Animal (2016), 10:3, pp 468–477 © The Animal Consortium 2015

doi:10.1017/S1751731115002062
animal

Calf management practices and associations with herd-level

morbidity and mortality on beef cow-calf operations
C. F. Murray1a, L. J. Fick1, E. A. Pajor1, H. W. Barkema1, M. D. Jelinski2 and M. C. Windeyer1†
1
Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, T2N 4N1 Alberta, Canada;
2
Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon,
S7N 5B4 Saskatchewan, Canada

(Received 30 January 2015; Accepted 25 August 2015; First published online 22 October 2015)

The objective of this study was to investigate calf management practices on beef cow-calf operations and determine associations with
herd-level morbidity and mortality of pre-weaned calves. A 40-question survey about management practices, morbidity and mortality
was administered to cow-calf producers by distributing paper surveys and by circulating an online link through various media. A total
of 267 producers completed the survey. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics and multivariable linear regression models.
Average herd-level treatment risk for pre-weaning calf diarrhea (PCD) and bovine respiratory disease (BRD) were 4.9% and 3.0%,
respectively. Average herd-level mortality within the first 24 h of life (stillbirth), from 1 to 7 days and 7 days to weaning were 2.3%,
1.1%, and 1.4%, respectively. Operations that never intervened at parturition had 4.7% higher PCD than those that occasionally did.
On operations using small elastrator bands for castration, PCD was 1.9% higher than those using other methods. For every increase of
100 cows in herd size, BRD decreased by 1.1%. The association between BRD and PCD varied by when calving season began.
Operations that used off-farm, frozen colostrum had a 1.1% increase in stillbirths. Operations that verified a calf had suckled had
0.7% lower mortality from 1 to 7 days of age. Those that intervened when colostrum was abnormal or that used small elastrator
bands for castration had 1.9% and 1.4% higher mortality during the 1st week of life, respectively, compared with other operations.
Mortality from 7 days to weaning was lower by 0.7% when calving season started in April compared with January or February and
was higher by 1.0% for each additional week of calving season. Operations that intervened with colostrum consumption for assisted
calvings had lower mortality from 7 days to weaning by 0.8% compared with those that did not. For every 1.0% increase in BRD,
mortality from 7 days to weaning increased by 1.0%. Stillbirths and mortality from 7 days to weaning decreased non-linearly with herd
size. Factors related to calving season, herd size, interventions at calving, colostrum management and castration impacted herd-level
morbidity and mortality. However, effect size was generally small and causation cannot be determined with a cross-sectional study
design. This study identifies several common health management practices associated with calfhood morbidity and mortality that
should be further investigated to establish evidence-based management strategies to improve the health and survival of beef calves.

Keywords: beef cattle, calving, colostrum, morbidity, mortality

Implications on beef calf health and survival. Expanding knowledge of risk

factors associated with calf morbidity and mortality will
Morbidity and mortality in beef calves continue to impact
assist in the development of evidence-based management
beef operations around the world and can be associated with
recommendation and could have substantial implications for
significant economic losses. Improving health management
improving efficiencies of beef production.
including calving intervention, colostrum administration
and other common practices could increase calf health and
survival, thus improving animal welfare and performance. Introduction
However, there is limited current research investigating
specific management practices in the field and their influence Beef production in Canada is largely split into two sectors:
extensively managed cow-calf operations and intensively
a
Present address: Nutreco Canada Inc., 150 Research Lane, Suite 200, Guelph,
managed feedlots. Pre-weaning morbidity and mortality
Ontario, Canada. continue to be major issues of concern for cow-calf
†
E-mail: c.windeyer@ucalgary.ca operations, resulting in economic losses for the beef industry.

468

Calf mortality may be up to 13%, of which the majority are
stillbirths (Patterson et al., 1987; Waldner, 2001). A study by
Sanderson and Dargatz (2000) estimated a mean morbidity
of 5.8% before weaning on US beef herds. Pre-weaning calf
diarrhea (PCD) may affect between 2.4% and 36% of beef
calves, and bovine respiratory disease (BRD) may affect
between 3% and 11% (Acres et al., 1977; Snowder et al.,
2005; Hanzlicek et al., 2013; Waldner et al., 2013). Morbidity
in calves has significant impacts on average daily gain and
production efficiencies of the animal (Smith, 1998).
In Canada, the average beef herd size increased by almost
50% from 105 cows and calves in 1996 to 149 in 2011,
whereas the number of cow-calf operations dropped from
142 157 to 85 890 within the same time period (Statistics
Canada, 2012). As beef operations consolidate and become
larger, management practices on a given operation have the
capacity to impact greater numbers of animals. Management
practices in Canada follow a typical seasonal pattern: calves
are generally born in late winter or early spring, cow-calf
pairs are turned out onto large grasslands for the summer
and cows are bred naturally by bulls during that time, and
calves are weaned from the cow in the fall and sold either to
a backgrounding operation (fed at moderate planes of
nutrition) or to a feedlot (fed at high planes of nutrition).
With the shift in herd size and number, research that can
inform this management system becomes more important to
ensure best practices guidelines are developed appropriately.
However, there is little current data about on-farm man-
agement practices on cow-calf operations in western Canada
and their effects on calf health and survival. Previous
published studies either are outdated (Radostits and Acres,
1980; Schumann et al., 1990), focused on specific diseases
(Hanzlicek et al., 2013) or were conducted in areas that use
different management systems (Dutil et al., 1999). Thus, the
objectives of this study were to investigate current calf
management practices on cow-calf operations in western
Canada and to determine their association with herd-level
morbidity and mortality.
Material and methods
Recruitment and questionnaire
A 40-question survey about health management practices,
morbidity and mortality was distributed to cow-calf
producers across the Canadian province of Alberta between
May and December 2013. The survey was developed in
consultation with experienced veterinarians and industry
leaders. Initially, a pilot survey (n = 17) was sent to the
regional delegates of the provincial beef producer associa-
tion. The survey was then revised for wider circulation.
A multi-pronged approach was used, involving producer
meetings, veterinary practices and online venues for recruit-
ing participants. Paper copies of the survey were distributed
to cow-calf producers attending several producer meetings
and a conference. To assist with survey distribution, the
provincial veterinary clinic directory was used to contact
veterinary clinics that service cow-calf producers. Eight
Calf management survey
practices mailed surveys to their clients. A link to an online
version of the survey was also circulated through postcards,
online social media and websites, and articles in producer-
focused magazines.
Survey questions focused on topics suspected of being
relevant as risk factors for morbidity and mortality because of
their association with pain and stress, or because they are
known to impact calf health or survival. Efforts were made to
keep the survey short to maximize response rate. The survey
inquired about the following perinatal management
practices: the start and end dates of the calving season;
frequency and timing of calving intervention; care of the
newborn calf, including resuscitation techniques and pain
management; and colostrum management practices. It also
included questions regarding pre-weaning management,
such as methods and timing of castration, deworming and
preconditioning of calves. As outcome parameters, producers
were asked to estimate the herd-level treatment risk for PCD
and BRD during the previous calving season (expressed as
the fraction of the number of calves treated by the number of
calves), as well as the proportion of calves that were born
dead, born alive that died in the first 24 h, died between
1 and 7 days after birth, and died between 7 days and
weaning during the 2013 calving season (expressed as a
fraction of the number of calves dead by the number of cows
due to calve). The survey was approved by the University of
Calgary’s Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board (REB13-
0263) and is available upon request.
Statistical analyses
Data were entered in Microsoft Excel (Microsoft, Redmond,
WA, USA) and exported into Stata-SE 13.0 (StataCorp, Col-
lege Station, TX, USA) for statistical analysis. All variables
were examined with descriptive statistics for data cleaning
and to determine their distributions. For each categorical
variable, a referent category was chosen based on biological
interpretation and sample size. The association between
management practices and outcome variables was deter-
mined using multivariable linear regression models. Herd-
level outcomes included herd-level treatment risk for PCD
and BRD, stillbirth (death at birth or within the first 24 h of
life), calves born alive that died 1 to 7 days after birth and
calves that lived to 7 days but died before weaning. All
outcome variables were rounded to the nearest 0.5 and log
(natural) transformed to approximate a normal distribution.
All explanatory variables were screened for unconditional
associations with the outcome variable in univariable linear
regression analyses. Any explanatory variables that were
associated with the outcome using a liberal cut-off (P < 0.20)
were considered for inclusion in the multivariable model.
Spearman’s correlation coefficients were calculated for all
explanatory variables considered for inclusion. If the corre-
lation coefficient was >0.8, only the variable that made the
most biological sense or had the fewest missing observations
was included in the multivariable model-building process.
Linearity was assessed graphically between continuous
explanatory variables and the outcome using locally
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Murray, Fick, Pajor, Barkema, Jelinski and Windeyer
weighted regression. If the relationship was non-linear then
the quadratic, log and square root transformations of the
explanatory variable were tested. If none improved linearity,
the variable was categorized. Models were built and con-
founding was assessed through backward elimination. Con-
founding was defined as a >25% change in the coefficients
of remaining significant variables. Biologically appropriate
interaction terms were tested. Significant (P < 0.05) interac-
tion effects were assessed graphically. Explanatory variables
were included in the final model if P < 0.05, or if they were a
confounding variable or part of a significant interaction term.
Final multivariable models were assessed using a
Cook–Weisberg test and by plotting the standardized
residuals against the predicted value to evaluate homo-
scedasticity. A Shapiro–Wilk’s test was performed on the
standardized residuals with a non-significant test (P ⩾ 0.05)
to evaluate normality. Standardized residuals were examined
graphically to look for outliers and observations with high
leverage. Influential observations were identified by
examining Cook’s distance, DFITS and DFBETAS graphically.
Outliers and influential observations were examined for
recording errors and to see if their removal resulted in a
change in interpretation of the model(s).
Results
Descriptive results
Description of herds. Survey respondents included 267
cow-calf producers. However, not all producers completed
the survey entirely, limiting the actual sample size in the
multivariable models. A total of 20 respondents did not
indicate a postal code so geographical location could not be
determined. Of the 247 producers that indicated a postal
code, 237 (96%) were from Alberta, with the remaining 10
from other provinces in central and western Canada
(4%). Geographical distribution of respondents is shown in
Supplementary Figure S1. The median herd size was 135
cows, ranging from three to 1700 cows.
Calving management. Just 10% of producers began calving
in January, whereas 19.5% began in February, 36.7% in
March, 26.3% in April, 7.2% in May and 0.4% in June.
Across all operations, the average length of the calving
season was 79 days (median: 70; 95% CI: 73.8 to 83.8). Over
half of producers (52%) rarely intervened during calving
and called a veterinarian for assistance only if they could
not correct a problem on their own (65%). Almost 60% of
producers reported suspending newborns by their hind limbs
for fluid drainage. Only 13% of producers administered pain
medication to the calf after calving and 15% gave it to the
cow. Just over half (53%) gave vitamin and/or mineral
injections to the calf. Calving management practices are
described in Supplementary Table S1.
Colostrum management. The majority of producers reported
verifying if a calf received colostrum by observing if it sucked
(87%) and intervened when they perceived that it failed to
470
suck enough (86%). Most (69%) producers chose the
dam’s fresh colostrum as their first choice to feed the calf if
intervention was necessary. However, nearly 13% chose
colostrum replacer. Colostrum management practices are
summarized in Supplementary Table S2.
Other management. Almost all (99%) producers castrated
their bull calves. However, only 4% of producers reported
using pain medication at castration. The median age at
castration with each method was 1.3 days of age (95% CI:
4.8 to 9.3) for small elastrator band, 2 months (95% CI: 2.0
to 2.7) for surgical castration knife, 2.8 months (95% CI: 2.3
to 4.5) for Burdizzo clamp and 4 months (95% CI: 2.6 to
11.4) for large Callicrate™ band.
A large percentage (91%) of respondents used anti-
parasiticides on cows, whereas only 69% used them on
calves. For both cows and calves, anti-parasiticides were
most commonly used in the fall (59% and 52%, respectively).
Over 65% of producers reported preconditioning their calves
before sale. However, the majority (90%) of these were herds
that pre-vaccinated at spring turn-out. Of respondents that
indicated not preconditioning, 45% would consider it in the
future if there were certain incentives or changes to their
operation. The management practices other than calving and
colostrum are described in Supplementary Table S3.
Pre-weaning morbidity and mortality
PCD. Mean herd-level treatment risk for pre-weaning calf
diarrhea was 4.9% (95% CI: 3.9 to 6.0). Operations that never
intervened at parturition (n = 2) had 4.7% higher herd-level
treatment risk of PCD than those that occasionally did
(P = 0.04). On operations using small elastrator bands for
castration, herd-level treatment risk of PCD was 1.9% higher
than those using other methods (P = 0.002). For every 1%
increase in herd-level treatment risk of BRD, the herd-level
treatment risk of PCD increased by 1.0% (P = 0.001) (Table 1).
BRD. The mean herd-level treatment risk for bovine respiratory
disease was 3.0% (95% CI: 2.1 to 3.8). For every increase of
100 cows in herd size, herd-level treatment risk of BRD
decreased by 1.1% (P = 0.02). Herd-level treatment risk of BRD
was influenced by an interaction between the month calving
season began and herd-level treatment risk of PCD (Table 2).
There was a significant, positive non-linear association between
the herd-level treatment risk of BRD with herd-level treatment
risk of PCD in operations that began calving in March
(P = 0.004), and May or June (P = 0.006), compared with
herds beginning their calving season in January or February
(Figure 1). The interaction was not significant (P = 0.1) for the
month of April compared with January or February (Table 2).
Stillbirth. The mean herd-level incidence of stillbirth was
2.3% (95% CI: 2.0 to 2.6). Herds that fed their calves frozen
colostrum from a source other than their cows, such as a
friend’s or neighbour’s cows, had 1.1% higher herd-level
incidence of stillbirth (P = 0.005) compared with those that
did not (Table 3). The herd-level incidence of stillbirth
 Calf management survey

Table 1 Final multivariable linear regression model assessing explanatory variables for the herd-level treatment risk of pre-weaning calf diarrhea in
beef calves on cow-calf operations (n = 152)
95% CI

Pre-weaning calf diarrhea (Ln transformation) n Coefficient Lower limit Upper limit Change in treatment risk (%) Significance

Frequency of calving intervention

Always 1 −0.30 −2.40 1.80 – Ns
Frequently 5 0.11 −0.85 1.06 – Ns
Occasionally 77 Ref – – – –
Rarely 67 0.15 −0.20 0.49 – Ns
Never 2 1.55 0.07 3.03 +4.7 *
Herd-level treatment risk of BRD 152 0.04 0.02 0.06 +1.0 ***
Castration by small elastrator band
Yes 118 0.64 0.23 1.05 +1.9 **
No 34 Ref – – – –
CI = confidence interval; BRD = bovine respiratory disease; Ref = referent category; Ns = non-significant.
*P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.

Table 2 Final multivariable linear regression model for the herd-level treatment risk of bovine respiratory disease in pre-weaned beef calves on cow-
calf operations (n = 142)
95% CI

Bovine respiratory disease Change in treatment

(Ln transformation) n Coefficient Lower limit Upper limit risk (%) Significance

Number of breeding age cows in herd 142 −0.0008 −0.002 −0.0001 −1.1a *
Month that calving began
January/February 49 Ref – – – –
March 60 −0.90 −1.32 −0.47 – –
April 28 −1.18 1.69 −0.67 – –
May/June 5 −1.78 −2.94 −6.20 – –
Herd-level treatment risk of PCD 142 −0.01 0.05 0.02 – –
Interaction: month and PCD
January/February × PCD 49 Ref – – – –
March × PCD 60 0.06 0.02 0.10 – **
April × PCD 28 0.04 −0.01 0.10 – Ns
May/June × PCD 5 0.31 0.09 0.53 – **
CI = confidence interval; PCD = pre-weaning calf diarrhea; Ref = referent category; Ns = non-significant.
a
For every additional 100 cows.
*P < 0.05, **P < 0.01.

decreased as the number of cows increased in a non-linear
fashion (P = 0.004) (Figure 2).
Mortality from 1 to 7 days. From 1 to 7 days of age, the mean
herd-level incidence of mortality was 1.1% (95% CI: 0.9 to
1.3). Operations that verified a calf had suckled by observing
the fullness of cows’ udders had 0.7% lower mortality from
1 to 7 days of age (P = 0.01) compared with those that did
not. Those that intervened when it was noticed that
colostrum was abnormal (P = 0.001), or that used small
elastrator bands for castration (P = 0.02) had 1.9% and
1.4% higher mortality during the 1st week of life, respec-
tively, compared with other operations (Table 4).
Mortality from 7 days to weaning. The mean herd-level
incidence of death from d 7 to weaning was 1.4% (95% CI:
1.2 to 1.7). Mortality from 7 days to weaning was lower by
0.7% when calving season started in April compared with
January or February (P = 0.02), and was higher by 1.4% for
each additional week of calving season (P = 0.007).
Operations that routinely intervened with colostrum con-
sumption for calves that were assisted at parturition had
lower mortality from 7 days to weaning by 0.8% compared
with those that did not (P = 0.02). For every 1% increase in
herd-level treatment risk for BRD, mortality from 7 days to
weaning increased by 1.0% (P = 0.004) (Table 5). The herd-
level incidence of mortality between 7 days and weaning
decreased as the number of cows increased in a non-linear
fashion (P = 0.003) (Figure 2).
Discussion
This survey has identified a wide range of on-farm calf
management practices used on cow-calf operations and

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Murray, Fick, Pajor, Barkema, Jelinski and Windeyer

their associations with morbidity and mortality in calves. resulted in significantly reduced odds of treatment for both
Important factors identified included calving season, herd diarrhea and pneumonia. A similar association has also been
size, calving intervention, colostrum management, castration found in dairy calves, as calves born in the winter have an
method and herd-level treatment risks for BRD and PCD. increased risk of experiencing BRD, diarrhea or death com-
Although other studies have previously demonstrated the pared with calves born in the summer or fall (Lombard et al.,
association of herd size and calving season with treatment 2007; Windeyer et al., 2014). This association may be due to
risk and mortality, the present study identifies several other the effect of cold weather on calf vigour and the transfer of
risk factors not previously described. Furthermore, this work passive immunity (Olson et al., 1980; Robison et al., 1988).
provides insights into the frequency of implementation of Calves with lower levels of passive immunity are at increased
various management practices, which is important for risk of morbidity and mortality events (Godden, 2008).
identifying opportunities for improvement and disconnects The association of herd-level treatment risk of PCD with
with recommended best practices. herd-level treatment risk of BRD varied by the month that
calving season started. Operations that calve later in the
Calving season spring are more likely to run into issues with fluctuating
The timing of the calving season influenced both morbidity temperatures, wet weather and muddy conditions than
and mortality. Herds that began their calving season in those that calve during January and February. Therefore, it
January or February had a greater incidence of calf mortality may be that common risk factors associated with environ-
from d 7 to weaning, compared with those that began mental conditions exist for both diseases. Alternatively,
calving in the warmer conditions of April. In agreement, this association may reflect a confounding association
Waldner et al. (2013) found that delaying the start of calving between management decisions regarding the timing

5 2.5
Mortality 7d - weaning
Predicted Herd-Level Treatment Risk for BRD, %

4.5
Stillbirth
4 2
Herd-Level Incidence, %

3.5

3 1.5

2.5

2 1

1.5 Jan/Feb
Mar
1 0.5
Apr
0.5 May/Jun

0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Herd-Level treatment Risk for PCD Number of Breeding-Age Cows in Herd

Figure 1 Predicted values for the herd-level treatment risk for bovine
respiratory disease (BRD) as calving start month interacts with herd-level
treatment risk for pre-weaning calf diarrhea (PCD). Predicted values for
BRD have been back transformed from the log outcome. All explanatory
variables in the model were set to median values.
Figure 2 Association between the number of breeding age cows and the
herd-level incidence of stillbirth and mortality from d 7 to weaning. Data are
based on the respective multivariable linear regression models, while controlling
for all explanatory variables. Values for stillbirth and mortality from d 7 to
weaning have been back transformed from the log transformed outcome.

Table 3 Final multivariable linear regression model for the herd-level incidence of stillbirtha on cow-calf operations (n = 154)
95% CI

Change in treatment
Stillbirth (Ln transformation) n Coefficient Lower limit Upper limit risk (%) Significance

Frozen off-farm colostrum

No 135 Ref – – – –
Yes 19 0.49 0.15 0.84 + 1.1 **
Number of breeding age cows in herd 154 −0.003 −0.004 −0.002 – ***
Number of breeding age cows in herd2 154 1.37e − 06 4.38e − 07 2.31e − 06 – **
CI = confidence interval; Ref = referent category.
a
Calves dead at birth or in the first 24 h of life.
**P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.

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 Calf management survey

Table 4 Final multivariable linear regression model for the herd-level incidence of calf mortality from 1 to 7 days of age on cow-calf operations
(n = 131)
95% CI

Mortality from 1 to 7 days Change in treatment

(Ln transformation) n Coefficient Lower limit Upper limit risk (%) Significance

Intervene if abnormal colostrum

No 113 Ref – – – –
Yes 18 0.63 0.26 1.00 + 1.9 ***
Verify if calf has sucked: observe fullness of udder
No 23 Ref – – – –
Yes 108 −0.43 −0.77 −0.96 −0.7 *
Castrate by small elastrator band
No 36 Ref – – – –
Yes 95 0.35 0.06 0.63 + 1.4 *
CI = confidence interval; Ref = referent category.
*P < 0.05, ***P < 0.001.

Table 5 Final multivariable linear regression model for the herd-level incidence of calf mortality from 7 days to weaning on cow-calf operations
(n = 133)
95% CI

Mortality from 7 days to weaning Change in treatment

(Ln transformation) n Coefficient Lower limit Upper limit risk (%) Significance

Month calving started

January/February 47 Ref – – – –
March 53 −0.18 −0.46 0.09 – Ns
April 26 −0.42 −0.77 −0.07 −0.7 *
May/June 7 −0.33 −0.89 −0.23 – Ns
Length of calving season (days) 133 0.005 0.001 0.008 +1.0a **
Intervene with colostrum consumption if assisted calving
No 75 Ref – – – –
Yes 58 −0.28 −0.52 −0.05 −0.8 *
Number of breeding age cows in herd 133 −0.003 −0.004 −0.001 – ***
Number of breeding age cows in herd2 133 1.38e −06 4.64e −07 2.30e −06 – **
Herd-level treatment risk for BRD 133 0.03 0.009 0.05 +1.0 **
CI = confidence interval; BRD = bovine respiratory disease; Ref = referent category; Ns = non-significant.
a
For every additional week
*P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.

of calving season, ability to detect disease and treatment Herd size

protocols.
In the current study, the length of the calving season was
associated with pre-weaning calf mortality, which is in
agreement with Dutil et al. (1999). This may be because
longer calving seasons are associated with biological
amplification of pathogens on pasture (Larson and Tyler,
2005). Furthermore, the pathogen load on pasture may be
greater in warmer months, increasing the risk of exposure
and disease (Rhoades et al., 2009; Boyer and Kuczynska,
2010). Alternatively, producers with longer calving seasons
may lack management skills including hygiene, colostrum
management, and timely vaccination or treatment for
disease.
Another factor that may influence the density of pathogens
in the environment is herd size if pasture area is limited. If
there is a high density of livestock, the risk of developing
disease and subsequent death increases (Larson and Tyler,
2005). However, in the current study, the opposite relation-
ship was found. A greater herd size was associated with
reduced morbidity and mortality. Larger herds may have
more labor and oversight, and be more effectively managed
to prevent disease. Conversely, because respondents were
asked to estimate the morbidity and mortality of their herd, it
is possible that larger herds are less likely to observe sick
animals or remember individual calf treatments or death,
resulting in an underestimation of these incidences.

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Interventions at calving
Dystocia has also been previously associated with an
increased risk of morbidity (Sanderson and Dargatz, 2000)
and mortality in calves (Patterson et al., 1987; Lombard
et al., 2007), which are likely a result of the detrimental
effects for the calf such as reduced vitality and increased
failure of transfer of passive immunity (Mee, 2004;
Gundelach et al., 2009; Murray and Leslie, 2013). However,
dystocia includes both protracted-unassisted or difficult-
assisted deliveries, and timely intervention is encouraged to
minimize the negative effects (Mee, 2004). In the current
study, the association of never intervening at calving with
herd-level treatment risk of PCD may indicate that assistance
at calving was not provided when needed. This could result
in a larger proportion of calves compromised at birth that
might not have otherwise been at risk for PCD had they
received assistance at calving. However, given this is a
herd-level study, it is prudent not to make conclusions at
the individual animal level. In addition, the small sample size
of operations that fell into this category means this finding
should be interpreted with caution.
Although studies have shown that dystocia is one of the
most painful conditions in adult cattle (Huxley and Whay,
2006; Laven et al., 2009), few survey respondents reported
administering pain medication to the cow at calving. Even
fewer reported giving non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) to the calf. This may be because the effects of
dystocia on the cow are perceived as being more painful than
in the calf (Huxley and Whay, 2006; Laven et al., 2009).
Despite this perception, it is common for calves to endure
severe injury, inflammation or bruising, which can impact
calf vitality, health and performance (Murray and Leslie,
2013). However, this practice of administering an NSAID at
calving to either the cow or the calf was not associated with
any herd-level morbidity or mortality outcomes in this study.
Cost and availability of NSAIDs are also a major limiting
factors influencing usage in both cows and newborn
calves. More research is needed on the health, welfare and
economic benefits of administering NSAIDs for pain
management after dystocia in beef cattle. The frequency
of NSAID use at calving in beef cattle has not previously
been described.
With most calf losses occurring in the first 24 h of life
(Patterson et al., 1987), good resuscitation techniques are
critical to ensure survival of the newborn. Although there are
many methods and tools that have been suggested to aid in
resuscitation, there is very little data on the most effective
and appropriate techniques. The practice of suspending
newborn calves by their hind legs was historically suggested
as a method to drain fluid from the calf’s lungs to help
establish breathing and remains prevalent today. Current
evidence has concluded that most of this fluid comes from
the stomach and that pressure from the internal organs on
the diaphragm actually makes it more difficult for the calf
to expand its lungs and breathe (Nagy, 2009). However,
there was no association between this practice and the
herd-level outcomes of morbidity and mortality in this
474
study. The findings of this study can be interpreted to suggest
that while the veterinary profession has long been
discouraged from this practice, transfer of this knowledge
to producers has been lacking. Education programs are
needed so producers can be informed of the detrimental
effects of this practice.
Colostrum management
The practice of assessing the udder for fullness as a means of
verifying colostrum consumption was associated with a
reduced incidence of mortality in the first 7 days of life. This
is likely because most producers reported intervening to
assist with colostrum intake if they believed the calf did not
suck adequately. Assisting with colostrum intake has been
associated with reducing the risk of failed transfer of passive
immunity (Filteau et al., 2003). Alternatively, the practice
of verifying udder fullness may be an indicator for other
management practice or an overall high level of attention to
detail during calving that might also influence the herd-level
mortality during early life.
Intervening with colostrum intake if the calving was
assisted reduced the incidence of death from d 7 to weaning.
Ensuring calves consume adequate colostrum after a difficult
birth reduces the risk of failed transfer of passive immunity
(Dutil et al., 1999). In contrast, if producers intervened if
abnormal colostrum was noticed, the incidence of death in
the first 7 days was increased. This may be because
alternative products such as dairy colostrum or colostrum
supplement were fed instead. Dairy colostrum has been
shown to have a much lower IgG concentration than
beef colostrum (Guy et al., 1994). In addition, calves fed
colostrum replacer or supplements may have lower serum
IgG concentrations than calves fed fresh colostrum, which
may be due to lower IgG concentrations per dose of product
or insufficient amounts being fed (Quigley et al., 1998; Swan
et al., 2007). Furthermore, if these alternatives were not
readily available, the resulting time delay may have affected
IgG absorption (Godden, 2008).
Feeding frozen colostrum from an off-farm source was
associated with increased herd-level incidence of stillbirths.
As stillbirth occurs within 24 h of birth, it is unlikely this
association is due to inadequate transfer of passive immu-
nity. Colostrum also serves as a means to warm a calf from
the inside at a time when they thermoregulate poorly. Thus,
when no colostrum is available at the farm of origin,
producers need to find alternative sources, which may result
in delayed warning and risk of hypothermia, leading to early
death. Alternatively, it may be that operations that feed
colostrum from an off-farm source are generally less
prepared to provide intervention to compromised newborn
calves when needed.
Other management practices
Castration of bull calves is a common management practice
in North America. However, the methods of castration varied
widely across herds, with the most common being small
elastrator bands (Coetzee et al., 2010). Castration by rubber

ring caused significant increases in painful behaviors
compared with Burdizzo or surgical techniques (Robertson
et al., 1994), have more prolonged effects including greater
scrotal temperatures (Moya et al., 2014), and cause acute
and chronic pain lasting for >42 days (Molony et al., 1995).
In the current study, the prolonged stress associated with
small band castration at an early age may be why herds that
used this technique had a greater incidence of PCD and
mortality in the first 7 days of life compared with those that
did not. Currently, there are no other published studies
investigating the effects of castration in the 1st week of life
on morbidity and mortality.
Although using anti-parasiticides on cows is a standard
practice on most herds, it is interesting that almost one out of
three herds in the current study did not use them for calves.
This is a similar finding to a survey of dairy and beef produ-
cers in the northeastern United States, which found that 10%
to 30% of producers do not use parasite control (Gasbarre
et al., 2001). This is despite evidence suggesting that
anthelmintic treatment results in increased growth and
performance in young animals (Hawkins, 1993). Anti-
parasiticide use was not associated with morbidity or
mortality.
Preconditioning programs are applied before weaning to
better prepare calves before exposure to stressors and
pathogens during and after shipment from the farm of
origin. Examples of such programs include pre-vaccination,
pre-weaning and training to use bunk feeders or artificial
water sources. In the current survey, many producers indi-
cated they preconditioned their calves. However, most of
these were pre-vaccinating a spring turn-out. This was not
associated with a reduction in herd-level treatment risk of
disease or death in this study. In the past, the adoption of
preconditioning programs has been slow (Dhuyvetter et al.,
2005). This may be because some producers who do not
precondition are unaware of the premiums that may be
generated on preconditioned cattle (Carlberg and Hogan,
2013). This is in agreement with the current study as less
than half of respondents who do not precondition would
consider doing it in the future.
Pre-weaning calf diarrhea and bovine respiratory disease
Many other studies have also shown that diseases such as
PCD may predispose calves to BRD, which often occurs later
in the pre-weaning period (Waltner-Toews et al., 1986;
Van Donkersgoed et al., 1993). As this was a cross-sectional,
herd-level study, the timing of individual treatment events
was not collected. Therefore, it cannot be determined which
disease proceeded the other and it can only be stated that an
association existed. Herd-level treatment risk for BRD was a
significant variable in the model for herd-level treatment risk
for PCD, and vice versa, although that association depended
on when the calving season began. This suggests that com-
mon, unmeasured herd management factors increased the
herd-level treatment risks for both diseases, rather than one
predisposing the population to the other.
Calf management survey
Study limitations
As this was a cross-sectional, herd-level study, causation at
the individual animal level could not be determined and
these findings should not be interpreted as such. However,
herd-level survey data does provide useful insights into
associations of management practices with herd-level
treatment risks and mortality. It is important to note that
herd-level treatment risk of disease and incidence of
mortality was estimated by respondents. Results are based
on producer perception and recollection of events, possibly
leading to response and recall bias, in that, respondents may
either intentionally misrepresent or unintentionally lack
accuracy in their responses. This is indicative of two major
challenges faced when conducting research in the cow-calf
industry: a lack of standardized case definitions for disease
and difficulties in obtaining accurate records to estimate
the incidence of morbidity both at the individual animal and
herd level. The benefits of accurate records may be realized
through a more intensive and controlled study in which
individual animals can be closely monitored; however, such
work required much greater resources.
A response rate could not be calculated for this study
because a set number of surveys were not distributed. One of
the methods of distribution was an online link through social
media. As such, any cow-calf producer who found this link
could complete the survey. Response rate is important as it
provides insight into non-response bias, which can be a
major issue when interpreting survey results. However, the
lack of calculable response rate is likely outweighed by the
benefit of broadening the source population in this study.
Other recent work in this area recruited producers only
through veterinary clinics (Waldner et al., 2013), and while
the intent of that study was to investigate veterinary-related
interventions, it does limit extrapolation solely to producers
that have close ties to a veterinarian. Using a multi-pronged
approach widens the source population. However, a selection
bias may still exist in that producers not recruited through a
veterinary clinic were either attending a producer meeting,
reading a producer magazine, or using an online resource (i.e.
had internet access) and were willing to participate. Producers
willing to respond to a survey are potentially more interested
in research and more likely to have implemented recom-
mended practices. Thus, it is likely these findings are most
applicable to a target population of progressive cow-calf
producers using extensive management systems who engage
in extension efforts, use veterinary services, or both.
Conclusions
This survey has identified several key management practices,
which are associated with an increased herd-level incidence
of pre-weaning morbidity and mortality. These practices
include timing and length of calving season, frequency
of calving intervention, colostrum management practices
and method of castration. However, effect size was relatively
small and causation cannot be determined by a cross-
sectional study such as this. Practices such as suspending
475
Murray, Fick, Pajor, Barkema, Jelinski and Windeyer
calves by their hind end after birth and not using anti-
parasiticides on calves were found to be highly prevalent on
herds, despite evidence of their negative impacts. Identifying
these issues and providing continuing education opportu-
nities for producers is an important step toward the
implementation of evidence-based management to improve
the health and survival of beef calves.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Alberta Beef Producers,
participating veterinary practices and the Western Producer
magazine for their assistance circulating the surveys; all of the
participating cow-calf producers who responded to the survey;
and the University of Calgary and the Canadian Institutes of
Health Research for financial support.
Supplementary materials
For supplementary material/s referred to in this article, please
visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1751731115002062
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