HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Faculty of Transportation Engineering

Department of Aerospace Engineering

1ST LAB DOCUMENTS OF

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
Includes:
1. Combustion – Flame propagation
2. Investigation of the characteristics of centrifugal fans
3. Hydraulic system
4. Measurements of head loss of the flow in pipes

Ho Chi Minh City, May 2016

 General Regulations
A. Responsibilities and missions of students
Students will be informed about the details of the experiments on the first day of the
course. Students create their own group/ create groups according to the class roster,
each group consists of 4-5 students.
Student’s responsibilities and missions are:
1. Attend class on time; Prepare the experiment lesson in advance before class.
2. Do not arbitrarily operate the experimental equipment without the
permission/supervision of the instructor; The operation of the equipment
must be in accordance with the technical sequence to avoid damage.
3. Be aware of fire/ explosion, electric shock prevention, and safety issue, …
Maintain order, and perform the experiments earnestly.
4. Prepare the experimental data sheets in advance; The data obtained from the
experiment must be confirmed by the instructor before the end of the class.
5. Some instructors require students to process data on-site.
6. Re-arrange and clean up tables, and chairs, lock doors and turn off the power
(lights, fans, equipment…) before leaving if being the last group
7. Assign weekly clean-up.
B. Reports
The report must be complete after experimenting:
1. Deadline for submission depends on the course instructor: It could be a few
days later or the last week of the course.
2. The report submission form can be a hard copy or a file via BK-Elearning.
 The hard copy is printed on both sides, in black and white (or color if
necessary), with no need for a glass cover.
 The soft copy/ file is compressed in .rar or .zip format and named after the
template
Class_Group_Subject_ExperimentNo_Date.rar
For example GT11HK_Nhom2_THKTHK1_Bai3_20160415.rar
The compressed file will consist of a report (Word, PDF) and other graphic and
calculation files (AutoCAD, Excel, Matlab …)
3. Report requirement
- Clean, clear, sophisticated presentation, complying with typing standards for
punctuation, spelling, alignment, font
 - The report must meet the requirements of the experiment, and fully present
the main parts such as Experiment objectives, related theory, experiment
equipment and operation, data processing procedures, results, and comments.
Data processing procedures and results (usually in the form of graphs) need
to be clearly presented to demonstrate the ability of students to understand,
interpret and comprehend.
- Pictures, graphs, and calculation tables must be numbered and named.
- Graphs must come with graph names, axis names and units, and annotations
of the lines (by symbols, lines, notes).
- Formulas are right-margin numbered.
- Constant such as gravity acceleration and density must be specified during
the data processing procedure.
- Experimental data (if possible) should be compared, contrasted, and
evaluated for errors with results from the theory from different sources
(demonstrated on the same graph...).
- Odd numbers should be properly rounded.
- References must be clearly noted, even in graphs.
- Comments should be specific and linked to the knowledge obtained, students
can make improvements if necessary.
- Students are allowed to take pictures during the experiment to insert into the
group's report.
Note: Group with any sign of copy/ plagiarism will receive a score of 0 for the entire
course.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
COMBUSTION – FLAME PROPAGATION .......................................................... 7
1. Experiment objectives ....................................................................................... 7
2. Basic theory ....................................................................................................... 7
3. Experiment equipment ....................................................................................... 9
4. Lesson 1: Determine the stability limit of the combustion process ................ 11
4.1. Experiment requirements ........................................................................... 11
4.2. Experiment operation ................................................................................. 11
5. Lesson 2: Measure the flame propagation velocity according to the mixing ratio
12
5.1. Experiment requirements ........................................................................... 12
5.2. Experiment operation ................................................................................. 12
6. Sample data table ............................................................................................. 13
6.1. Lesson 1 ..................................................................................................... 13
6.2. Lesson 2 ..................................................................................................... 14
THE SURVEY OF THE CENTRIFUGAL FAN CHARACTERISTICS 1 ........... 15
1. Hydraulic machine ........................................................................................... 15
2. Experiment equipment ..................................................................................... 17
2.1. Experimental system set up ....................................................................... 19
2.2. Interactive software .................................................................................... 19
2.2.1. Installation ............................................................................................. 19
2.2.2. Driver Installation Instruction .......................................................... 20
2.2.3. User manual ..................................................................................... 20
2.3. Noteworthy quantities ................................................................................ 22
3. Lesson 1: The survey of the centrifugal fan characteristic curve .................... 23
3.1. Experiment purposes and requirements ..................................................... 23
3.2. Principle ..................................................................................................... 24
3.3. Experiment operation ................................................................................. 24
4. Lesson 2: The survey of the centrifugal fan dynamical similarity .................. 24
4.1. Experiment purposes and requirements ..................................................... 24
4.2. Principle ..................................................................................................... 25
4.3. Experiment operation ................................................................................. 25
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM 1 ...................................................................................... 26
1. Theory of Hydraulics ....................................................................................... 26
2. Experiment equipment ..................................................................................... 26
3. Lesson 1: Investigate the characteristic curve of the pump............................. 27
3.1. Experiment requirements ........................................................................... 27
3.2. Principle ..................................................................................................... 27
3.3. Experiment operation ................................................................................. 28
4. Lesson 2: Safety valve ..................................................................................... 29
4.1. Experiment requirements ........................................................................... 29
4.2. The safety valve ......................................................................................... 29
4.3. Experiment requirements ........................................................................... 29
5. Sample data table ............................................................................................. 30
1. Experiment objectives ......................................................................................... 32
2. Basic theory ......................................................................................................... 32
2.1. The steady-flow energy equation ................................................................. 32
2.2. CALCULATIONS ....................................................................................... 1
2.2.1. Calculations of Discharge ............................................................... 1
2.2.2. Calculations of Head Loss ....................................................................... 4
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS .............................................................. 9
3.1. Device construction ........................................................................................ 9
3.2. Operating principle ......................................................................................... 9
3.3. Operation steps ............................................................................................. 10
4. Experiment report ................................................................................................ 13
A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE THEORY OF HYDRAULICS ........................... 14
1. The theory of hydraulics .................................................................................. 14
1.1. Fluids .......................................................................................................... 14
1.2. Hydrostatic ................................................................................................. 14
1.3. The pressure difference .............................................................................. 14
1.4. Hydrodynamics (Hydrodynamique) .......................................................... 15
1.5. Different types of energy ........................................................................... 15
1.6. Bernoulli relation ....................................................................................... 15
1.7. Notes on different levels of pressures ........................................................ 16
2. Flow ........................................................................................................... 16
2.1. Schiller – Reynolds experiment ................................................................. 16
2.2. Flow regimes .............................................................................................. 16
2.3. Reynolds number ....................................................................................... 17
2.4. The flow velocity ....................................................................................... 17
2.5. Types of energy loss .................................................................................. 17
3. Viscosity (La viscosite) ................................................................................... 18
3.1. Dynamic viscosity (La viscosite dynamique, μ) ........................................ 18
3.2. Kinematic viscosity (La viscosité cinématique, ν) .................................... 18
3.3. Relative viscosity (La viscosité relative) ................................................... 19
3.4. The viscosity change .................................................................................. 20
3.5. Fluids used in the hydraulic systems ......................................................... 20
 COMBUSTION – FLAME PROPAGATION
1. Experiment objectives
The experiment is a qualitative and quantitative survey of the basic characteristics
of the combustion process through factors affecting the flame such as the mixing
ratio of the fuel and air mixture, and the heat load (Burner loading). Experimental
content includes:
- Determine the characteristics of the yellow tip, lift off and light back;
- Build a characteristic diagram for the survey of the flame stability, known as
the Fuidge diagram.

2. Basic theory
Combustion occurs in the presence of fuel and air under the right conditions
(including ignition). Consider the equation of the chemical reaction for the
combustion of methane 𝐶𝐻 in the gaseous form as follows:
𝐶𝐻 + 2𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂 + 2𝐻 𝑂
The chemical reaction is complete when the volume ratio of 𝐶𝐻 /𝑂 is 1:2. If this
ratio is more than 1:2, the combustion is rich in fuel; conversely, if this ratio is less
than 1:2, the combustion process is fuel-poor. In addition, the combustion of the fuel
and air mixture depends on the heat load (Burner loading - heat released per unit
area) at the place where the flame occurs. Heat load BL (MW/m2) is calculated as
follows:
𝑀𝐽
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 × 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙(𝑚 /𝑠)
𝐵𝐿 = 𝑚
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚 )
The combustion process can be qualitatively assessed by the shape and color of the
flame. The stability limit of the combustion process includes the following stages:
- The rich-fuel combustion process shows in the form of a yellow flame. When
maintaining the flow rate of the fuel and increasing that of air, the flame turns
from yellow to blue, from root to tip. The limit state of the transition is when
only the tip of the flame remains yellow (Yellow tipping - YT). Thus, this is
the limit state to maintain combustion with a sufficient mixing ratio for
complete combustion.
- Further increase in the airflow rate will result in complete blue flame. At an
appropriate ratio, the blue flame will rise from the surface of the fusion tube
(Lift off - LO). This phenomenon occurs when the velocity of the combustion
 mixture is close to the flame propagation velocity. If the airflow rate is
continued to increase, the velocity of the mixture will be greater than the
flame propagation velocity, the flame will rise from the surface and be
extinguished. This is the limit state of the fuel-poor combustion process and
the transition state to end the combustion process.
- Light back (LB) occurs when the mixing ratio exceeds the value of the LO
phenomenon. When the heat load is low, if the fuel flow rate is kept
unchanged and the airflow rate is increased, the flame propagation velocity
will be greater than the velocity of the combustion mixture. The flame
burning in the fuel-poor state tends to move back towards the source of the
combustion mixture to maintain combustion if the place which consists of the
combustion is large enough.
To determine the stability limit of the flame, it is necessary to burn a mixture of fuel
and air with different volume ratios. Then express this ratio according to the heat
load with different flame states (Fuidge diagram – example Figure 1).

Figure 1. Fuidge diagram of the stability limit of the fuel and air mixture combustion
 3. Experiment equipment
C551 combustion test equipment is described in Figure 2, including a flow control
panel, a fuel source (gas tank 50% Propane + 50% Butane, calorific value 46 MJ/m 3),
a set of 4 mixing tubes with different diameters, plastic tubes for observing and
measuring the flame propagation velocity, and ignition system.

Figure 2. Combustion test device C551 and 4 mixing tubes numbered 1 to 4

Equipment operation:
- Connect the power source, turn on the switch and let the exhaust fan run.
Open the gas tank valve, and press the gas pump button if necessary.
- On the control panel, first open the air valve, and the gas valve later. Ignites
the mixture.
- Air and fuel flow are measured on a centimeter scale, marked from the top of
the cone. This value is converted to 𝑚 /𝑠 by using the diagram in Figure 3.
However, in Figure 3, there are only two types of fuel: Propane or Coal Gas
and Methane. For a mixture of propane and butane fuel, the actual flow rate
will be the actual flow rate in the case of propane multiplied by the factor K
(referred to in Figure 4). For example, if the fuel used is a mixture of 50%
propane and 50% Butane, the K factor will be about 1.06. If the flow column
is only 8 cm, using the propane curve in Figure 3 to find 0.04 × 10 𝑚 /𝑠 ,
the actual flow rate for this case will be 1.06 × 0.04 × 10 𝑚 /𝑠.
- Lock all the valves, switch off, and turn off the power source after finishing
the experiment.
 Safety Note:
- Always check for gas leaks at the beginning of the experiment.
- Set up a fire extinguisher near the test site.
- Always open the air valve before the gas valve.
- Do not leave the gas valve open without combustion. Once the gas
valve is opened, it must be ignited immediately to avoid the “fireball”
phenomenon.
- Mixing tubes can be extremely after the test. Protective tools are
required.
- Switch off, lock the valves on the control panel, unplug the power, and
close the gas valve at the end of the experiment.

Figure 3. The relation between the flow rate on the scale (cm) and the actual flow rate (m 3/s) of fuel
and air
 Figure 4. Correction factor K for the mixture of Propane and Butane

4. Lesson 1: Determine the stability limit of the combustion

process
4.1. Experiment requirements
Use a caliper to measure the inner diameter of the mixing tubes. Calculate the plain
area of the combustion using this inner diameter.
Observe the combustion states of the flame, and measure the height of the flame.
Make a result sheet and set up the Fuidge diagram for the experimental fuel type.
Comment on the influence of mixing ratio, and heat load on the shape, color, height,
and stability limit of the flame.
4.2. Experiment operation
Re-read the instruction on how to operate the experimental equipment in Section 3.
Experiment with all 4 mixing tubes respectively:
- The fuel level is 0.5 cm and 1 cm.
- Vary the airflow rate ascendingly to observe the flame characteristics and
measure its height.
Note:
 The LB phenomenon is very difficult to see in the two smallest
diameter pipes. To see that phenomenon, it is often necessary to use
cone buttons to see the flame running back to the source of the gas
mixture. If there is no cone, only 2 phenomena can be observed, YT
and LO.
 For the two larger diameter mixing tubes, when LB occurs, the flame
will burn inside the tube, and no longer stay on the top of the tube.
5. Lesson 2: Measure the flame propagation velocity according
to the mixing ratio
5.1. Experiment requirements
Determine the appropriate mixing ratio and comment on the conditions for the
backfire/ reverse combustion to occur.
Determine the flame velocity according to the different mixing ratios.
Plot a new graph to demonstrate the relation between the flame velocity and the
mixing ratio. Then compare the different types of fuel as above

Figure 5. Flame propagation velocity under the ambient air temperature and pressure condition for 3
types of fuel: Propane, Methane, and coal gas

5.2. Experiment operation

Re-read the instruction on how to operate the experimental equipment in Section 3.
Connect the plastic pipe, the L-tube, and the spark plug system. Measure the length
between the two lines on the tube as a mark to calculate the burning distance of the
flame.
Experiment several times with different mixing ratios:
- The fuel level varies from 0.5 cm to 1 cm.
- Change the airflow rate to reach the LO state. Wait for the flame to stabilize.
- Press the ignition button; At the same time turn off both of the air and fuel
valves on the control panel. Measure the time the flame burns between the 2
predefined lines.
Note:
Smooth cooperation between the igniter and the valve shut-off person is
required.
The burning time of the flame in the tube is usually short so a quick reaction is
needed and at least 2-3 people timers are required to improve results.

6. Sample data table

6.1. Lesson 1
During data recording:

Tube No. Diameter Fuel flow Airflow Flame State

(mm) rate (cm) rate (cm) height (cm)

YT

3 d = … mm 0.5 LO

LB

During data processing:

 Fue Airflow rate Airflow rate Air/ Fuel
Fuel
l (cm) (10-3 m3/s) Ratio Burner
flow
Tub Are flo Loading
rate
e a w
(10-3 Y L L Y L L Y L L (MW/m2
No. (m2) rate
m3/s T O B T O B T O B )
(cm
)
)

0.5

6.2. Lesson 2
During data recording and processing:

Fuel
Fuel Air/
flow Airflow Airflow
flow Length Time Velocity Fuel
rate rate rate (10-
rate (m) (s) (m/s) mixing
(10-3 (cm) 3
m3/s)
(cm) ratio
m3/s)
 THE SURVEY OF THE CENTRIFUGAL FAN
CHARACTERISTICS 1
This experiment includes 4 sub-tests:
- Lesson 1: The survey of the centrifugal fan characteristic curve
- Lesson 2: The survey of the centrifugal fan dynamical similarity
- Lesson 3: Determine the system characteristic curve
- Lesson 4: Change the impeller
In this course, students are given Lessons 1 and 2. The remaining two lessons will
be done in the Aeronautical Experiment 1 course.

1. Hydraulic machine
A hydraulic machine is a device that works by exchanging energy with the fluid
flowing through the machine, for example, pumps, turbines, fans, compressors... In
this lesson we focus on a fan – a hydraulic machine with fluid interaction is air.
Hydraulic machines can be classified in many different ways:
 According to how they exchange energy with the fluid
 Receive the energy of the fluid, and convert it into mechanical energy
(water turbine, wind turbine ...)
 Supply power for fluids (pumps, fans, compressors, etc.)
 According to the principle of interaction with fluids in the energy-exchange
process
 The turbomachinery/ van machine uses the rotation of an impeller
(including the blades) to exchange kinetic and potential energy with
the fluid. The fluid velocity, outlet, and inlet pressure are
characteristic parameters for determining the operating state. Divided
into 2 subclasses: centrifuges and axial machines.
 The volumetric machine exchanges energy with the fluid on the
principle of compressing the liquid in a closed volume under the
effect of hydrostatic pressure, with the form of energy exchange
being pressure. The volumetric machine is capable of working with
high pressure but with a small flow. Machine speed is a parameter
that determines machine operation.
Depending on the purpose (head height, flow rate), the appropriate type of hydraulic
machine is chosen. Figure 6 shows the distribution of head by the flow rate of 3
popular types of hydraulic machines (volumetric machine, centrifugal vane machine,
axial guide vane machine) used in water pumps.

Figure 6. Head distribution to flow rate in some van machines

For centrifugal vane machines (Figure 7), the fluid enters the center of the rotors
with rotating blades and pushes the centrifuge outside which then is collected by a
collection chamber, and led to the exit. At high rotational speed, the fluid receives
large kinetic energy. The pressure difference between the outlet and inlet is produced
by the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure. Centrifugal vane machines are
used in many different fields. However, there are some limitations in terms of low
static pressure, noise, etc.

Figure 7. Centrifugal vane machine model

The characteristic quantities of centrifugal vane machines include:

Volume flow rate measured by barrier ring:

The velocity of fluid:

Total pressure:

With: (in SI Units)

𝑑 : flow barrier diameter
𝑃 : the pressure difference when passing through the flow barrier
𝜌 : the density of air
𝐶 : flow rate coefficient
𝐴 : cross-sectional area
𝑃 ,𝑃 : impeller front and rear pressure
𝑉 ,𝑉 : fan inlet and outlet velocities

2. Experiment equipment
The experimental set includes a centrifugal fan model as shown in Figure 8, an IDF7
data processor, and 2 impellers with different blades which are set in various
directions. The device is connected to the computer via the USB port.

Figure 8. Centrifugal fan model FM40

FM40 operates with one of two available impellers (backward-curved blades and
forward-curved blades) with rotational speed controlled by an interactive program.
The impeller is placed in the manifold and connected to two ducts (one is a suction
pipe, and one is a discharge pipe) placed at right angles to each other. On these two
pipes are sensors and other devices as follows (Figure 9):
 Suction pipe: sensor measures inlet pressure and pressure before the fan,
temperature sensor, honeycomb grid stabilizes the flow before it enters the
fan.
 Discharge pipe: sensor measures the fan outlet pressure, and a flow control
device.
There is also a torque sensor on the motor shaft.

Figure 9. Sensors and their function on the suction and discharge pipe

Note:
The flow control device does not keep a steady flow in case of being
nearly closed and small flow but will be more stable as the opening
gradually increases.
FM40's two impellers are numbered: (1) backward-curved blades and (2) forward-
curved blades as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. FM40's two impellers

 Note:
Impeller number 2 is out of the shaft, and the vibration is greatest when
the motor speed is 25%. Do not operate the device at this speed!
2.1. Experimental system set up
Connect the wires of the experimental system as shown in Figure 11. Then, turn on
the TOTAL and MAINS switches, the “Power” light is on when the power is on and
the “Active” light is on when the experiment device is connected to the computer.
Note:
- The TOTAL and MAINS switch must be in the OFF position during
the installation.
- Avoid multiple dismantle and assemble.

Figure 11. Connect the experiment device's wire

2.2. Interactive software

2.2.1. Installation
The FM40's interactive software connects to a computer via a USB port. There are
two versions of the program:
  FM40-306 (/FM40-306/Setup.exe): this is the old version of the program,
needs to be installed before use, and only accepts COM ports with values less
than 9.
 FM40-308 (/FM40 new Software/FM40/Program/Cs308.exe): this is the new
version, automatically scans COM ports, and runs immediately without
installation.
Note:
- In some cases, setting FM40-306 is required before using FM40-308.
If the computer does not automatically recognize the COM port, you
need to install Driver.
- Students may be asked to answer the multiple choice questions in the
FM40-306 software.

Figure 12. FM4 interactive program installation folder

2.2.2. Driver Installation Instruction

Right-click on My Computer → Manager → Select Device manager on the left
column. Check the Port (COM & LPT) folder → IDF7:
 If the yellow exclamation point appears, the driver is not installed. Right-click
and select Update driver software… Point to the FM40-306 folder for the
program to automatically install. Restart the computer and check the
connection;
 If there is no yellow exclamation point and the "Watchdog enable" indicator
on the interactive software lights up, the program has successfully connected.
2.2.3. User manual
This section will show how to use the FM40-306 program as well as how to use the
same FM40-308 (work on the larger icons in the left column).
 Figure 13. FM40-308 Windows

Figure 14. FM40-306 Windows

Functions in Figure 14:

Change the overview window, data, data table...

Data logging button

Set constants

Calculated/measured data about torque, angular velocity, flow

rate...
 Fan and fan velocity control…

Sensor values

Note:
Set the value of the sensor to 0 before recording data.
2.3. Noteworthy quantities
Constants:
 Impeller’s diameter D = 180 mm
 Flow rate coefficient Cd = 0.596
 Atmospheric pressure Pa = 101 kPa
 Gravity acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2
 The diameter of the suction pipe d1 = 95 mm
 The diameter of the discharge pipe d2 = 75 mm

Quantities Symbol

Measured values

The pressure difference between the fan

dpf = P2 – P1
inlet and outlet (Pa)

The pressure difference at the barrier ring

dp0
(Pa)

The motor shaft’s torque (Nm) t

Fluid temperature (oC) Ta

 Calculated values

Air density (kg/m3) 𝜌

Volume flow rate (m3/s) QV

Inlet velocity (m/s) V1= QV/A1

Outlet velocity (m/s) V2= QV/A2

Total pressure the fan supplied (Pa) (𝑣 − 𝑣 )𝜌

𝑃 = + (𝑃 − 𝑃 )
2

The mechanical power of the motor

𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑡/60
supplied to the impeller (W)

The power produced by the impeller

𝑃 =𝑄 𝑝
(energy supplied to the air stream) (W)

The energy conversion efficiency from 𝑃

𝐸 = × 100
mechanical to pressure (%) 𝑃

The rotational speed of the motor shaft

(rpm)

3. Lesson 1: The survey of the centrifugal fan characteristic

curve
3.1. Experiment purposes and requirements
Understand the method of surveying and plotting the characteristic curve of a
centrifugal fan when operating at a constant speed.
Students perform experiments at a constant engine rotational speed (FS = 100%),
collect the data, and draw the following graphs:
- The fan characteristic curve (types of pressure according to volume flow)
- Efficiency vs volume flow rate
Then comment on the trend of variation, and the extreme point of the quantities.
 3.2. Principle
Choosing the most suitable fan for the existing system is based on the fan
characteristics. The curve establishes the relation between the pressure generated by
the fan and the flow rate at a given engine speed, making the fan selection easier and
more precise.
3.3. Experiment operation
- Turn the fan outlet to the fully open mode. Set the maximum fan speed (FS =
100%) and then record the maximum fan flow rate. Then rotate the fan outlet
to the position where the flow is minimum and record this value. Press the
button to record the result at this location.
- Determine the flow rate step by dividing the range from the smallest to the
largest value into equal intervals (more than 10 intervals). The intervals
should take reasonable numbers that are easily manipulated.
- Slowly open the fan outlet; At the same time, observe the change in the flow
rate. When the flow rate values fluctuate around the value to get the results,
we stop changing at the mouth of the blower, wait for it to stabilize, and then
press the button to get the results. Continue to slowly open the fan outlet
with the flow rate increasing in increments and then do the same as above
until the result at maximum flow is obtained.
- Save experimental results (graphs, tables): File → Save As.

4. Lesson 2: The survey of the centrifugal fan dynamical

similarity
4.1. Experiment purposes and requirements
Prediction of the fan operation at one speed from another given speed based on
dynamic similarity.
Students perform experiments at 2 constant rotation speeds (3000 rpm and 1950
rpm), collect data, and draw the required graphs:
- Types of pressure, capacity, and efficiency according to volume flow rate at
2 different speeds. Draw similarity coefficient graphs to prove the accuracy
of the dynamic similarity.
- Or compute the similarity coefficients first, then predict the values at the 2nd
rate from the 1st, and then plot the calculated versus measured value.
 4.2. Principle
It is very difficult and impractical to test all types of fans at different speeds, the
dynamic similarity is used to predict the values of pressure, power, and flow rate of
one type of fan when the characteristics of another fan are known. Some of the
dimensionless quantities used in the dynamic analogy are:
Power coefficient: 𝐶 =
(6)

Flow rate coefficient: 𝐶 =

(7)

Head coefficient: 𝐶 =
(8)

Dynamic similarity helps us to easily control the factors affecting the results with
high accuracy. The accuracy is higher when more and more influencing factors are
considered in the similarity model such as friction, roughness, etc. Two fans are
considered to be dynamically similar with the following conditions:
- Have the same number of blades
- Have the same angular dimensions
- The linear dimensions are proportional to each other
Note:
Students prove the formulas from (6) to (8). Set up the formula for the
quantities of pressure, power, and flow rate of the 1st fan type from the
2nd fan type (supposing that we know its conditions).
4.3. Experiment operation
Do the same as Section 3.3 but with 2 other engine speeds.
Note:
Students manually change the engine speed from rpm to FS according
to a linear ratio.
Results can be rounded properly during operation.
 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM 1
This experiment includes three lessons:
- Lesson 1: Investigate the characteristic curve of the pump
- Lesson 2: Safety valve
- Lesson 3: Adjustable Throttle valve
- Lesson 4: Two-way hydraulic cylinder
- Lesson 5: Flow control valve
This course will cover the first and second lessons.

1. Theory of Hydraulics
Students revive their knowledge of hydraulics through the document Summary of
hydraulic theory.

2. Experiment equipment
The experiment equipment system includes the source station (oil pump and tank -
Figure 16), volumetric cylinder, pipes, valves, pressure gauges/ pressure indicators,
etc. as shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15. The experiment equipment system

 Figure 16. Source station

3. Lesson 1: Investigate the characteristic curve of the pump

3.1. Experiment requirements
Read and install the experiment diagram on the rack.
Find the pump characteristic curve (flow graph Q - pressure P) by the experiment
method.
Analyze the factors that affect measured results (viscosity, temperature...).
3.2. Principle
The hydraulic pump converts the mechanical energy of the pump into pressure. The
general characteristics of the pump are flow rate, pressure, efficiency, pump rotation
speed, and viscosity...
The type of pump used in the experiment is an external gear pump, which has a
constant flow rate at a specified rotational speed. But in fact, the flow characteristic
curve is slightly reduced due to the pressure difference between the pump inlet and
outlet (causing the loss in flow rate).
This experiment uses the following devices:
- DF2 Throttle Valve
- Pressure Gauges
- Timer
Because the test device does not have a sensor that directly measures the flow, it
must indirectly calculate the time to pump a certain volume through the volumetric
cylinder.
 3.3. Experiment operation
Step 1: Connect the wires according to Figure 17.

Figure 17. Equipment pipe connection diagram

Step 2: Turn on the breaker switch in mode I.

Step 3: Adjust the throttle valve.
Step 4: Press the button to start the pump, and to proceed to press the timer to count
the time needed for the oil level in the tank to go from 0.5 liters to 2 liters. Read the
pressure gauge.
Step 5: Turn off the pump, open the lock to drain the oil.
Step 6: Repeat the experiment with different throttle positions.
Note:
At least 2 students are required for a reasonable result. Carry out the test
at the same valve level at least twice.
Reading the number on the pressure gauge sometimes is very difficult to be accurate.
Students should take pictures (with notes) for easy data collection and re-checking
later.

4. Lesson 2: Safety valve

4.1. Experiment requirements
4.2. The safety valve
Safety valve is a valve whose function is to ensure the pressure is safe for the system
or part of the system to operate, and avoid damage caused by overpressure.
To directly investigate the operating characteristics of the safety valve, this valve
must be connected in parallel with the main element of the system such as the DF2
throttle valve, DF1 speeder, DZ2 pressure gauge, etc. The oil passing through the
safety valve is one parameter of the characteristic curve, the other parameter is the
system pressure.
This experiment uses the following devices:
- Safety valve DD1
- Speed governor/ speeder DF1
- Pressure gauge DDZ1
- Timer
4.3. Experiment requirements
Step 1: Connect the wires as shown in Figure 18.
Step 2: Check the connections between the valve and the meter.
Step 3: Close fully the DF1 governor; Start the pump, and adjust the pressure on the
safety valve DD1 to 25 bar, 30 bar, and 35 bar.
Step 4: For each pressure level of the safety valve, adjust the pressure of the pressure
gauge by the speed control valve according to the pressure levels in the data table.
Using a timer measure the flow time in a volumetric cylinder from 0.5 liter to 1.5
liter. Record the results in the data table. Then repeat the experiment with different
pressure conditions.
Note:
At least 2 students are required for a reasonable result.
 Figure 18. Connection diagram of the safety valve device

5. Sample data table

Lesson 1:

Average
Volume V Pumping Pressure P Flow rate
Valve level flow rate Q
(l) time t (s) (bar) Q (l/s)
(l/s)

Lesson 2:
- Safety valve at 25 bar
Volume V (l) Pressure P (bar) Pumping time t (s) Flow rate Q (l/s)

15

20

25

- Safety valve at 30 bar

Volume V (l) Pressure P (bar) Pumping time t (s) Flow rate Q (l/s)

15

20

25

30

- Safety valve at 35 bar

Volume V (l) Pressure P (bar) Pumping time t (s) Flow rate Q (l/s)

15

20

25

30

35
 EXPERIMENT OF FLOW-MEASURING
APPARATUS

1. Experiment objectives

The Flow-Measuring Apparatus is designed to accustom students to typical

methods of measuring the discharge of an essentially incompressible fluid, whilst
at the same time giving applications of the Steady-Flow Energy Equation
(Bernoulli's Equation). The discharge is determined using a venturi meter, an
orifice plate meter and a rotameter. Head losses associated with each meter are
determined and compared as well as those arising in a rapid enlargement and a
90-degree elbow.

2. Basic theory
2.1. The steady-flow energy equation

Figure 19. The steady-flow energy equation

For steady, adiabatic flow of an incompressible fluid along a stream tube, as shown
in Figure 3, Bernoulli's equation can be written in the form:

+ +𝑧 = + + 𝑧 + ∆𝐻 (1)

Where
 : is termed the hydrostatic head

: is termed the kinetic head z

+ + 𝑧: represents the total head

The head loss ∆𝐻 may be assumed to arise as a consequence of vortices in the

stream. Because the flow is viscous a wall shear stress then exists and a pressure
force must be applied to overcome it. The consequent increase in flow work appears
as increased internal energy. Also, because the flow is viscous the velocity profile
at any section is non-uniform. The kinetic energy per unit mass at any section is
then greater than V2/2g and Bernoulli's equation incorrectly assesses this term. The
fluid mechanics entailed in all but the very simplest internal flow problems is too
complex to permit the head loss ∆𝐻 to be obtained by other than experiential
means. Since a contraction of stream boundaries can be shown (with
incompressible fluids) to increase flow uniformity and a divergence
correspondingly decreases it,∆𝐻 is typically negligibly small between the ends of
a contracting duct but is normally significant when the duct walls diverge.
2.2. CALCULATIONS
The venturi meter, the orifice plate meter and the rotameter are all dependent upon
Bernoulli's equation for their principal of operation. The following have been prepared
from a typical set of results to show the form of calculations.

(Rotameter)
(Wide-angle
diffuser) (Orifice meter)
(Head tubes)

(Flow inlet)

Figure 20: Venturi tube

2.2.1. Calculations of Discharge

a) Venturi Meter
Since ΔH12 is negligibly small between the ends of a contracting duct it, along with the Z
terms, can be omitted from Equation (1) between stations (A) and (B).

From continuity: 𝜌𝑉 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑉 𝐴
/
The discharge: 𝑄 = 𝑉 𝐴 = 𝐴 ( )
−
/ 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

With the apparatus provided, the bores of the meter at (A) and (B) are 26mm and 16mm
respectively. Thus:
𝐴𝐵
= 0.38 and 𝐴𝐵 = 2.01 × 10 (𝑚 )
𝐴𝐴

1
Since g = 9.81 m/s2 and , are the respective heights of the manometric tubes A and B
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
in meters, we have from Equation (2):

𝑄 = 9.62 × 10 (ℎ − ℎ ) 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠

 
1/2
  0.962 hA  hB
The mass flow: m kg/s

h  hB 
1/2
e.g. if hA  375 mm and hB  110 mm , therefore A
 0.51 and
  0.962  0.51  0.49 kg/s
m
(The corresponding weigh tank assessment was 0.48 kg/s)
b) Orifice Meter
Between tapping’s (E) and (F) ∆H12 in Equation (1) is by no means negligible. Re-
writing the equation with the appropriate symbols:

VF2 VE2  pE pF 
   
2g 2g  g g 

The effect of the head loss is to make the difference in manometric height,
 hE  hF  less than it would otherwise be. An alternative expression is
VF2 VE2 p p 
  K2  E  E 
g g  g g 

where the coefficient of discharge K is given by previous experience in BS1042 (1943)*

for the particular geometry of the orifice meter. For the apparatus provided K is given
as 0.601.
Reducing the expression in exactly the same way as for venturi meter,
1/ 2
  
  2g  pE pF  
Q  A F VF  k 
 1  A / A 2   g g  
  F E   

Since with the apparatus provided, the bore at (E) is 51.9 mm and at (F) is 20 mm,
Since:

Q  8.46104  hE  hF 
1/2
m3/s

2
  
1/2
  0.846 hE  hF
And m kg/s

c) Rotameter

Figure 21: Rotameter

Observation of the recordings for the pressure drop across the rotameter (H)-(I) shows that this
difference is large and virtually independent of discharge. Though there is a term which arises
because of wall shear stresses and which is therefore velocity dependent, since the rotameter is of
large bore this term is small. Most of the observed pressure difference is required to maintain the
float in equilibrium and as the float is of constant weight, this pressure difference is independent
of discharge.

The cause of this pressure difference is the head loss associated with the high velocity of water
around the float periphery. Since this head loss is constant then the peripheral velocity is constant.
To maintain a constant velocity with varying discharge rate, the cross-sectional area through which
this high velocity occurs must vary. This variation of cross-sectional area will arise as the float
move up and down the tapered rotameter tube.

3
From Figure 5.1, if the float radius is Rf , and the local bore of the rotameter tube
is Rt , then

 
 R2t  R2f  2R2f   Cross-sectional area=
Discharge
Constant peripheral velocity

Now    , where l is the distance from datum to the cross-section at which the local bore
is R,  is the semi-angle of tube taper. Hence, l is proportional to discharge. An
approximately linear calibration characteristic would be anticipated for the rotameter.

Figure 22: Typical rotameter calibration curve

2.2.2. Calculations of Head Loss

By reference to Equation (1) the head loss associated with each meter can be
evaluated.
a) Venturi Meter
Applying the equation between pressure tappings (A) and (C):
− = 𝛥𝐻 => hA  hC  H AC

4
 V A2
This can be made dimensionless by dividing it by the inlet kinetic head
2g

2g  p A pB 
Now: VB2    
1 A B / A A   g 
2
 g

And: VA  VB  A B / A A 
2 2 2

Thus:

 AB    pA pB  
2

 1
V 
2
 2 
 
 A A   1   A B / A A   g g  
A

With the apparatus provided A B / A A  0.38 therefore the inlet kinetic head is::

VA2 p p 
 0.1441.16 A  B   0.167 hA  hB 
2g  g g 
For example if::
hA  375mm
hB  110mm
hC  350mm

Then:
 H AC  hA  hC  25mm
VA2
 0,167  265  44.26mm
2g

25
Therefore: Head loss   0.565 inlet kinetic heads.
44.26
b) Orifice Meter
Applying Equation (1) between (E) and (F) by substituting kinetic and hydrostatic
heads would give an elevated value to the head loss for the meter. This is because at
an obstruction such as an orifice plate, there is a small increase in pressure on the
pipe wall due to part of the impact pressure on the plate being conveyed to the pipe

5
wall. BS 1042 (Section 1.1 1981) gives an approximate expression for finding the
head loss and generally this can be taken as 0.83 times the measured head difference.
Therefore:
HEF  0.83 hE  hF  mm
 0.83 372  40 mm  275mm

The orifice plate diameter (51.9 mm) is approximately twice the venturi inlet
diameter (26 mm), therefore the orifice inlet kinetic head is approximately 1/16 that
44.26
of the venturi, thus:  2.76
16
Therefore:
275
Head loss   99.62 inlet kinetic heads
2.76
c) Rotameter

Figure 23: Rotameter head loss

For this meter, application of Equation (1) gives

6
Then as illustrated in Figure 5.3:

Inspection of the table of experimental results shows that this head loss is virtually
independent of discharge and has a constant value of approximately 100 rom of
water. As has already been shown, this is a characteristic property of the rotameter.
For comparative purposes it could be expressed in terms of the inlet kinetic head.
However, when the velocity is very low the head loss remains the same and so
becomes many, many times the kinetic head.
It is instructive to compare the head losses associated with the three meters with
those associated with the rapidly diverging section, or wide-angled diffuser, and with
the right-angled bend or elbow. The same procedure is adopted to evaluate these
losses.
d) Wide-Angled Diffuser
The inlet to the diffuser may be considered to be at (C) and the outlet at (D).
Applying Equation (1):

Since the area ratio, inlet to outlet, of the diffuser is 1 :4,

the outlet kinetic head is 1/16 of the inlet kinetic head
For example if:

Then

7
Inlet kinetic head = 44.26 mm
(See venturi meter head loss calculations). The corresponding outlet kinetic head is:
Outlet kinetic head = 44.6/16=2.8 mm

Therefore: Head loss = 31.46/44.26=0.71 inlet kinetic heads

e) Right-Angled Bend
The inlet to the bend is at (G) where the pipe bore is 51.9 mIn and outlet is at (H) where
the bore is 40 mIn. Applying Equation (1 ):

The outlet kinetic head is now 2.8 times the inlet kinetic head. For example if:

And
Inlet kinetic head = 2.76 mrn
Outlet kinetic head = 7.73 mrn
Then

Therfore: Head loss = 5.03/2.76 = 1.82 inlet kinetic heads

8
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS
3.1. Device construction
The apparatusis shown in Figure 6.

Figure 24: Flow measurement apparatus

3.2. Operating principle

Water from the Hydraulic Bench enters the equipment through a venturi meter, which
consists of a gradually-converging section, followed by a throat. and a long gradually-
diverging section. After a change in cross-section through a rapidly diverging section. the
flow continues along a settling length and through an orifice plate meter. This is
manufactured in accordance with BSI042. from a plate with a hole of reduced diameter
through which the fluid flows.

9
Following a further settling length and a right-angled bend, the flow enters the rotameter.
This consists of a transparent tube in which a float takes up an equilibrium position. The
position of this float is a measure of the flow rate.
After the rotameter the water returns via a control valve to the Hydraulic Bench, where the
flow rate can be evaluated. The equipment has nine pressure tappings (A to I) as detailed
in Figure 2.2, each of which is connected to its own manometer for immediate read out.
3.3. Operation steps
(Air purge-valve)

(Main valve)

10
Step 1: Connect the supply hose from the hydraulic bench to the inlet of the venturi meter
and secure with a hose clip. Connect a hose to the control valve outlet and direct its free
end into the bench measuring device.
Before continuing, refer to the hydraulic bench manual to find the method of flow
evaluation.
Step 2: Turn on pump.
Step 3: Open the bench valve fully. Then open main valve fully to allow rotameter
indicating the ceiling level. Waiting for water fill full the Manometer Tubes.
Step 4: Close the main valve completely. Then close the bench valve completely. Open
1/3 of the main valve. Then push and hold air purge-valve to let the air flow with the
Manometer Tubes. Continue to push and hold air purge-valve in combination with slightly
opening the main valve to decrease the water level in the Manometer Tubes. When the
water level in the Manometer Tubes drops steadily to 110 mm, immediately close the main
valve. Stop pushing the air purge-valve. Then the water level in the Manometer Tubes will
be equal at 110 mm.
Step 5: Open the bench valve fully.
Step 6: Adjust the flow rate in the system by turning the main valve while observing the
float position in the rotameter at 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130,

11
140, 150, 160, 170. At each position, record the head of water columns in Manometer
Tubes.
Step 7: Repeat step 6 10 times. Record the data of each measurement according to the
table.
Step 8: Turn off the pump, wait for the water to completely drain from the system. Lock
bench valve and main valve.

Form of results
Test number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A
B

Manometric C
levels
D

E
F
G
H
I

Rotameter (cm)

Water, W (kg)

Time, (sec)

Mass flow Venturi (8)

rate (kg/s)
Orifice (11)

Rotameter

Weigh tank

DH/ inlet Venturi (13)

kinetic head
Orifice (14)

Rotameter

Diffuser (16)

12
 Elbow (17)

4. Experiment report
- Calculating the discharge by each equipment.
- Evaluating head loss at local locations when flow rate in the system changes.
Explain.

13
 A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE THEORY OF
HYDRAULICS
1. The theory of hydraulics
1.1. Fluids
Fluids are divided into two types: gases (highly compressible) and liquids (less
compressible). During the movement of the fluid, the binding force between the fluid
molecules creates a force that resists this movement. This property of a fluid is its viscosity:
 An ideal fluid is one in which the molecules of the fluid move without resistance
between one molecule and another.
 A real fluid is a fluid in which the molecules of the fluid slide these molecules over
other molecules with a definite resistance.
All the fluids we use are real fluids, so it's important to take account of their viscous
properties as soon as they're in motion.
1.2. Hydrostatic
Hydrostatics studies the properties of a fluid when it is at rest, especially the problem of
pressure transfer. In hydrostatics, the laws established for ideal fluids are still applicable to
real fluids.
Pressure: force per unit area (1 Pa = 1 N/m2; 1 Bar = 105 Pa)
1.3. The pressure difference
Atmospheric pressure (Pa): used in storage tanks, allowing power to the pumps.
Atmospheric pressure fluctuates around 1.033 Bar.
Pressure in a fluid at rest: caused by the weight of the liquid column. 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ (h is the
height of the liquid column). This results in an increase of 1 bar in pressure for every 10 m
of water column.
Pressure exerted by an external force on a fluid in a closed volume.
Pascal's Law: The pressure exerted on a fluid at rest is transmitted to all of the elements
of the fluid. Usually it will act on interactive surfaces. This property is used for the
transmission of forces (pressures) in hydraulics.
Energy transfer: the work generated during the force (pressure) transmission in hydraulics
is conserved ⇒ tensile strain = resistance strain.

14
 1.4. Hydrodynamics (Hydrodynamique)
Hydrodynamics studies the properties of fluids in motion. A fluid in motion is
characterized by its pressure and flow. Due to the influence of viscosity, internal resistance
will appear when there is a difference in velocities between the molecular layers in the
fluid. Dynamic pressure is the pressure produced by the kinetic energy of the fluid:
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉 /2
Flow rate is the volume of fluid that moves across an area perpendicular to the direction of
motion in a unit of time (The unit of flow is m3/s).
Average volume flow rate: 𝑄 = 𝑆. 𝑉 (𝑚 /𝑠)
Average mass flow rate: 𝑄 = 𝜌. 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆. 𝑉 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠)
Flow conservation: The flow rate Q is constant at every point in the same motion circuit,
the velocity of the fluid will change depending on the change of the cross-sectional area at
each survey point.
𝑄 = 𝑆 𝑉 = 𝑆 𝑉 = 𝑆 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1.5. Different types of energy
In a moving fluid medium, energy manifests itself in the following three states:
Potential energy: depends on the weight of the liquid column relative to the survey point
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ (𝐽)
Kinetic energy: is the form of energy stored during motion
𝑊 = (1/2)𝑚𝑣 (𝐽)
Pressure: is the form of energy transferred by pressure on a moving fluid
𝑊 = 𝑃. 𝑆. 𝐼 = 𝑃. 𝑉 = 𝑃. 𝑚/𝜌 (𝐽)
In hydraulic transmission, all three forms of energy exist.
1.6. Bernoulli relation
Bernoulli equation: “in a steady state of motion, in an ideal incompressible fluid, the sum
of the changes in kinetic energy, potential energy, and pressure energy is zero”
1 𝑚
𝑚 (𝑣 − 𝑣 ) + 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − ℎ ) + (𝑃 − 𝑃 ) = 0
2 𝜌

15
 1.7. Notes on different levels of pressures
Static pressure: is the form of pressure transmitted by the pump or generator. Depending
on the circuit design, the static pressure can range from 50-80 bars and 300-400 bars.
Pressure caused by the weight of the column of fluid: expressed in form of 𝜌𝑔ℎ. Usually
this form of pressure has a very small value compared to the static pressure generated by
the pump or generator.
Dynamic pressure: represents the kinetic energy of the fluid, (𝜌𝑉 /2), which is even
smaller than the pressure due to the weight of the fluid column in many cases

2. Flow
2.1. Schiller – Reynolds experiment

2.2. Flow regimes

Laminar Flow: This flow regime is characterized by its fluid layers, these layers are thin,
parallel, and pull each other due to the influence of the viscous drag. The laminar flow
velocity is achieved at the axis of the pipe. The cross-sectional velocity distribution will
have a characteristic parabolic shape. In a steady laminar flow, the average velocity of the
fluid will equal half the value of the maximum velocity.
𝑉
𝑉 = ⇒ 𝑄 = 𝑆. 𝑉
2

16
Turbulent Flow: When the velocity of the fluid in the tube increases, the mutual sliding
between the layers of the laminar flow will no longer be the same, instead the vortices will
appear, represent the mutual mixing of the flow. In steady-state turbulence, the average
velocity of the fluid in the tube will be within 0.84 times the value of the maximum
velocity.
2.3. Reynolds number
In Reynolds' experiment, the survey flow moves in a circular tube with constant diameter,
and haves unchanged properties. After studying the transition from laminar to turbulent
flows, the physicist Reynolds determined there is a factor influencing this change of flow
dynamics, which he called the Reynolds number.
𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈
(with v: velocity – m/s; d: the pipe diameter – m; 𝜈 - kinematic viscosity - 𝑚 /𝑠)
Reynolds number is a dimensionless number.
For flow in a circular tube, in general, the flow will be laminar if Re < 2000, turbulent if
Re > 3000. The flow regime region with Re number between 2000 and 3000 is an unstable
flow.
2.4. The flow velocity
Because the energy loss in the turbulent flow mode is usually much larger compared to that
of the laminar flow, so for the flow in the pipe, in order to keep the laminar flow regime,
practically, we often apply the following fluid velocity levels:
- In the suction part, from 0.6 to 1.2 m/s
- At the push part, from 3 to 6 m/s
- In return lines, from 2 to 3 m/s
- In channels, ducts, from 1 to 1.5 m/s
The above values are average values applied to hydraulic oils with a viscosity between 2.8
and 4.5oE, and with a density between 0.85 and 0.9.
2.5. Types of energy loss
The relation of Bernoulli's equation with the ideal fluid: is the case when the system
supplies energy to the external environment, then the energy supplied is the difference
among all of the energy forms when the system transits from State 1 to State 2:

17
 1 1
𝑊 = 𝑉 −𝑉 + 𝑔(ℎ − ℎ ) + (𝑃 − 𝑃 ) (𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
2 𝜌
The relation of Bernoulli's equation with viscous fluids: a real fluid is a fluid in which
viscosity is not neglected. This property gives extra internal drag when the fluid is in
motion. The energy absorbed by viscous drag is the loss of energy. This form of energy
loss is usually denoted J, then the Bernoulli equation for the real fluid will take the form
as:
1 1
𝑊 −𝐽 = 𝑉 −𝑉 + 𝑔(ℎ − ℎ ) + (𝑃 − 𝑃 ) (𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
2 𝜌
The general equation of linear energy loss of flow in pipe: It has been shown
experimentally that for a smooth straight pipe, the energy loss along the path of the flow in
this case can be expressed by the following equation:
𝐿𝑉
𝐽=𝜆 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
𝐷 2
where L is the pipe length (m); D is the pipe diameter (m); v is the flow velocity (m/s); 𝜆
is the energy loss coefficient along the pipe. This is a dimensionless coefficient that
depends on the Reynolds number and the internal surface roughness of the tube.

3. Viscosity (La viscosite)

3.1. Dynamic viscosity (La viscosite dynamique, μ)
Characterizes the resistance between layers of the fluid in motion. Accordingly, the
resistance generated between the fluid layers in the pipeline will:
 Proportional to the viscosity of the fluid, the surface area of the moving fluid, and
the velocity difference between the begin-to-end fluid layers
 Inversely proportional to the distance between the investigated fluid surfaces
𝐹 𝑑𝑙
𝜇=
𝑆 𝑑𝑣
×
SI unit of dynamic viscosity: 𝜇 = = 𝑃𝐼(𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒)

The absolute viscosity of water at 20oC is 0.01 poise (= 1 centipoise).

3.2. Kinematic viscosity (La viscosité cinématique, ν)
Is the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the density of the fluid:

18
 𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌
The unit of kinematic viscosity in the SI system is m 2/s
Stockes (St): 1 St = 10-4 m2/s; 1 cSt = 1/100 St = 10-6 m2/s
The kinematic viscosity of water at 20oC is 1 cSt.
3.3. Relative viscosity (La viscosité relative)
In practice, to determine kinematic viscosity, it is common to compare the drain time of a
definite volume of that fluid at a reference temperature (usually 50°C) with the drain time
of the same volume of water at 20°C.
There are many types of viscometers designed based on the above principle. The common
use in Europe are Engler viscometers; and the US and UK use the Saybolt viscometer...
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 200 𝑐𝑚 𝑑 ℎ𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 200 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐸 = =
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 200 𝑐𝑚 𝑒𝑎𝑢 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 200 𝑐𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

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 3.4. The viscosity change
At a constant temperature, the viscosity increases with pressure; whereas at a constant
pressure, the viscosity will decrease very sharply with the increase of temperature.
3.5. Fluids used in the hydraulic systems
Fluids used in hydraulic systems are divided into two main groups: petroleum and non-
combustible fluids.
The petroleum group (Huiles minérales) is divided into 4 types according to its
characteristic properties:
 HH group: are refined, processed petroleum oils. It has poor lubricity.
 HL group: are petroleum oils with anti-oxidation and anti-corrosion properties.
 HM group: are HL group oils with enhanced anti-usure ability. The petroleum oils
in this group are divided into 7 viscosity grades/ degrees (at a reference temperature
of 40℃): 15 – 22 – 32 – 46 – 68 – 100 – 150.
 HV group: are HM group oils with enhanced ability to minimize the effect of
viscosity with temperature. The petroleum oils of this group are divided into 6
viscosity grades/degrees (at a reference temperature of 40℃): 22 – 32 – 46 – 68 –
100 – 150

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