they may not have
actually had input into the team members for the project. Larger projects typically have project
managers that may be from outside the organisation, for example, suppliers, partners, customers,
or clients (APM, 2020). External consultants can also be part of the project team and utilised for
their experience and skill set.
The formation of virtual teams for projects is also common practice in the current environment of
increased globalisation and technological advancements. This was evident during the Covid-19
pandemic where scientists across many different countries worked together to produce various
vaccines.
Gido et al. (2018, p.362) states that:

“Although plans and project management techniques are necessary for the success of
projects, it is the people (the project manager and the project team) who are the key to
success; project success requires an effective project team.”
Project teams should be supported by various behaviours (particularly by the project manager)
during the time of team formation, and project teams, like other teams, also evolve during various
team stages as purported by Tuckman & Jensen (1977). These can be applied as follows,
according to Gido et al. (2018):

Stage Common features of project management teams

Forming • Project manager provides direction and structure, and must clearly
communicate the project objective, create a vision of success of the
project, and the benefits it will provide
• Project constraints, such as scope, quality requirements, budget, and
schedule, must be stated
• Establishing and defining initial procedures and processes
• Communication channels established
• Project kick-off meeting should be held
• Team participation in project plans

Storming • Project objectives and scope become clearer

• Members start to apply skills to tasks; however, these may not match
individuals’ expectations
• Tasks may be more difficult than expected
• Triple constraints may be tighter than expected
• Conflict emerges and tensions increase as frustration increases

7 Teamwork
Stage Common features of project management teams
• Control and authority are questioned
• Project manager needs to be less directive than in the forming stage
• Team should be involved in problem-solving
• Project managers must be very supportive in this phase
• Guidance and conflict resolution must be provided

Norming • Relationships between members start to settle

• Most interpersonal conflicts are resolved
• The level of conflict in general is lower than in the storming stage
• Expectations align with reality
• Members accept each other as part of the team
• Cohesion and trust begin to develop
• An appreciation of individual contributions to achieve the project
objective is understood
• Camaraderie emerges
• Personal friendships may develop
• The project manager minimises directiveness and takes on a more
supportive role
• Work performance accelerates and productivity increases
• The project manager should recognise the team for the progress it has
made

Performing • The team is highly committed to accomplish the project objective

• A sense of unity and pride is felt
• Members work individually or in temporary sub-teams
• Members freely collaborate and assist each other
• The team feels empowered by the project manager
• Problems are solved and progress is made
• The project manager’s role is to facilitate and support development and
implementation of corrective actions if progress falls behind
• The project manager acts as a mentor supporting the professional
growth and development of the members of the project team

Adjourning • This phase is after the project is completed and will include actions
such as a full post project implementation review
• Project team members are usually involved in input into the review and
discussions, such as what went well, what did not work and why, and
what can be improved. These are discussed and documented in a
structured manner
• The ‘adjourning’ stage is also sometimes referred to as ‘mourning’,
which is particularly true for projects given their relative intensity, and
the propensity to fail

Teamwork 8
 Team motivation/
performance

Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning

Time
Adapted from Tuckman and Jensen (1977)

Tuckman’s model is especially relevant in understanding project teams, as

(a) the development of the team has to be fast and
(b) it tends to have continuous turnover through the life of the project, compared to Business as
Usual (BAU) teams.
It therefore reinforces the role of the project manager in moving the team through the stages
quickly each time someone joins or leaves, to maintain momentum on the project.
It is useful to understand this model, as the impact on team motivation and performance is
different depending on the various stages that the team is in.

2.1 Project kick-off meeting

In order to develop and promote behaviours, it is common for the project manager to initiate a
project kick-off meeting. This should occur in the forming stage of Tuckman model. A typical kick-
off meeting would consist of the following agenda items (Gido et al., 2018):
(a) Welcome and introductions:
This is an important step in team development and the project manager should allocate
sufficient time so that members can introduce themselves properly. This is a building block in
further team development and team building. A specified time limit for each member to detail
their experience and expertise should be allocated.
(b) Project overview:
The project manager discusses the various project management documents such as the
project charter, project proposal, and any other background information (these should have
been sent out to all team members to review before the meeting), and the team has the
opportunity to make comments and ask questions.
(c) Roles and responsibilities:
These should be defined so all members are clear on what their roles and responsibilities are,
as well as those of other team members. A project organisational chart may be produced at
this stage if applicable, as well as project job descriptions if appropriate.
(d) Processes and procedures:
Documentation items, approval requirements and processes, communication protocols,
conflict resolution, and other relevant processes and procedures should be discussed here.
(e) Expectations:
The project manager should discuss stages of team development so that expectations are
managed from the start of the project. The project manager starts to exhibit their leadership
at this point. Members are encouraged to work together collaboratively, have respect for
each other, value the contributions of others, communicate openly, display ethical behaviour,
and other positive behaviours which promote behaviours that lead to high-performing teams.

9 Teamwork
 (f) Closing comments:
Members should be invited to make any comments or ask questions, and the meeting should
end on a high note with members enthusiastic and eager to contribute to the success of the
project.

3 Critically evaluate ways to enhance the effectiveness of

the project team
In order to enhance project team effectiveness, project managers need to ensure that they have
the ability to promote good leaderships skills, motivation amongst team members, and the ability
to empower and engage others.

3.1 Leadership in projects

Gido et al. (2018 p.330) state that:

“Project leadership involves inspiring the people assigned to the project to work as a team to
implement the plan and accomplish the project objective successfully. The project manager
needs to create for the team a vision of the result and expected benefits of the project.”
Leadership in projects is thought to be more effective when a participative or consultative style of
leadership is adopted. The project manager provides direction rather than directions. The
effective project manager does not tell team members how to do their jobs, but instead
establishes parameters and guidelines for what needs to be done (Gido et al., 2018).
APM (2020) believe that the leadership style required in projects is situational leadership, where
the project manager can adapt to the style required for the given situation. For example,
providing direction if necessary, or adopting a mentoring or coaching style. The style should
reflect one that builds the team and wider stakeholder commitment. APM (2020) further
encourage that project leaders embrace social and ethical aspects of their role. Leaders must
make more of an effort to understand what different people need in order to perform effectively.
APM (2020, p.124) argue that

“The leadership role is increasingly understood through an authentic, emotionally intelligent,

collaborative and ‘servant’ lens”.
There are many leadership theories that have been developed over time, which range from trait
theories to behavioural theories, and contingency theories to transformational theories.

Trait Behavioural Contingency Transformational

It is recommended that students conduct their own research into the various leadership theories;
however, for the purposes of this topic, it is pertinent to consider a few situational (also known as
contingency) theories, as these can be useful for the project manager. Situational (contingency)
models argue that managers influence others by adapting their style to the circumstances
(Boddy, 2014). There are several well-known models as follows:
Vroom and Yetton (1973): defines five leadership styles (Autocratic, Information Seeking,
Consulting, Negotiating, Group)
Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1973): they argue that leaders work in different ways, which they
presented as a continuum of styles ranging from autocratic to democratic, dependent on
personality, values, preferences, beliefs about participation, and confidence in subordinates
(Boddy, 2014) as follows:

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Boss-centred leadership Subordinate-centred leadership

Use of authority by manager

Area of freedom for subordinates

Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager

makes ‘sells’ presents presents presents defines permits
decision and decision ideas and tentative problem, limits group to
announces it to staff asks for idea subject gets ideas, and asks function
questions to change makes group within limits
decision to make defined by
decision superior

Boddy (2014), Figure 14.4, p445

House and Mitchell (1974); House (1996), known as House’s path-goal model: they believe that
effective leaders help subordinates identify and learn behaviours that will help them perform well
and so secure rewards (Boddy, 2014). House identifies four styles of leader behaviour:
Adapted from: (Boddy, 2014)

Style Attributes
Directive Letting subordinates know what the leader expects; giving specific
guidance; asking subordinates to follow rules and procedures;
scheduling and coordinating their work

Supportive Treating them as equals; showing concern for their needs and
welfare; creating a friendly climate in the work unit

Achievement orientated Setting challenging goals and targets; seeking performance

improvements; emphasising excellence in performance; expecting
subordinates to succeed

Participative Consulting subordinates; taking their opinions into account

Leader behaviours
• Directive
• Supportive
• Achievement oriented
• Participative

Subordinates Work environment

• Characteristics Appropriate • Task structure
• Abilities leadership style • Formal authority system
• Needs • Workgroup characteristics

Outcomes
• Acceptance
• Satisfaction
• Motivation
• Performance

Boddy (2014) Figure 14.6, p446

11 Teamwork
 In addition to the various leadership styles which are conducive to effective leadership in projects,
the elements of motivation and empowerment should also be considered as key drivers of project
success. Leadership of projects requires that the project manager is highly motivated, sets a
positive example, and has a “can do” attitude (Gido et al., 2018).

3.2 Motivation in projects

Motivation of team members is encouraged via recognition of the project team and individuals
throughout the course of the entire project, not just at the end. The capable project manager
understands what motivates team members and fosters a supportive environment in which they
can excel. Individuals must not be over-managed or under-utilised. Motivation in projects is
fostered by providing recognition via exhibiting a genuine interest in the work of each person on
the project team. Recognition should also be carried out immediately after the contribution is
made. The effective project manager never tries to take the credit for the achievements of others.
The project manager must foster an environment of trust where they follow through on their word.
This sets the expectations for others and demonstrates that follow-through is expected of
everyone. In essence, projects should be enjoyable with project team members enjoying their
work, and project managers encouraging a positive attitude throughout and facilitating a sense
of camaraderie amongst team members (Gido et al., 2018).
There are many theories and models on motivation which have been developed over time and
students are encouraged to revisit these also. Notable theorists include Maslow, Herzberg, Vroom,
Adams, Locke, Latham, McGregor, and McClelland.

3.3 Empowerment in projects

Project leadership entails involvement and empowerment where the project team members have
both ownership and control over their work (Gido et al., 2018).
According to Whetten and Cameron (2016, p.390),

“Empowerment means providing freedom for people to successfully do what they want to do,
rather than getting them to do what you want them to do”.
So, to empower means to enable, and is different from motivation, influence, and power. The
following table illustrates the difference between power and empowerment:
(Whetten & Cameron, 2016)

Power Empowerment
The capacity to get others to do what you The capacity to get others to do what they
want want

To get more implies taking it away from To get more does not affect how much others
someone else have

Comes from an external source Comes from an internal source

Ultimately, few people have it Ultimately, everyone can have it

Leads to competition Leads to cooperation

Whetten and Cameron (2016) purport that there are five key dimensions of empowerment (based
on the research of Spreitzer (1992) and Mishra (1992)) as follows:

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 (Whetton & Cameron, 2016)

Dimension Explanation
Self-efficacy A sense of personal competence

Self-determination A sense of personal choice

Personal consequences A sense of having impact

Meaning A sense of value in activity

Trust A sense of security

The creation of a project culture that empowers the project team means that team members are
both assigned tasks and are delegated the authority to make the decision which enables them to
accomplish these tasks, thus also making individuals accountable. The project manager should
establish clear guidelines when empowering team members and, where appropriate, include limits
also. Consultation should also be encouraged amongst other team members and with the project
manager to ensure that there is no negative impact on the project due to decisions taken by an
individual (Gido et al., 2018).

4 Appraise how teams contribute to an effective project

According to Gido et al. (2018, p.370), a project team can be defined as:

“…a group of individuals working interdependently and cooperatively to accomplish the project
objective”.
Gido et al. (2018) believe that helping project team members develop and grow into an effective
team takes effort from the project manager and the project team members. The degree of
effectiveness can be the difference between project success and failure.

“Although project plans and project management techniques are necessary, it is the people
who are the key to project success” (Gido et al., 2018, p.370).
Gido et al. (2018) purport that there are five main characteristics associated with effective project
teams as follows:
(a) Clear understanding of the project objective
(b) Clear expectations of roles and responsibilities
(c) Results orientation
(d) High degree of cooperation and collaboration
(e) High level of trust
There are a number of assessment instruments, tools, and checklists which project managers can
use to rate and improve team effectiveness. It is recommended that these are completed before
the project commences and periodically throughout the project, so that the project manager and
team members can discuss how to improve any areas that did not rank well (Gido et al., 2018).
Whetten and Cameron (2016) argue that a strong association between the following attributes
and high-performing teams exists:
• Performance outcomes
• Specific, shared purpose and vision
• Mutual, internal accountability
• Blurring of formal distinctions
• Coordinated, shared work roles
• Inefficiency leading to efficiency
• Extraordinary high quality
• Creative continuous improvement

13 Teamwork
 • High credibility and trust
• Clarity of core competencies
Although there is much literature and research on high-performing teams and team effectiveness,
it should also be noted that project managers should be aware of the barriers which can impede
the progress of the project. Gido et al. (2018) contend that barriers to team effectiveness in
project teams can include:
• Unclear vision and objective
• Unclear definition of roles and responsibilities
• Lack of project structure
• Lack of commitment
• Poor communication
• Poor leadership
• Turnover of project team members
• Dysfunctional behaviour
Naylor (2004) suggests that the following team killers and associated remedies should be
considered:
Adapted from: (Naylor, 2004)

Team killer Remedy

False consensus Questioning to ensure that all accept the outcomes

Unresolved overt conflict Encourage recognition of the problem; agree rules of conduct to
which all must subscribe

Underground conflict Making disagreements overt; appointing a neutral arbitrator

Not reaching closure Agree how decisions are to be made; break into sub-groups to
make progress

Calcification Rotate roles such as leader and record keeper; form different sub-
groups

Uneven participation Devise means of “gatekeeping” to give each a say; ensure all are
invited to contribute

Unaccountable to others Clarify the line of accountability from the start

Customer forgotten Appoint further representatives or assign extra perspectives to

current members

4.1 Diversity and inclusion

Project managers need to be aware of diversity and inclusion as workplace environments are
increasingly comprised of individuals with different backgrounds, ways of working, and abilities.
In projects, challenges often arise when teams need to come together and perform quickly. Teams
are temporary and are often international, ie made up of individuals from different countries and
cultures (APM, 2020). In addition, globalisation and the need for individuals with unique skill sets
are changing the composition of project teams. Such differences can lead to high-performing
teams, as problem-solving and decision-making can be creative, faster, and of a higher quality
(Gido et al., 2018).
It should be noted that differences can also create barriers to team performance as
miscommunication and misunderstandings can be more likely to occur between people who are
different. If differences are not valued as a strength, issues such as low morale, diminished trust,
reduced productivity, greater tension, and suspicion can impede team performance (Gido et al.,
2018). Despite the known benefits of diversity and inclusion, human nature is often subject to both
unconscious and conscious bias (APM, 2020). Dimensions of diversity include:

Teamwork 14
• Age or generation
• Appearance
• Ethnicity or ancestry
• Gender
• Health
• Job status
• Marital and parental status
• Race
• Religious affiliation
• Sexual identity and gender expression
• Political affiliation
• Personal habits and interests
Stereotyping and making assumptions about a team member’s performance should not be
attributed to their diversity. Instead, a climate which is both sustainable and positive about
diversity should be fostered. An understanding about the value of diversity should be cultivated.
To facilitate this, a written policy regarding diversity should be adopted by the organisation, and
diversity training should also be provided in the workplace (Gido et al., 2020). The project
manager has the opportunity to embrace diversity and encourage a constructive working
environment when:
• People feel they can be themselves at work
• Ideas and respectful challenges are encouraged
• Differences are understood and welcomed (APM, 2020)
Being effective members of project teams should be an enriching and satisfying experience
overall. People who work on projects enjoy the challenge of accomplishing something and working
in a team - this is what they have in common. They have high expectations of themselves and
manage their time well. They do whatever it takes to get the task accomplished and, as such, are
largely self-directed (Gido et al., 2018).
APM (2020) suggest that project professionals need to get the best out of their teams, bearing in
mind the constraints on time cost and quality. Providing the opportunity for team members to
develop new skills and enhance existing ones is a way for project managers to ensure there is
variety in the roles that team members have been assigned. When teams are performing well,
they are likely to be focused on developing themselves as well as seeking out ways to be
collaborative, innovative, and productive. In such high- performing teams, the role of the project
leader becomes less important as these teams are regarded as “self-managing”, which can be
highly motivating and effective.

Essential reading

To assist with your learning journey, it is important that you read the following to give you
knowledge of this topic:
APM. 2020. APM Body of Knowledge, Seventh edition, APM
Chapter 3.2: Leading Teams
Boddy, D. 2014. Management: An Introduction, Sixth Edition, Pearson Education Limited, Harlow
Chapter 14.5: Situational (Contingency) models
Chapter 17: Teams
Maylor, H. 2010. Project Management, Pearson Education Limited
Chapter 11: Project Organisation: structures and teams
Pinto, J. K. 2013. Project Management, Achieving Competitive Advantage, Global Edition, Third
Edition, Pearson Education UK
Chapter 6: Project Team Building, Conflict and Negotiation (6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6)
Whetten, D. and Cameron, K., 2016. Developing Management Skills, Ninth edition, Pearson UK

15 Teamwork
Chapter 6: Motivating Others
Chapter 8: Empowering and Engaging Others
Chapter 9: Building Effective Teams and Teamwork

Teamwork 16
References

APM. 2020. APM Body of Knowledge, Seventh edition, APM

Belbin, R. M. 1981. Management Teams: Why they succeed or fail, Butterworth/Heinemann,
Oxford
Boddy, D. 2014. Management: An Introduction, Sixth Edition, Pearson Education Limited, Harlow
Gido, J., Clements, J.P. and Baker, R., 2018. Successful Project Management, Seventh Edition,
Thompson/South Western
House, R. J. 1996. Path-goal theory of leadership: lessons, legacy and a reformulation. Leadership
Quarterly, Vol. 7, no. 3, pp.323-52
House, R. J. and Mitchell, T. R., 1974. Path-goal theory of leadership. Contemporary Business, Vol.
3, no. 2, pp.81-98
Margerison-McCann, 1995. Team Management Profile (TMP). [online] Available at:
https://www.teammanagementsystems.com/tms-resources/publications/ [Accessed 28 December
2020]
Mishra, A. K. 1992. Organizational Response to crisis: The role of mutual trust and top
management teams. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan
Naylor, J. 2004. Management, Second Edition, Pearson Education Limited, Harlow
Salas, E., Cooke, N. J. and Rosen, M. A., 2008. On Teams, Teamwork and Team Performance:
Discoveries and Developments. Human Factors, Vol. 50, no. 3, pp.540-47
Spreitzer, G. M. 1992. When organizations dare: The dynamics of individual empowerment in the
workplace. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan
Tannenbaum, R. and Schmidt, W. H., 1973. How to choose a leadership pattern: should a manager
be democratic or autocratic – or something in between? Harvard Business Review, Vol 37, no. 2,
pp.95-102
Tuckman, B. and Jensen, N., 1977. Stages of small group development revisited. Group and
Organisational Studies, vol 2, pp.419-27
Vroom, V. H. and Yetton, P. W., 1973. Leadership and Decision-Making, University of Pittsburgh
Press, Pittsburgh PA
Whetten, D. and Cameron, K., 2016. Developing Management Skills, Pearson UK

17 Teamwork
Further study guidance

Question practice
See below further readings, case studies, and articles which will help you to have a deeper
knowledge of this topic.
List of Additional Resources (also detailed in the Additional Readings and Videos):

Further reading
Sub-topic 1: How do teams contribute to organisational effectiveness?
Ericksen, J. and Dyer, L., 2004. Right from the Start: Exploring the Effects of Early Team Events on
Subsequent Project Team Development and Performance; Administrative Science Quarterly,
00018392, Vol. 49, Issue 3. [pdf] Available at:
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=12&sid=56566b73-54ce-445e-ab56-
bda886becac4%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#AN=edsjsr.4131442&
db=edsjsr [Accessed: 28 December 2020]
Mentzer, N., Laux, D., Zissimopoulos, A., Andre, K. and Richards, R., 2017. Peer Evaluation of Team
Member Effectiveness as a Formative Educational Intervention. Journal of Technology Education,
Vol. 28, No. 2. [online] Available at: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1164703 [Accessed: 28 December
2020]
Solis, F., Sinfield, J. and Abraham, D., 2013. Hybrid Approach to the Study of Inter-Organization
High Performance Teams. Journal of Construction Engineering & Management. Apr2013, Vol. 139,
Issue 4, pp.379-392. [pdf] Available at:
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=9&sid=56566b73-54ce-445e-ab56-
bda886becac4%40sessionmgr4008 [Accessed: 28 December 2020]
Sub-topic 2: Developing behaviours which support teamwork in projects
Ali, M., Zhang, L., Shah, S., Khan, S. and Shah, A., 2020. Impact of humble leadership on project
success: the mediating role of psychological empowerment and innovative work behavior.
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 2020, Vol. 41, Issue 3, pp.349-367. [online]
Available at: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/LODJ-05-2019-0230/full/html
[Accessed: 28 December 2020]
Keller, S. and Meaney, M., 2017. High-performing teams: A timeless leadership topic. McKinsey
Quarterly, 00475394, 2017, Issue 3. [pdf] Available at:
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=7&sid=21b4fb7b-db7e-4406-a2e0-
6eabf1015b9f%40sdc-v-sessmgr03&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#AN=125907611&db=bt
h [Accessed: 28 December 2020]
Mulec, K. and Roth, J., 2005. Action, reflection, and learning – coaching in order to enhance the
performance of drug development project management teams R&D Management. Nov2005, Vol.
35, Issue 5, pp.483-491. [pdf] Available at:
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&sid=56566b73-54ce-445e-ab56-
bda886becac4%40sessionmgr4008 [Accessed: 28 December 2020]
Stanton, D., 2020. Project Management Foundations: Tools for successful project teams. [online]
Available at:https://www.linkedin.com/learning/project-management-foundations-teams-3/tools-
for-successful-project-teams?u=56741521 [Accessed: 23 June 2023]
Sub-topic 3: Critically evaluate ways to enhance the effectiveness of the project team
Ahiaga-Dagbui, D., Tokede, O., Morrison, J. and Chirnside, A., 2020. Building high-performing
and integrated project teams. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 2020,
Vol. 27, Issue 10, pp.3341-3361. [online] Available at:
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/ECAM-04-2019-0186/full/html [Accessed:
28 December 2020]

Teamwork 18
Lippert, H. and Dulewicz, V., 2018. A profile of high-performing global virtual teams. Team
Performance Management: An International Journal, 2018, Vol. 24, Issue 3/4, pp.169-185. [online]
Available at: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/TPM-09-2016-
0040/full/pdf?title=a-profile-of-high-performing-global-virtual-teams [Accessed: 28 December
2020]
Yi, M., Vaagaasar, A., Muller, R., Wang, L. and Zhu, F., 2018. Empowerment: The key to horizontal
leadership in projects. International Journal of Project Management, Vol. 36, Issue 7, October
2018, pp.992-1006. [online] Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263786317314205?via%3Dihub [Accessed: 28
December 2020]
Zhu, F., Wang, L., Yu, M., Muller, R. and Sun, X., 2019. Transformational leadership and project
team members’ silence: the mediating role of feeling trusted. International Journal of Managing
Projects in Business, 2019, Vol. 12, Issue 4, pp.845-868. [online] Available at:
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJMPB-04-2018-0090/full/html [Accessed:
28 December 2020]
Sub-topic 4: Appraise how teams contribute to an effective project
Anantatmula, V. and Shrivastav, B., 2012. Evolution of project teams for Generation Y workforce.
International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 2012, Vol. 5, Issue 1, pp.9-26. [online]
Available at: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/17538371211192874/full/html
[Accessed: 28 December 2020]
Krancher, O., Dibbern, J. and Meyer, P., 2018. How Social Media-Enabled Communication
Awareness Enhances Project Team Performance. Journal of the Association for Information
Systems (2018) 19(9), 813-85. [pdf] Available at:
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=7&sid=56566b73-54ce-445e-ab56-
bda886becac4%40sessionmgr4008 [Accessed: 28 December 2020]
McLaren, M. and Loosemore, M., 2019. Swift trust formation in multi-national disaster project
management teams. International Journal of Project Management, Vol 37, November 2019, pp.979-
988. [online] Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263786319308518?via%3Dihub [Accessed: 28
December 2020]
Rowland, M., 2019. The value of diversity in the workplace. APM. [online] Available at:
https://www.apm.org.uk/blog/the-value-of-diversity-in-project-management/ [Accessed: 29
December 2020]
Weber, S., Detjen, J., MacLean, T. and Thomas, D., 2019. Team challenges: Is artificial intelligence
the solution? Business Horizons, Vol 62, Issue 6, November-December 2019, pp.741-750. [online]
Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681319300989 [Accessed: 29
December 2020]

Case studies
These are case studies which will give you a broad understanding of how some of the concepts
presented in this topic are applied in the real world.
Akgun, A., Keskin, H., Ayar, H. and Okunakol, Z., 2017. A study of the influence of project
managers’ signature strengths on project team resilience. Kybernetes, 2017, Vol. 46, Issue 4,
pp.603-620. [online] Available at: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/K-04-
2016-0081/full/html [Accessed: 29 December 2020]
Vuorinin, L. and Marinsuo, M., 2019. Promoting Project Team Co-ordination in Repetitive Projects.
Journal of Modern Project Management, May-Aug2019, Vol. 7, Issue 1, pp.162-177. [pdf] Available
at: http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&sid=28e148de-9eee-44ac-a501-
0f5915459603%40sdc-v-sessmgr02 [Accessed: 29 December 2020]

19 Teamwork