Ancient Ind

Project Completion Report:- File No.
47 - 488/12 (WRO) Pune
Contribution of Indian Mathematicians with special

reference to Madhava & their today’s relevance.
SUBMITTED TO
The Additional Secretary
University Grants Commission,
Western Regional office
Poona University Campus,
Ganesh Khind, Pune – 411 007
By
Sanjay Madhukarrao Deshpande

Associate Professor, Bhawabhuti Mahavidyalaya, Amgaon
And
Dr.Anant Wasudeo Vyawahare

Retired Professor, M.Mohata science college, Nagpur
Name of the College

Bhawabhuti Mahavidyalaya, Amgaon
Distt. Gondia 441 902
(Affiliated to RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur)
October 2015
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Chapter 1
THE ŚULBASŪTRAS
(Vedāṅga Jyotisa, 4)
“Like the crests on the head of peacock, like the gems on the
hoods of the cobras, Mathematics is at the top of the Vedāṅga Śāstras”
Key words: Śulbasūtras, Baudhāyana
Introduction
The above śhloka in Sanskrit shows the importance given to

mathematics among all branches of knowledge from Vedic period.
Śulbasūtras is the only first significant and authentic mathematical text of
Vedic time. Śulbasūtras is a part of kalpa Vedāṅga.
The Śulbasūtras are of great importance because these deal with

rules for the measurement and construction of different types of fire places
and altars ( ). These rules of construction of altars were used
regularly in everyday life in those days. This is geometrical construction
using compass (rope) and ruler.
There are nine Śulbasūtras existing. Four of them are significant in

mathematics named by Vedic scholars Baudhāyana, Āpastamba, Mānava
and Kātyāyana. The Śulbasūtras contain rich principles of mathematics,
basically of ‘geometry’. The outstanding feature of Śulbasūtras is
consistency and completeness of geometrical results and application of
these results in actual construction shows that Śulbasūtras have deeper
significance.
1. Period and place
There are differences of opinion about the place and time of the
authors of the Śulbasūtras. Baudhāyana and Āpastamba belong to south
India but their native places are not exactly known.
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The period of individual Śulbasūtras is Baudhāyana 800-500 B.C.,
Āpastamba and Mānava 650-300 B.C., Kātyāyana 300- 100 B.C.
Baudhāyana Śulbasūtras contain 285 sūtras in 21 chapters, Āpastamba
Śulbasūtras contain 202 sūtras in 21 chapters, Mānava Śulbasūtras contain
228 sūtras in 16 chapters Kātyāyana Śulbasūtras contain 67 sūtras in 6
chapters.
The word Śulba does not occur anywhere in the Śulbasūtras. The
meaning of Śulba is ‘To measure’ and Sūtras means rajju or ‘rope’ so
Śulbasūtras means measuring tape or a cord. The Śulbasūtras were
considered as instruction manual for the construction of altars and
fireplaces. Hence Śulbasūtras basically contain geometry of construction.
In Baudhāyana and Āpastamba Śulbasūtras contain separate section

devoted to geometry. The geometrical content of the Śulbasūtras are
broadly classified in three categories (1) Theorems, (2) Geometrical
construction, and (3) the geometrical truths present in these construction.
2. Basic construction in planer geometry
The Śulbasūtras contain the methods of construction in planer

regular figures such as squares, rectangles, isosceles (symmetric)
trapezium, triangles and circle. Many of these figures are bilateral
symmetric. Basic construction starts with drawing east-west line which is
line of symmetry and perpendicular to this line.
(i) Determining East-West line
The basic thing in the construction of all altars is to draw east-west

line because of the importance attached to their direction. This east-west
line is line of symmetry also. The east- west line is called Prāci ( ).
And Kātyāyana gives the detailed procedure for the construction of Prāci.
(K.Sl.I.2)
Meaning: - “Fix a pole (or gnomon) on a ground level at O, draw a

circle ERW with radius equal to OR. E and W are the eastern and western
shadow points of the pole at O intersecting the circle ERW on the
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equinoctial day. Point W will be obtained in the morning and the point E
will be obtained in the evening. The straight line joining the points E and
W is the East-West Line which is Prāci ( )”.
This line is fixed and it is base line for all directions. Line NS is
perpendicular bisector of line EW at O which is North-South line called
udῑcῑ. There are many methods in Śulbasūtras to draw perpendicular
bisector. We will discuss some of them.
(ii) Perpendicular bisector of a given line

Method 1
This method was explained by Kātyāyana after determining east-

west line for fixing north-south line called udῑcῑ.
Meaning :- Then after doubling cord (double length EW) two loops are
fixed at the two poles of the Prāci (at E and W) and the cord is stretched
towards south by its middle point where a pole is fixed (Pole is fixed at O).
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The same is repeated to the north. The joining the two poles is the north-
south line.
This is as that of modern method of drawing the perpendicular
bisector of a line. Instead of drawing intersecting arcs to get two points
equidistant from the ends of the line, isosceles triangle are drawn on either
sides of the line with the line as base and their vertices are joined.
Method 2
In this method instead of using two arcs of circle two circles are used
resulting beautiful diagram and beautiful result.
Given two circles of equal radii intersect each other; the line joining
their centres is always perpendicular to the line joining their two points of
intersection. Also the line joining centres get bisected.
This method is known as ‘Fish’ method.
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Above two methods give us perpendicular bisector of a given line
which is a east-west line.
Method 3
This method is used to draw a perpendicular on a given line. This has

many applications in the construction of figures containing right angle
(square, rectangle). The result used is converse of Baudhāyana theorem
(converse of Pythagoras theorem).
In a triangle with sides p, q, r if r2 = p2 + q2 then the sides with

lengths p and q are perpendicular to each other. This method of
construction of perpendicular is called ‘Nyanchana’.
i) Let PQ be given measure (Pramāna).

ii) Let PQ = a. Now increase the chord PQ to PR so that PR = 2a.
iii) Let S is the middle point of QR so that QS=SR=a/2.
iv) T is middle point of QS so that QT = TS = a/4.
PT = PQ+PT = a + a/4 = 5a/4
TR = PR – PT = 2a – 5a/4 = 3a/4
If M and N are any two points on plane also MN = PQ = a. Now fix

point P of the rope at M and point R at N. Now stretch the rope holding the
point T we obtain the triangle PRT. So that PR = a, RT = 3a/2, PT = 5a/2
now sides RT, PR and PT are in the proportion 3:4:5 and 32 + 42 = 52
then ∠ PRT is right angle and triangle PRT is right angled triangle.
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In Śulbasūtras PR is always stretched along east-west line, known
as ‘Pārśvamāni’. RT along north-south known as ‘Triyaṅmāni’. PT along
the diagonal known as ‘Akṣṇayārajju’
Other Baudhāyana triplets are also found in Śulbasūtras and used

for the construction of right angle using ‘Nyanchana’method is one of
them is (5, 12, 13). More triplets will be discussed in the construction of
‘Mahāvedi’.
3. Construction of a square of given side
Method 1
There are many methods of construction of square with given side.
This method gives beautiful geometrical pattern.
(B.Sl. I 22-28)
Explanation
Let PQ be the given chord (Measure or Pramāna). We construct a

square of this side.
1) Let EW, the Prāci (east-west line) so that EW = PQ.

2) Draw a circle with centre W and radius EW.
3) Draw a circle with centre E and radius EW.
4) Draw a straight line through the point of intersection of these two
circles (the points of intersections are N and S).
5) O is the point of intersection of EW and NS.
6) Draw a circle whose centre is O and radius is OE.
7) This circle passes through four points E, N’, W and S’
8) Draw four circles whose centre is E, N’, W and S’ and radius is OE.
9) We obtain four points of intersection A, B, C and D of these four
circles.
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10) Join these four points. We obtain a square ABCD of given length PQ.
Method 2
Many times it becomes difficult to construction a square by drawing

such a large number of circles. This method is an extension of construction
of Right Angled Triangle.
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We have seen the in method 3, how to draw a perpendicular on
the given line. Now it is easy to see how right angled triangle PRT is used
in the construction of the square. The corner W, X, Y and Z are fixed using
point T of triangle PRT. Using the half chord SR the point A, B, C and D
are marked such that AR = RB = PC = PD. Then ABCD is required square.
There are five methods to draw a square in Śulbasūtras. We can construct

a rectangle and trapezium using above method.
4. Theorem of square of the diagonal
The actual enunciation of the theorem (on the diagonal) in the

Śulbasūtras is not with respected to right angled triangle but with respect to
the sides and diagonals of rectangles and squares.
Meaning: - “The diagonal cord of a rectangle makes both (the squares)

that the vertical sides and the horizontal sides make separately”.
In case of square the statement is
Meaning: - “The diagonal cord of a square makes double the area”.
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Baudhāyana had a clear understanding of this result and its usefulness
also. A square equal to sum of two unequal squares and a square equal
to difference of two unequal squares (Combinations of areas).
5. Construction of Mahavedi (construction of trapezium)
Mahavedi has the shape of symmetric (isosceles) trapezium. Base

is 30 units, height is 36 units, and side opposite to base is 24 units. The
construction of Mahavedi is based on Nyanchana method. Āpastamba
gives four methods for the construction of Mahavedi.
First method is called as ‘Ekarajjuvidhi’ (one rope method). Other

method involves two ropes. Rope used in method has length 54 units, with
mark at 36 (EW) and 12 units from the two ends respectively (AE or BE)
and third mark is in the middle of remaining middle of 6 units. So the rope
is subdivided into two parts 15 units and 39 units. Using these units we can
fix the points A, B, C and D.
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Triplets involved in this method are (12,16,20), (15,20,25), (8,15,17),
(5,12,13), (15,36,39). From right angled (BE-EM-MB) and other similar
right angled triangles.
6. Combinations of areas
The Baudhāyana theorem is applied in the finding a square whose

area is equal to the sum of areas of two unequal given squares and also to
find a square whose area is equal to difference of area of two unequal
squares.
(i) To find a square whose area is equal to the sum of areas of two
unequal given squares.
A B A F B
P Q
+ =
D C S R D E C
Figure 1.8
Let ABCD and PQRS be two squares of unequal sides and we have to
find a square whose area is equal to area of these two squares. Put smaller
square on larger square so that one corner and two sides coincide. Extend
the side smaller square so that we obtain a rectangle AFED. Diagonal of
this square is DF. A square whose side is DF is a square whose area is sum
of area of two squares.
It follows from the fact (DE) 2 + (EF) 2 = (DF) 2
and AD = EF, SR = DE
This is direct application of Baudhāyana theorem
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(ii) To find a square whose area is equal to difference of areas of two
unequal given squares
A B A F B
P Q G
- =
D C S R D E C
Figure 1.9
Let ABCD is larger square and PQRS is smaller square. Obtain

square AFED as in the last case. Now DA is drawn diagonally across with
D fixed till T touches EF at point G. Now EG is the side of required square.
DG = AD and (DG) 2 – (DE) 2 = (EG) 2
7. Transformations of Areas (Figures)
Interesting results of transformation of area are

(1) To construct a square equal to a given rectangle in area and vice-versa.
(2) To construct a triangle equivalent to a given square in area,
(3) To construct a square equivalent to a given isosceles in area. etc
To obtain such transformation of areas, rule of sum of two squares and

subtraction of two squares is used.
(7a)To convert a rectangle in to a square
If ABCD is given rectangle, a square AB2C2D with side AD is

cut off. The remaining rectangle B2BCC2 is divided in to two equal strips
B2B1C1C2 and B1BCC1. Strip B1BCC1 is cut and attached to side DC2. Now
we obtain two squares AB1FC and C2C1FB. Using (find a square whose
area is equal to difference of area of two unequal given squares) we obtain
a square of side B2H whose area is equal to area of given rectangle.
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Using (find a square whose area is equal to difference of area of
two unequal given squares) we obtain a square of side B2H whose area is
equal to area of given rectangle. This is also application of Baudhāyana
theorem.
Similarly many applications are in Śulbasūtras, some of them are :
(i) To convert a square in a rectangle,
(ii) To convert a rectangle or a square in to a symmetric trapezium,
(iii) To convert a trapezium into rectangle,
(iv) To convert isosceles triangle in a square and vice-versa
8. Conversions
(i) To convert a square into a circle (Circling the square)
No geometrical method converts a circle into square of same area

exactly. Śulbasūtras gives approximate construction. If a is the side of
rectangle and r is the radius of circle then
a (2  2 )
r *
2 3
The approximate value of π calculated with this value of r is π ≈
3.088 (which is not correct). The approximate value of 2 is calculated in
Śulbasūtras as 2 ≈ 1.414215.
(ii) To convert a circle into a square (Squaring the circle)
If d is the diameter of given circle then a square of same area has side a
then
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28 1 1
a  d (1    )
8 * 29 6 * 8 * 29 6 * 8 * 29 * 8
The approximate value of π calculated is 3.004.
9. The square root of 2
Baudhāyana, Āpastamba and Kātyāyana Śulbasūtras stated the value

of 2 in combining two squares of equal areas, in this case square has side
2a . The diagonal of a square of side a is 2a .
The measure should be increased by one third of itself which again is

increased by its one fourth and diminished by 1/34 th of that (second)
increment.
1 1 1
2  1  
3 3 * 4 3 * 4 * 34
By this method 2 = 1.414215 used in finding the diagonal of a square.
10. Summary
Śulbasūtras contain properties of the square, rectangle, rhombus,

trapezium, and triangle and circle also. Depending on this fact some
interesting results observed in Śulbasūtras are given below.
(A) Basic constructions.
1) Given line segment can be divided in any number of equal parts.

Use of this result is observed in the construction of right angle using
‘Nyanchana’method in case of (5, 12, 13), and also in finding square
root and squaring the circle.
2) A line perpendicular to a given line can be drawn.
3) Construction of square of given side.
4) Construction of rectangle of given length and breadth.
5) Construction of isosceles trapezium of given altitude, face and base.
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6) A circle can be divided into any number of parts with the use of
diameter.
(B) Geometrical theorems mentioned or implied in the construction
1) The diagonal of a rectangle bisects each other.
2) The diagonals of a rectangle bisect one another and they divide the
rectangle into four parts two and two vertically opposite of which are
equal in all respects.
3) The diagonals of rhombus bisect each other at right angle.
4) An isosceles triangle is divided into two identical halves by the line

through the vertex and perpendicular to base (or by the line joining the
vertex to the middle point of the base).
(C) Results on area
1) Area of a triangle formed by joining the extremities of any one side of a

square to the middle point of the opposite side is equal to the half the
area of the square.
2) The area of a square formed by joining the middle points of a square is

half of that of area of the original square.
3) A parallelogram and rectangle on the same base and within the same
parallel lines have the same area.
4) The square of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is equal to the

sum of squares of other two sides.
(D) Results on constructions
1) Construction of a square equal to sum of two different squares.
2) Construction of a square equal to difference of two different squares.
3) Construction of a square equal to a given rectangle in area.
4) Construct a rectangle of given side and equivalent to a given square in

area.
5) Construction of a triangle equivalent to a given square.
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6) Construction of a square equivalent to a given isosceles triangle.
7) Construction of rhombus of given area are given in Śulbasūtras.
(E) Special results
1) Squaring a circle
2) Circling a square
3) Square root of 2.
11. Comments:-
1) Śulbasūtras is the oldest formula.
2) Śulbasūtras gives all types of construction
3) Such types of geometrical construction are not given in any text of

Western mathematicians.
4) These results are relevant today also.
5) The best approximate value of irrational number 2 is observed.
6) Since π is irrational, squaring a circle or circling a square was not

exactly possible. This is notice in Śulbasūtras also.
7) Śulbasūtras contain arithmetic, algebra and geometry.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Number of words 2995)
Reference:-
[1] Dr.T.A.Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in Ancient and Medival India,
(Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1999).
[2] John F. Price, Applied geometry of the Śulba sūtras, (Geometry at

work).
[3] S.G.Dani, Geometry in the Śulbasūtras, Studies in the history of Indian

Mathematics (Culture and History of Mathematics 5, Hindustan Book
Agency, New Delhi, 2010).
[4] Bibhutibhushan Datta, Ancient Hindu Geometry,( Cosmo Publication,

New Delhi, 1993).
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[5] S.N.Sen and A.K.Bag, The Śulbasūtras,( Indian National Science
Academy, New Delhi,1983).
[6] Dr. S. Balachandra Rao, Indian Mathematics and Astronomy :Some

Landmarks, (Jnana Deep Publication, Bangalore, 2000).
[7] George Gheverghese Joseph, The Crest of the Peacock, (Princeton

University press, New Jersey,2000).
[8] Dr. Anant W. Vyawahare, Baudhāyana Geometry (Research

Paper1992)
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End of chapter 1
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Chapter 2
ĀRYABHATA – I
Introduction
Āryabhata - I was the first Indian astronomer and a mathematician.

Āryabhata - I was born in 476 AD (there is another mathematician of same
name in tenth century known as Āryabhata – II). Our article is about
Āryabhata - I. The place of his birth was not confirmed but he spent most
of his life at Kusunpura, near Patliputra in Bihar.
Āryabhata wrote two books, (1) Āryabhatīya and (2) Āryabhata-

siddhanta. He wrote Āryabhatiya when he was 23. His name appeared in
three different stanzas (verses) of Āryabhatīya.
Āryabhatīya deals with astronomy and mathematics and consists of

four pādas (chapters) in 121 stanzas (verses).
The first part of Āryabhatīya is DaśaGītika pāda consists of 13

stanzas (of which 10 stanzas are in gītika metre). This chapter basically
states unit of time (Kalpa, Manu and yuga), Circular units of arcs (degree
and minute) and linear units (yojana, hasta and aṅgula).
The second part of Āryabhatīya is gaṇita pāda, consisting of 33

stanzas dealing with mathematics. Important mathematical topics discussed
in this section are
1) Approximate value of π
2) Geometrical figures and their properties and mensuruation
3) Arithmetical method of finding the square root and the cube root,
4) Arithmetic progression, geometric progression
5) Simple and compound interest
6) The method of solving the first order indeterminate equations of the
type ax + c = by.
The third part of Āryabhatīya is kālakriyā pāda ( ) and it

contains 25 stanzas, it explains various units of time and method of finding
the positions of the sun, moon and other planets for a perticular day. It
contains division of the year (month, day) and concept of weekdays.
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The fourth and last part of Āryabhatīya is Golādhāya and it contains 50
stanzas, containing astronomy. It deals with the motion of Moon, Sun and
other planets. It gives rules related to the problem of spherical astronomy,
calculation and graphical representation of the eclipses and visibility of
planets.
Different commentaries on Āryabhatīya are also available.

Commentaries in Sanskrit are written by Bhāskara I, Prabhākara,
Someśvara, Parameśvara, Nilakantha Somayaji. Commentaries are also
written in Telugu, Malayalam and Marathi.
Important Features of Āryabhatīya
1. The alphabetical system of numerical notation
Meaning: - The varga ( ) letters (k = to m = ) (should be written) in

varga places and the avarga ( ) letters (y = to h = ) in the avarga
places. The varga letters take the numerical values 1, 2, 3, etc from k (= )
onwards; the numerical value of the first avarga letter y (= ) is equal to ṅ
+ m ( + ) i.e. 5 + 25.
In the place of the two nines of zeros (which are written to denote the
notational places), the nine vowels should be written (one vowel in each
pair of the varga and avarga places). In the varga (and avarga) places
beyond (the places denoted by) the nine vowels too (assumed vowels or
other symbols should be written, if necessary).
Explination:- In Deonagari script or in Sanskrit (the twenty five vargiya

vyanjanas or classified consonants) alphabets the letters k to m have been
classified into five vargas (classes) and each class contain five letters - ka-
varga ( - ), ca-varga ( - ), ṭa-varga ( - ), ta-varga ( - ) and pa-
varga ( - ). The numerical values assigned to varga letters are given
below.
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ka-varga ca-varga ṭa-varga ta-varga pa-varga
( - ) ( - ) ( - ) ( - ) ( - )
=k=1 =c=6 = ṭ = 11 = t =16 = p = 21
= kh = 2 = ch = 7 = ṭh = 12 = th =17 = ph = 22
=g=3 =j=8 = ḍ = 13 = d =18 = b = 23
= gh = 4 = jh = 9 = ḍh = 14 = dh =19 = bh = 24
=ṅ=5 = n = 10 = ṇ = 15 = n =20 = m = 25
The letters y to h ( ) are called avarga letters

(also called avargiya vyanjanas or unclassified consonants). These letters
have following values:
y = = 30 r = = 40 l = = 50 v = = 60
ś= = 70 ṣ = = 80 s = = 90 h = = 100
Letters in Sanskrut are classified as varga and avarga. In the same

way notational places are also divided into varga and avarga places. The
odd places denoting the units’ place, the hundreds’ place, the ten
thousands’ place and so on, are called the Varga places (because 1, 100,
10000, etc are perfect squares); and the even places denoting the tens’
place, the thousands’ place and so on are called the avarga places (because
10, 1000, etc are nonsquare numbers).
Every letter is joined by vowels. In the grammar of Panini there are nine
vowels. Each vowel has a place value. This place value of vowel depends
on varga and avarga place of letter.
Vowel odd position Vowel even position

(Square position) (Non-square position)
a= =1 a = = 10
i = = 100 i = = 1000
u = = 10,000 u = = 1000,00
ṛ= = 1000,000 ṛ= = 1000,000,0
ḷ = = 1000,000,00 ḷ = = 1000,000,000
e = = 1000,000,000,0 e = = 1000,000,000,00
o = = 1000,000,000,000 o = = 1000,000,000,000,0
ai = = 1000,000,000,000,00 ai = = 1000,000,000,000,000
au = = 1000,000,000,000,000,0 au = = 1000,000,000,000,000,00
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Āryabhata method of writing a number in the alphabetical notation is
complicated. It is also difficult to translate and pronounce stanzas.
The important conclusion drawn from the above process of writing a

numerical notation in alphabetical system is that, in India decimal number
system and use of ‘zero’ as place value used regularly even before
Āryabhata. They know the fact that value of the number changes with their
position. This system is effective in expressing number briefly in stanzas
(verse).
This alphabetical system of numerical notation given by Āryabhata

is different from the katapayādi system. All the numbers in Āryabhatīya are
written in alphabetical system.
2. The first ten Notational places and place Value
In this stanza Āryabhata gives place value upto ten digit using decimal
system. this shows that Āryabhata knew decimal system very well but
Āryabhata did not define zero and its place value.
Eka Units place 1 100

Daśa Tens place 10 101
śata Hunderds place 100 102
sahasra Thousands place 1000 103
ayuta Ten thousands place 10,000 104
niyuta Hundred thousands place 100,000 105
prayuta Millions place 1000,000 106
koti Ten millions place 10,000,000 107
arbuda Hundred millions place 100,000,000 108
vṛnda Thousand millions place 1000,000,000 109
From the above table we can say that Āryabhata knew the decimal
system very well.
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3. Circumference diameter ratio
The ratio of circumference of a circle to its diameter is a constant
(and denoted by π), stated in following stanza.
Meaning: - Add 4 to hundred multiply by 8 and add to 62000; this is

approximately the circumference of a circle whose diameter is 20,000.
In this stanza the value of π is not given directly but the circumference
of a circle whose diameter is 20,000 is given so that
62,832
  3.1416
20,000
Āryabhata is the first Indian Mathematician who gave the approximate
value of π correct to four decimal places.
How did Āryabhata reach to this value?
It may be possible that he knew that a regular hexagon can be

inscribed in a circle. The side of inscribed regular hexagon is equal to
radius of circle. Now draw a regular polygon of sides 12 from the hexagon.
For this draw a perpendicular on every side of regular hexagon intersecting
the circle.
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Now join the vertices of hexagon the point of intersection of
perpendicular on side and circle. This results in a regular polygon of
sides 12.
Continuing the same process of doubling sides of polygon, the

polygon approaches to circle. In this case we can calculate the perimeter of
regular polygon from the side.
OC is perpendicular on AB, AB = r, AD= r/2, OA = r
OD = OA2  AD 2 , OD = r 2  (r 2 / 4) , OD = (4r 2  r 2 ) / 4 ,
AC = (r / 4)  (r  (4r  r ) / 4 )
2 2 2 2
DC = (r - (4r 2  r 2 ) / 4 )
The general formula for inscribed polygon of side 2n is
S n2
S2n   (r  (4r 2  S n2 ) / 4 ) 2
4
Sn and S2n are sides of polygon with n sides and 2n sides resp.
Inscribed No. of Length of side Perimeter of Value of 

polygon sides Put r = 1 polygon
Hexagon 6 S6 = 1 6 3
Polygon of 12 S12 = 0.5176 6.21165 3.10582

sides 12
Polygon of 24 S24 = 0.261032 6.26478806 3.13239

sides 24
Polygon of 48 S48 = 0.130806 6.278688 3.13934

sides 48
Polygon of 96 S96 = 0.065438 6.282048 3.14102

sides 96
Polygon of 192 S192 = 0.032723 6.28288896 3.14144

sides 192
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Polygon of 384 S384 = 0.016362 6.28309248 3.14154
sides 384
Polygon of 768 S768 = 6.28314 3.14157

sides 768 0.00818117
App. 3.1416
1416 1 1
π = 3.1416 = 3 =3 =3
10000 10000/ 1416 88
7
1416
1 1 1
=3 =3 =3 cannot be simplified further
1 1 1
7 7 7
1416 / 88 8 1
16 16
88 11
Writing it in reverse
1 1 177 3927 3927 16 62832
π= 3 =3 =3 = =  =
1 11 1250 1250 1250 16 20000
7 7
177 / 11 177
Āryabhata stated this value if π in his stanza.

1 22
Also if write π = 3 = ; practically we use this value of π.
7 7
4. The table of sine
Meaning :-
+ m + ( kh+ i) 25 + 200 =225

+ bh + ( kh+ i) 24 + 200 =224
+ bh + ( kh+ i) 22 + 200 =222
+ dh + ( kh+ i) 19 + 200 = 219
+ ṇ + ( kh+ i) 15 + 200 = 215
+ n + ( kh+ i) 10 + 200 = 210
+ ṅ + ( kh+ i) 5 + 200 = 205
+ + h + s+ jh 100 + 90 + 9 = 199
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+ + s + k+ ( k+ i) 90 + 1 + 100 = 191
+ + ( k+ i)+ ṣ + g 100 + 80 + 3 = 183
+ + ś + gh + ( k+ i) 70 + 4 + 100 = 174
+ + ( k+ i) + gh + v 100 + 4 + 60 = 164
+ + gh + l + ( k+ i) 4 +50 + 100 = 154
+ + ( k+ i) + g + r 100 + 3 + 40 = 143
+ + h+k+y 100 + 1 + 30 = 131
+ gh + ( k+ i) 19 + 100 = 119
+ ( k+ i) + c 100 + 6 = 106
+ s+g 90 + 3 = 93
+ jh + ś 9 + 70 = 79
+ ṅ+v 5 + 60 = 65
+ k+l 1 + 50 = 51
+ p+t 21 + 16 = 37
ph 22
ch 7
Explanation: -
This table gives us 24 values of Rsines starting from (3.75)0=225.
But what is Rsine? And how this table gives 24 values of sine?
Āryabhata developed trigonometry using arc of circle instead of using

right angled triangle. Many of us know trigonometry, sine, cosine and tan
ratios.
In above figure ANB is an arc of circle of radius R whose centre is O.
Define jyā of arc AN = AM, kotijyā of arc AN = OM,
utkarma-jyā of arc AN = MN.
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Sin x = AM/R or AM = R Sin x
similarly OM = R Cos x
Jyā (x) = R sin x, kotijyā (x) = R cos x,
utkarma-jyā (x) = ON – OM = R – R cos x = R( 1- Cos x) = Rversin x
Let radius R is equal to 3438.
Why Āryabhata considered such a strong number is 3438? The angular

measures of the circumference of the circle in angular measures as 360 0 or
3600 * 60 = 21,000. Also the circumference is equal to 2πR
R = 21,000/ 2*(3.1416) = 3438 approximately.
Āryabhata states that (3.75)0=225 and Jyā ((3.75)0) = 225
On the second place number is 224 it is difference of Jyā of (3.75)0 and

2*(3.75)0 , means that Jyā of (7.5)0 is 449 = 225 + 224.
Continuing this way we get Jyā of all the angles in multiple if 3.75.
Angle in Minutes difference Jyā Jyā / 3438 Modern

Degree of Jyā sin sin
3.75 225 225 225 0.0654 0.0654
7.50 450 224 449 0.1306 0.1305
11.25 675 222 671 0.1952 0.1951
15.00 900 219 890 0.2589 0.2588
18.75 1125 215 1105 0.3214 0.3214
22.50 1350 210 1315 0.3825 0.3827
26.25 1575 205 1520 0.4421 0.4423
30.00 1800 199 1719 0.5 0.5
33.75 2025 191 1910 0.5556 0.5556
37.50 2050 183 2093 0.6088 0.6088
41.25 2425 174 2267 0.659 0.6593
45.00 2700 164 2431 0.7071 0.7071
48.75 2925 154 2585 0.7519 0.7518
52.50 3150 143 2728 0.7935 0.7934
56.25 3375 131 2859 0.8316 0.8315
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60.00 3600 119 2978 0.8662 0.8660
63.75 3824 106 3084 0.8970 0.8969
67.50 4050 93 3177 0.9241 0.9239
71.25 4275 79 3256 0.9471 0.9469
75.00 4500 65 3321 0.9660 0.9659
78.75 4725 51 3372 0.9808 0.9808
82.50 4950 37 3409 0.9916 0.9914
86.15 5175 22 3431 0.9980 0.9979
90.00 5400 7 3438 1.0000 1.0000
The values of sine given by Āryabhata are accurate. Instead of giving

direct value of Jyā (sine) Āryabhata gives difference of two consecutive
Jyā (sine).
Meaning: - Divide a quadrant of circumference of a circle (into as many

parts as desired). Then, from (right) triangles and quadrilaterals, one can
find many Rsines of equal arcs as one likes, for any given radius.
Āryabhata calculated Rsine table geometrically.

Initially Āryabhata calculated Rsin 300 = R/2 = 3438/2 =1719, then
obtained the values of
Rsin 150 =890 ; Rsin 300 =1719 ; Rsin 450 =2431
Rsin 600 =2978 ; Rsin 750 =3321 ; Rsin 900 =3438
5. Square, square roots, cube, cube roots:-
3
Meaning:- An equilateral quadrilateral with equal diagonals and also
the area thereof are called ‘square’. The product of two equal quantities is
also square. The continued product of three equals as also the (rectangular)
solid having twelve (equal) edges is called a ‘cube’.
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The concept of square and cube in terms of geometry and algebra are
clearly stated in Āryabhatīya. A cube have twelve equal edges is also
mentioned by Āryabhata – I.
The first stanza clear states method of finding a square root of a

number, and second stanza states method of finding cube root of a number.
These methods depend on the fact (a + b)2, (a + b +c )2 and (a + b)3, (a + b
+c )3 . This clearly shows that reverse process of finding square and cube
gives square root and cube root was known to Āryabhata – I.
6. Results in progression,
The concept of Arithmetic progression (A.P.), Sum of Arithmetic

progression and mean of Arithmetic progression was also known in those
days.
19
Meaning:- Diminish the given number of terms by one, then divide by

two, then increase by the number of the preceding terms (if any), then
multiply by the common difference, and then increase by the first term of
the (whole) series: the result is the arithmetic mean (of the given number of
terms). This multiplied by the given number of terms is the sum of the
given terms. Alternately, multiply the sum of the first and last terms (of the
series or partial series which is to be summed up) by half the number of
terms.
An arithmetic series be
a + (a+d) + (a+2d) + (a+3d) + .........+ (a+ (n-1) d)
the rule says that the arithmetic mean of the n terms of series is
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M = a + (n-1) d/2
And the sum of series is
n
S = [a  (a  (n  1)d )]
2
= sum of first and last term multiplied by half number of terms
20
21
22
However the above stanzas give the result
(i) Number of terms in arithmetic progression:- If S is sum, d is common

difference and a is first term of arithmetic progression then Āryabhata – I
gives the formula for number of terms n as
1
n ( 8dS  (2a  d ) 2  2a  d )
2d
(ii) Sum of the series 1 + (1+2) + (1+2+3) +........... upto n terms

In stanza 21 meaning of citighana ( ) means ‘the solid contains
of ball in the shape of pyramid on a triangular base.
Figure 2.3 - Citighana ( )
n(n  1)(n  2) (n  1)3  (n  1)

1  (1  2)  (1  2  3)  ......  
6 6
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(iii) Series n 2
and n 3
In stanza 22 the word vargacitighana ( ) means ‘the solid

contents of a balls in the shape of pyramid on a square base’ means 1 2 + 22
+ 32 +... and the word ghanacitighana ( ) ‘ the solid contents
of a cuboidal bricks in the of a pyramid having cuboidal layers’ means 1 3 +
23 + 33 +...
The formula stated is

n( n  1)(2n  1)
12 + 22 + 32 +..... + upto n terms = and
6
13 + 23 + 33 +.....+ upto n terms = (1+2+3+.......+n)2 = (n (n+1)/2)2
The Bhāskara I has called these sums by the terms vargasaṅkalanā and
ghanasaṅkalanā.
( A  B ) 2  ( A2  B 2 )
(iv) Further, Āryabhata states A* B 
2
where A and B are real numbers.
7. Area and Volume
Āryabhata gave the formulae of area of circle, triangle and trapezium

and the volume of right pyramid and sphere. Out of which the formula of
volume of sphere was not correct.
Area of triangle = (1/2)(height*base)
Volume of Right Pyramid (six edged or triangular base)

= (1/3) (Area of base triangle) (Height)
Area of Circle = (Circumferene*Diameter)/4
Volume of sphere = πr2*(πr2)1/2 (this formula is not correct).
Area of Trapezium = (1/2) (a+b) p
(Where a and b are length of parallel sides of a trapezium and p is its

height)
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8) Solution of indeterminate equation
Āryabhata discussed the method of finding the integer values for x and
y in an equation of the form ax + c = by where a, b and c are integers. The
known method of solving this equation is known as kuttaka (puzzle) (now
called Dio-phantine equation).
Comment:-
1) Āryabhatīya text of Āryabhata was the oldest text in India. Basically

the work of Āryabhata is on astronomy. Āryabhata knew the
importance of mathematics in Astronomy and in daily life. In
Āryabhatīya there is separate chapter gaṇita pāda consisting of 33
stanzas on mathematics which covers square, square root, cube, cube
root, Simple and compound interest, arithmetic progression, geometric
progression, geometrical figures and their properties and mensuruation,
approximate value of π, the method of solving the first order
indeterminate equations of the type ax + c = by, etc topics of
mathematics.
Many Indian mathematicians referred the work of Āryabhata and

wrote the commentaries on the text Āryabhatīya. These commentaries
are written by Bhāskara I, Prabhākara, Parameśvara, Nȋlakantha
Somayāji. These commentaries are written in Sanskrit, Telugu,
Malayalam and Marathi, which show that this text is used from many
centuries.
2) Indian mathematics is practical and contains Geometry, Algebra,

Arithmetic and Trigonometry and all have the connectivity with each
other without any partition.
3) The alphabetical system of numerical notation, the first ten notational

places and the place value shows that Āryabhata knew the decimal
system. Alphabetical system of numerical notation shows that a
number however big can be written in concise way. Without knowing
the decimal number system such conversion is not possible.
4) The important part in mathematics is circumference diameter ratio

which we call π. This ratio is constant. For finding the value of π
Āryabhata imagined a circle whose diameter is 20,000. He reached to a
F - NO 47 – 488/12 (WRO) Page 31

conclusion that circumference of such circle is 62832. So that π is equal
to 3.1416 approximately. Āryabhata was the first mathematician who
found the value of π correct up to four decimal places.
5) The table of sine shows many mathematical concepts to known

Āryabhata in those days. Āryabhata developed Trigonometry using
arc, chord and diameter of a circle instead of right angled triangle.
Knowing only the sine ratio, the cosine and tan ratio can calculated.
For finding the sine ratio Āryabhata constructed a circle of radius 3438.
Āryabhata divided the complete circle in 3600 and each degree into
60minutes. Dividing 21000 by 2πR shows the concept of a radian and
calculated the sine ratio using geometry (stanza 12 of DaśaGītika pāda
of Āryabhatīya).
6) Square, square root and cube, cube root are the concepts of geometry
and algebra. The important part in finding square root and cube root
reverse process of finding square and cube was also well known to
Āryabhata.
7) Āryabhata constructed circle using compass; also triangle and

quadrilateral using diagonals.
8) Used the arcs of intersecting circle for finding the eclipses (stanza 18 in
gaṇita section of Āryabhatīya). .
9) Discussed arithmetic progression in detail. Also obtained n 2

and
n 3
.
10) Chapter gaṇita pāda ends with indeterminate equations.
11) Āryabhata states that the earth is spherical. The rising and setting of
the sun, the moon and other heavenly bodies are due to the relative
linear motion of the earth caused by its rotation about its own axis.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total number of words 3,788
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References
[1] K.V.Sarma, Āryabhatīya of Āryabhata, edited by K.S.Sukhla,

(published by Indian national science academy, New Delhi, 1976).
[2] Dr. Mohan Apte, Āryabhatīya.(published by Rajhansa Prakashan,

Pune).

[4] A.A. Krishnaswami Ayyangar, The mathematics of Aryabhata ( A

paper read before Mythic Society).
[5] Dr. Anant W. Vyawahare, Bhartiya Ganiti,(Nachiket prakshan,

Nagpur, 2008)
[6] C.N.Srinivasiengar, The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics (The

World Press Private Ltd, Calcutta, 1988)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
End of chapter 2
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Chapter 3
BRAHMAGUPTA
Introduction
Brahmagupta is a well known Indian astronomer and a

mathematician, holding a unique position in the history of Ancient Indian
Mathematics. The famous mathematician after Varaha mihira at Ujjain
school is Brahmagupta. He is well known for his observation and accuracy
of results. Prof. Sachau who translated “Al-Biruni’s India (Al-Biruni was
the greatest scholars of the medieval Islamic era in 11th century)” says that-
“Brahmagupta occupies an important place in the history of oriental

culture. Brahmagupta taught astronomy to the Arabs before they come to
know Ptolemy’s work. The text Sinshind and Al-Arkhand frequently occur
in Arabic literature; these are the translation of Brahmagupta’s work,
Brahama sphut Siddanta and Khandakhadyaka.”
1. Brahmaguta’s date, place and work
Brahmagupta was born in 598 A.D. in Bhinmala, situated on the

north border of Gujarath in South Marwar. The well known works of
Brahmagupta are ‘Brahama Sphuta Siddanta (the Opening of the
Universe)’ and ‘Khanda Khadyaka’.
Brahama Sphuta Siddanta was written in 628 A.D. and contains

1008 verses (slokas) in 25 chapters. Chapter 12 is devoted to Arithmetic
and geometry consisting of 56 verses. Chapter 18 deals with Algebra in
102 verses. These are the only two chapters on the Mathematics.
The second book Khanda Khadyaka contains 194 verses in 9

chapters and covers the topic of astronomical calculations. The word
Khanda Khadyaka literally means preparation of sweet from sugar. This
text covers simple calculations. Hence it is used in many countries as a
practical hand-book for astronomical calculations. It is a practical manual
of Indian astronomy. In Khanda Khadyaka, Brahamagupta accepted the
length of year as 365 days 15 gatika and 30 pale (the solar year calculated
by Brahmagupta is 365 days, 6 hours, 5 minutes, and 19 seconds).
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Brahmagupta wrote a third book Uttar- Khanda Khadyaka which is
a supplementary to Khanda Khadyaka and contains 4 chapters.
Brahmagupta made correction to the values in the Khanda Khadyaka.
Brahmagupta also put up some mathematical methods. This work of

Brahmagupta has been studied by many Indian mathematicians. This work
was translated in to Arabic by Al-Fazari (Muslim astronomer) in 8th
century by Al-Biruni in 11th century.
The important topics covered in the work of Brahmagupta are

decimal representation of integers along with zero, addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication, Division, Square, Square root, Cube, Cube root,
progression, Plane Figure (right angled triangle and cyclic quadrilateral)
and solution of quadratic equation of two variable Nx2 + 1 = y2.
2. Concept of zero and negative numbers
When came zero into present notational form? Who discovered

zero? These are the basic questions. In India Āryabhata was the first who
was aware of place value system. Āryabhata gives the methods of finding
square, cube, square root and cube root in Āryabhatīya. It impossible to
find square, cube, square root and cube root without knowing the concept
of zero and place value system.
In ‘Brahama Sphuta Siddanta’ Brahmagupta defined some quantities

having the properties as that of modern zero. Brahmagupta describes some
properties of zero as follows.
 When zero is added to a number or subtracted from a number, the

number remains unchanged.
 When a number is multiplied by zero, result is zero.
Brahmagupta defines some arithmetical rule in terms of fortunes

(positive number) and debts (negative numbers)
 A debt minus zero is a debt.
 A fortune minus zero is fortune.
 Zero minus zero is zero.
 A fortune subtracted from zero is debt.
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 A debt subtracted from zero is fortune.
 The product of zero multiplied by debt or fortune is zero.
 The product of zero multiplied by zero is zero.
 The product or quotient of two fortunes is one fortune.
 The product or quotient of two debts is one fortune .
 The product or quotient of a debt and a fortune is a debt.
 The product or quotient of a fortune and a debt is a debt.
Unfortunately Brahmagupta makes a mistake in division by zero.

Brahmagupta wrongly states that zero divided by zero is zero.
3. Right angled triangle
The property of a right a right angled triangle a2 + b2 =c2 where c is

hypotenuse and a and b are two sides is well known to Indian
Mathematician from the period of Śulbasūtras.
c = m2 + n2
a = 2mn
C A
b = m2 - n2
Figure 3.1- Sides of a right angled triangle
Brahmagupta gave a general formula for Baudhāyana triplets (the

text Śulbasūtras in 800 B.C,). He gave a general solution of right angled
triangle ABC as is a = 2mn, b = m2 – n2 and c = m2 + n2, where m and n are
unequal non zero rational numbers and m >n.
Brahmagupta modified above results for the construction of right

angled triangle. Two constructions are given below.
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A. Given a side other than the hypotenuse.
Suppose a side a (other than hypotenuse) is given then for any

rational number m the sides of a right angled triangle are given by
1 a2  1 a2 
a,   m  and 2  m  m 
2 m   
For example suppose a = 6. Take m =2 we obtain the sides 6,8,10.
B. Given the hypotenuse
For given hypotenuse c, of a right angled triangle, the sides are given by
2mnc m2  n 2
c, 2 and 2 c
m  n2 m  n2
While Bhaskara II provided the formula
2pc p2 1
c, 2 and 2 c if we put m/n = p we get above result.
p 1 p 1
3. To construct a triangle of which two sides and the altitude through

their point of intersection are rational.
This is the application of above result. Suppose a rational number is

given. Then we can construct two right angled triangles having side x.
A
These two triangles are placed side by side. Then the triangle obtained by
placing these two triangles is a required triangle of which two sides and
latitude to third are rational.
B D B’ C
Figure 3.2 - construction of a triangle
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In triangle ADB x is the side other than hypotenuse then
1  x2  1  x2 
AB =   a  , BD =   a 
2 a  2 a 
In triangle ADC x is the side other than hypotenuse then
1  x2  1  x2 
AC =   b  , DC =   b 
2 b  2 b 
1  x2 x2 
And BC = BD + DC =    a  b
2 a b 
In ∆ ABD, If AD = 12 then BD = 5 and AB = 13,

also in ∆ ADC, AD = 12 Then DC = 9 & AC = 15
Then the triangle with sides 13, 14, 15 has altitude 12.
4. Segments of the base and perpendicular in a triangle.
An interesting result in Brahama Sphuta Siddanta is related with length of

segments of the base and perpendicular in a triangle.
Meaning: - The difference of the squares of the sides being divided by the
base, the quotient is added to and subtracted from the base; the sum and the
remainder, divided by two are the segments. The square root, extracted
from the difference
A
b
c b>c
x
B D C
a
Figure 3.3 - Segments of base and length of perpendicular in a triangle
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b2  c2 b2  c2
a a
Segments: CD = a , BD = a
2 2
Perpendicular: AD = c2  BD2 = b 2  CD 2
Proof: - BD2 = c2 – AD2 = c2 – (b2 – CD2)

CD2 - BD2 = b2 - c2
(CD + BD)(CD – BD) = b2 - c2
But (CD + BD) = a, (CD – BD) = (b2 - c2)/a

b2  c2 b2  c2
a a
Hence, CD = a , BD = a
2 2
Also, AD = c2  BD2 = b 2  CD 2
5. Brahmagupta’s theorem
The result stated by Brahmagupta is ‘ The product of any two sides of

a circumscribed triangle is equal to the product of its circum-diameter and
altitude drawn on the third side’.
That is AB* AC = AE* AD
Proof: - In triangle ABC, AD is the altitude to the base BC and AE is its

circum-diameter. Join CE. Then triangles ACE and ADB are similar.
Hence AC/AE = AD/AB or AB* AC = AE* AD
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This result is useful for finding the circum-diameter of triangle. AB
and AC are two sides of a circumscribed triangle and AD is the
perpendicular on the third side then the diameter of circum-circle is
(AB*AC)/AD and radius of circum-circle is (AB*AC)/(2*AD).
This result is useful in the construction of cyclic quadrilaterals for

the verification that constructed quadrilateral is cyclic or not.
6. Area of cyclic quadrilateral

Brahmagupta was the first in the world to give the exact formula for
the area of cyclic quadrilateral in terms of sides.
Meaning:- The square root of the product of four factors formed by half
the sum of sides diminished by each sides is the exact area (of cyclic
quadrilateral).i.e.
Area = (s  a )(s  b)(s  c)(s  d) where s = (a+b+c+d)/2.
7. Brahmagupta’s expression for diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral
The Brahmagupta’s expression for the diagonals cyclic quadrilateral

is stated as
“The sums of the product of the adjacent sides about diagonals are
both divided by each other. Multiply (the quotients obtained) by the sum of
the products of the opposite sides. The square roots (of the results) are
diagonals”.
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ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. If the length of sides AB, BC, CD, DA are
a, b, c, d respectively and diagonals are AC = x and BD = y then according
to Brahmagupta’s expression.
(ad  bc)(ac  bd ) (ab  cd)(ac  bd )

AC = x = and BD = y =
(ab  cd) (ad  bc)
These two results are of cyclic quadrilateral and expression for the
diagonals cyclic quadrilateral are remarkable and excellent in the Hindu
geometry.
8. Construction of cyclic quadrilateral or Brahmagupta’s

quadrilateral.
Brahmagupta gave a method of construction of cyclic quadrilateral.
In this construction cyclic quadrilateral has integer sides, integer diagonal
and integer area.
Meaning: - “The kotis and bhujas of two jatyas (Right angled

triangle) multiplied by each other’s hypotenuse are the four sides in a
Vishma (irregular) quadrilateral. The longest is the base, the least is the
face and the remaining two sides are the flanks”.
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Method:- Let (a,b,c) and (x,y,z) are any two non similar right angled
triangles where c and z are the hypotenuses. Construct the triangle CSD
having sides (ax, bx, cx) and another triangle BSC having sides (ax, ay,az).
Now on the other side of BD, construct triangles ASB with sides (ay,
by, cy) and ASD with sides (bx, by, bz). Thus we obtain a quadrilateral
ABCD with sides cy, az, xc and bz in order.
The diagonals AC and BD intersect at right angle.
azxc cz
The circum-radius of triangle BCD = 
2ax 2
bcyz cz
And the circum-radius of triangle ABD = 
2by 2
The circum-radius of ABD and BCD are (cz/2) so that their circum-
centre is same. So points A, B, C and D lies on the same circle. Hence the
quadrilateral ABCD is cyclic.
If we consider two right angled triangle with sides (3,4,5) and

(5,12,13) then the above method gives the quadrilateral with sides
(39,52,60,25) and the circum-diameter of this quadrilateral is 65.
The cyclic quadrilaterals constructed by Brahmagupta has

perpendicular diagonals.
9. Solution of equation Nx2 + 1 = y2 or Varga Prakṛti
The solution of the second order indeterminate equation of the form

Nx + 1 = y2 was the most remarkable and significant contribution of
2
Brahmagupta to algebra. This method is called as Bhāvanā.
The problem is to find the value of x and y in integer satisfying the

equation Nx2 + 1 = y2 for given constant integer N. This equation is called
Varga Prakriti. Here N is called Prakṛti, x is Kaniṣtha, y is jyeṣṭha and k is
kṣepa.
Brahmagupta gives a method for the solution of above equation.

This method was perfected by Bhaskara-II.
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Three important results
Result 1:-
Suppose x = α and y = β is the solution of the equation Nx2 + k = y2 and

x = α1 and y = β1 is a solution of the equation Nx2 + k1 = y2 then
x = αβ1 α1β (Kaniṣtha of new equation) ,and y = Nαα1 ββ1 (jyeṣṭha of

new equation)
is a solution of the equation Nx2 + kk1 = y2.
Equivalently if Nα2 + k = β2 and Nα12 + k1 = β12 then
N(αβ1 α1β)2 + kk1 = (Nαα1 ββ1)2
Proof:-
Suppose x = α and y = β is the solution of the equation Nx2 + k = y2 then,
Nα2 + k = β2 ......... (1)
Similarly if x = α1 and y = β1 is a solution of the equation Nx2 + k1 = y2
Then, Nα12 + k1 = β12 ............(2)
Multiply (1) by β12 we get
Nα2 β12 + k β12 = β2 β12 ................ (3)
Put β12 in the middle term of equation (3) from equation (2)
Nα2 β12 + k(Nα12 + k1 ) = β2 β12
Nα2 β12 + Nk α12 + k k1 = β2 β12 ...........................(4)
Now substitute the value of k from (1) in the second term of (4).
Nα2 β12 + Nα12 (β2 - Nα2) + k k1 = β2 β12
We get the relation
N(α2 β12 + α12β2) + k k1 = N2α2α12 + β2β12 ...............(5)
Add 2Nαβα1β1 to both sides
N(αβ1 α1β)2 + k k1 = (Nαα1 ββ1)2 .....................(6)
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Result 2:-
If x = α and y = β is the solution of the equation Nx2 + k = y2 then
x = 2αβ and y = Nα2 + β2 is also the solution of Nx2 + k2 = y2.
Equivalently if Nα2 + k = β2 then N(2αβ)2 + k2 = (Nα2 + β2)2
This result can be easily proved by putting α = α1 and β = β1 in (6)
Result 3:-
If x = α and y = β is solution of Nx2 + k2 = y2 , then x = α/k, y = β/k

is a solution of the equation Nx2 + 1 = y2.
Using these three results we obtained the solution of Nx2 + 1 = y2 in

integers.
The above results are called Bhāvānā, which are categorised as

1) Samāsa Bhāvānā ( i.e. addition)
2) Antara Bhāvānā (i.e. subtraction)
3) Tulya Bhāvānā when the Bhāvānā is made with two equal sets of
roots
4) Atulya Bhāvānā when the Bhāvānā is made with two unequal sets
of roots
Example 1:- Solve the equation 29 x2 + 1 = y2

Solution:-
By observation 29(1)2 - 4 = (5)2 So that N=29, x= 1, k = 4, y=5
2 2 2 2
1 4 5
i.e. 29   1   
1 5
29     
2 4 2 2 2
We use Bhāvānā process to get integral solution

N = Prakṛti x = Kaniṣtha y = jyeṣṭha k = kṣepa.
1 5
29 =α = β -1 = k
2 2
1 5
= α1 = β1 -1 = k1
2 2
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x = αβ1 α1β (Kaniṣtha of new equation) ,
and y = Nαα1 ββ1 (jyeṣṭha of new equation)
and kk1 is kṣepa of new equation.
So x = (1/2) * (5/2) + (1/2) * (5/2) = 5/2
y = (29) * (1/2) * (1/2) + (5/2) * (5/2) = 27/2
and k = -1 * -1 = 1
here the roots are not integer. So Bhāvānā is repeated.

5 27
29 =α = β 1=k (above)
2 2
1 5
= α1 = β1 -1 = k1 (old)
2 2
So x = (5/2) * (5/2) + (1/2) * (27/2) = 13
y = (29) * (5/2) *(1/2) + (27/2) * (5/2) = 70
and k = -1 * 1 = -1
Now x and y are integer but k = -1 So Bhāvānā is repeated
29 13 = α 70 = β -1 = k (above)
13 = α1 70 = β1 -1 = k1 (above)
So x = (13) * (70) + (13) * (70) = 1820
y = (29) * (13) *(13) + (70) * (70) = 9801
and k = -1 * -1 = 1
So 29(1820)2 + 1 = (9801)2 This the solution of given equation.
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Example 2:- Solve the equation 21 x2 + 1 = y2
Solution:-
By observation 21(1)2 + 4 = (5)2 So that N=21, x= 1, k = 4, y=5

2 2
1 4 5 1
2
5
2
21      i.e. 21   1   
2 4 2 2 2
We use Bhāvānā process to get integral solution

1 5
21 =α = β 1=k
2 2
1 5
= α1 = β1 1 = k1
2 2
x = αβ1 α1β (Kaniṣtha of new equation) ,
and y = Nαα1 ββ1 (jyeṣṭha of new equation)
and kk1 is kṣepa of new equation.
So x = (1/2) * (5/2) + (1/2) * (5/2) = 5/2

y = (21) * (1/2) * (1/2) + (5/2) * (5/2) = 23/2
and k = 1 * 1 =1
here the roots are not integer. So Bhāvānā is repeated.

5 23
21 =α = β 1=k
2 2
1 5
= α1 = β1 1 = k1
2 2
So x = (5/2) * (5/2) + (1/2) * (23/2) = 12

y = (21) * (5/2) *(5/2) + (23/2) * (5/2) = 55
and k = 1 * 1 = 1
So 21(12)2 + 1 = (55)2 This the solution of given equation.
Example 3:- Solve the equation 92x2 + 1 = y2
Guess the first solution for suitable value of k

Here 92* 12 + 8 = 102 so that x = 1, y = 10, and k = 8
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From result 2,
x = 2αβ and y = Nα2 + β2 is solution of Nx2 + k2 = y2
So x = 20, y = 192, and k2 = 64 is solution of 92x2 + 64 = y2
From result 3,
x = 20/8 = 5/2, y = 192/8 = 24, k =1 is solution of 92x2 + 1 = y2
To get integer we use result 2again
x = 120, y = 1151 is solution of 92x2 + 1 = y2
once first solution is obtained we obtain further solutions also.

Guess the first solution for suitable value of k
Here 83* 12 - 2 = 92 so that x = 1, y = 9, and k = -2
From result 2,
x = 2αβ and y = Nα2 + β2 is solution of Nx2 + k2 = y2
So x = 18, y = 164, and k2 = 4 is solution of 83x2 + 4 = y2
From result 3,
x = 18/2 = 9, y = 164/2 = 82, k =1 is solution of 83x2 + 1 = y2
Remark
1) From result 2, if x = 2αβ and y = Nα2 + β2 is also the solution of Nx2
+ k2 = y2
then x = 2αβ/k and y = (Nα2 + β2)/k are solution of Nx2 + 1 = y2
2) If k = 1 then we obtain integer solution as above.
3) If k = 2 we have x = αβ and y = (β2 + β2 – 2)/2 = β2 – 1 (taking the
positive sign) are solution of Nx2 + 1 = y2
4) If k = 4 then x = αβ/2, y = (β2 – 2)/2 are solution of Nx2 + 1 = y2
5) If a trial solution for Nx2 + k = y2 when k = 1, 2, 4 are available
then we obtain the perfect solution for Nx2 + 1 = y2. But if trial
solution of Nx2 + k = y2 contain k = 3 then we will not obtain the
solution of given equation. For such cases Bhāskara II provided
chakra-vala or cyclic process for the solution.
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Comment:-
Following are the major contributions of Brahmagupta
1) Discrepancies in the text Āryabhatīya of Āryabhata. Brahmagupta

criticises the assumptions of Jainas of considering two Suns and two
Moons.
2) Defined quantities having properties of modern zero and defined

some properties of modern zero.
3) A general formula for Baudhāyana triplets as (2mn, m2 – n2, m2 + n2)
4) Suppose a side a (other than hypotenuse) is given then for any

rational number m the sides of a right angled triangle are given by
1 a2  1 a2 
a,   m  and   m 
2 m  2 m 
This formula is useful if one side of right angled triangle is known.
5) For given hypotenuse c, of a right angled triangle, the sides are given
by
2mnc m2  n 2
c, 2 and 2
m  n2 m  n2
Where m and n are integers, gives us a rational right angled triangle.
6) A method of construction of a triangle when two sides and altitude

through their point of intersection rational using result (3).
7) The formula for the length of segments of the base a triangle by the
perpendicular through the vertex and length of perpendicular.
8) Brahmagupta stated the interesting result ‘ The product of any two

sides of a triangle is equal to the product of its circum-diameter and
altitude drawn on the third side’.
9) Stated the formula the area of cyclic quadrilateral whose sides are
known also the formula for the diagonals of cyclic quadrilateral.
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10) A simple method of construction of cyclic quadrilateral whose
sides are integers. Brahmagupta obtained this result from two
different or non similar right angled triangles.
11) A beautiful method to obtained infinitely many solutions of the

equation Nx2 + 1 = y2.
12) Find out sine ratios using second order interpolation formula. So
second order interpolation formula is the greatest contribution of
Brahmagupta.
13) Formula for sum of square of first n natural numbers and sum of
cube of first n natural numbers. Brahmagupta also obtained the
general solution of quadratic equation.
14) Bhaskar II was greatly influenced by the work of Brahmagupta.

Bhaskar II gave the title “Ganaka Chakra Chudamani” (means the
gem of the circle of mathematicians) to Brahmagupta.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total number of words - 3025
References
[1] B.B. Datta and A.N. Singh, History of Hindu Mathematics part I and
II, (Asia publishing house, single volume 1962)
[2] C R Pranesachar, Brahmagupta, Mathematician par Excellence,

(Article in RESONANCE, March 2012).
[3] S.G.Dani, Ancient Indian Mathematics- A Conspectus, (Article in

RESONANCE, March 2012).
[4] Amartya Kumar Datta, Brahmagupta’s Bhāvanā, Contribution to the

History of Indian Mathematics (Hindushan Book Agency, 2005).

[6] S. Parameswaran,The Golden Age of Indian Mathematics (Swadeshi

Science Movement, Kochi, Kerala, 1998).
F - NO 47 – 488/12 (WRO) Page 49

[7] Pavan Kumar Chaurasya, History of Mathematics (Campus Books
International, New Delhi, 2011).
[8] Er. Venugopal D Heroor, The History of Mathematics and

Mathematicians of India (Vidya Bharthi, Karnataka, Bangalore, 2006)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
End of chapter 3
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Chapter 4
MAHĀVĪRĀCHĀRYA
Meaning:- I bow to that glorious lord of the Jainas, who, as the

shining lamp of the knowledge of numbers made to shine the whole
Universe.
(Mahāvīrāchārya’s Ganitha Sāra Saṅgraha)
Introduction
After Brahmagupta, the most famous mathematician of 9 th century is

Mahāvīrāchārya, now called Mahāvīra. By religion Mahāvīra was
Digambara Jain. He was in the court of the king of Rāṣṭrakoota dynasty
named Amoghavarsha Nṛpatuṅga (ve®?ko”kZ u`irqax). The Rāṣṭrakoota
dynasty was flourished near Mysore.
Nothing is known about the life of Mahāvīra. But in the text Ganitha
Sāra Saṅgraha, one can observe Mahāvīra’s Mathematical sharpness, a
poetic imagination and an artist’s creativity.
Mahāvīra wrote Ganitha Sāra Saṅgraha in 850 A.D. Ganitha Sāra

Saṅgraha contains nine chapter of about 1100 śhiokas and contain
elementary topics in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, mensuruation,
measurements of gold silver ornaments etc. Elementary algebraic
equations of one variable were used for distribution of property, purchase-
sale transaction etc. The work of Mahāvīra is important because it is a
collection summarizing elementary mathematics of his time and provides a
rich source of information on ancient Indian Mathematics. Ganitha Sāra
Saṅgraha was widely used in South India.
Ganitha Sāra Saṅgraha was published in 1912 by the Madras

Government along with an English translation of prof. M. Rangacharya of
the Presidency College, Madras. The editor produces three manuscripts of
Ganitha Sāra Saṅgraha. The first one was in the Grantha script with
explanation in Sanskrit and other two were palm leaf manuscripts. Ganitha
Sāra Saṅgraha was translated into Telugu by Pāvutūri Mallana. A large
number of manuscript copies of Ganitha Sāra Saṅgraha are discovered in
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Kerala shows popularity of Mahāvīra and his text. Now Hindi edition
translated by Prof. L.C. Jain is and published by Jaina Saṅskriti
Samrakshaka Sangha, Solapur is available.
1. Squqre root of a negative number
Mahāvīra made an important remark in connection with the square

root of a negative number. The quotation is
Meaning:- The square of a positive as well as negative (quantity) is

positive and the square root of those are positive and negative in order. A
negative number is nonsquare by its nature, hence there no (real) square
root from it.
Mahāvīra clearly mentioned that a negative number cannot have a

square root. This is the first remark on clear recognition of the imaginary
quantities in mathematics.
2. Arithmetic
Some special type of product of numbers which gives the same when
read from left to right and vice-versa are stated by Mahāvīra. Such product
are said to be in the form of mala or neckless.
139 109 = 15151

152207 73 = 11111111
14287143 7 = 100010001
12345679 9 = 111111111
142857143 7 = 1000000001
11011011 91 = 1002002001
27994681 441 = 12345654321
333333666667 33 = 11000011000011
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3. Cube of a number in Arithmetic progression
The formula of sum of first n term of Arithmetic progression was

well known to Mahāvīra. Using such progression one can find a cube of a
number.
To find the cube of an integer n, then the first term, a = n, the

common difference (pracaya) d = 2n, and the number of terms be n, then
the sum of this arithmetic progression will give the cube of n.
Working of this rule based on the sum of first n terms of A.P. given
by
Put a = n, d = 2n
To find cube of six, we get a = 6 then d = 12
6 + 18 + 30 + 42 + 54 + 66 = 216
4. Permutations and Combinations.
Mahāvīra is the world’s first mathematicican to give the general

formula to find the number of ways of selecting (out of ‘n’ objects ‘r’
objects) at a time, without any regard for the order of selection denoted by
n
cr
n
and cr =
According to Dr. S. Balchandra Rao, in his book Indian Mathematics
n
and astronomy, the general formula for c r has been attributed to
Herigone (1634 A.D.) by Prof. D.E. Smith in his History of Mathematics,
Vol. II published in 1925. Ironically, thirteen years earlier, Prof. Smith had
written forward to Mahāvīra’s Ganitha Sāra Saṅgraha published in 1912.
The moral of the story is that a historian, especially of science,

should have an unbiased mind as also a thorough consistency in his
presentation.
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5. Quadratic equations
A variety of interesting problems on quadratic equations along with

the methods to solve them are given by Mahāvīra.
Example 1
Meaning- Out of a certain number of Sārasa birds, one-fourth the number

are moving about in lotus plants; 1/9th coupled with 1/4th as well as
7 times the square root of the number move on a hill ; 56 birds
remain in Vakula trees. What is the total number of birds?
Solution- If x is the total number of birds, this gives the equation
sol is x = 576
Example 2
Meaning- “One-third of a herd of elephants and three times the square-

root of the remaining part (of the herd) were seen on the mountain
slope; and in a lake was seen a tusker (male elephant) along with three
female elephants . How many elephants were there? (GSS, IV, 41)
Solution- Let x be the number of elephants in the herd. Then the problem
reduces to the equation
or
Squaring both sides (2x – 3)(x – 24) = 0 accepting positive integer solution
for x we get x = 24.
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6. Circle inscribed in a triangle and its diameter.
Mahāvīra states that
(G.S.S. VII 2231/2)
(“The exact area of any (rectilinear) figure other than a rectangle should be
divided by one fourth the perimeter. This is specified as the diameter of
the inscribed circle”)
The rule is quite general. The rationale is clear from the attached figures.
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For, if the centre of inscribed circle, I is joined to the vertices of the
figure and to the points of contact of the circle with the sides, the whole
figure is divided into as many triangles as there are sides. These have the
sides of the figure as bases, the lines joining I to the vertices as sides and
the radius of inscribed circle at the point of contact is altitude of triangle.
Hence the area of the triangle
(Where a,b,c are the lengths of the sides and r the in-radius)
7. Area bounded by circles
A section in Ganitha Sāra Saṅgraha is devoted to Kshetra Ganita

Vyavahara (i.e. on areas). In this section Mahāvīra discussed the areas of
the region of large number of shapes.
Here we consider the two examples.
Example 1
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In above figure four equal circles touches each other. Then the area A of
the region bounded by the four arcs of circles is given by
A = (Area of square) – (area of one circle) = d2 – d2/4)
Example 2
In the figure given below three equal circles touch each other. The
area A of the region bounded by the arc of these three circles is given by
A = (Area of Equilateral triangle) – (Area of half circle)
Assmue diameter of circle is d. Then the area of Equilateral triangle

whose side is d is
(using formula for area of triangle)
The area of three sectors of circle is area of half circle of radius d/2
So area of half circle is π
Area of region A = π
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Comments
1) Square root of negative numbers is imaginary numbers. Mahāvīra

stated that a negative number cannot have a square root. This shows
that Mahāvīra recognition the imaginary quantities in mathematics.
2) Ganitha Sāra Saṅgraha was used as a text book in all four southern
states till the Kerala school of Mathematics dominated the
Mathematics south India.
3) Mahāvīra defined palindromes and their factorization by using

Multiplication as
12345654321 = 27994681 441
15151 = 139 109
4) After Āryabhatīya of Āryabhata, Ganitha Sāra Saṅgraha is the

second book to give evidences that mathematics was developed in
India.
5) Mahāvīra gives the formula of cube of number in terms of arithmetic

progression of n terms.
6) Mahāvīra stated a specific formula of finding the diameter of the

inscribed circle in a triangle. This formula is extended for the
polygon also.
7) Mahāvīra is the world’s first mathematician to give the general

formula, to find the number of ways of selecting ‘r’ objects out of ‘n’
objects at a time, without regard for the order of selection denoted by
n
cr .
8) Mahāvīra is the first Mathematician to use the shadow of the day to
find the time.
_______________________________________________________
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Reference:-
(Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1999).
[2] Dr. S. Balachandra Rao, Indian Mathematics and Astronomy: Some
[5] Er. Venugopal D Heroor, Integrated approach and Trace of Ancient
Traditions in Sredhivyavhara, (NUMTA Bulletin Jan-2010)
[6] Dr. A.W. Vyawahare, Ganit-Sar-Sangraha of Mahaviracharya,
(NUMTA Bulletin Jan-2010)
End of Chapter 4
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Chapter 5
BHĀSKARĀCĀRYA II
Introduction
Bhāskarācārya II was the leading and most popular among Indian

mathematicians and astronomers. He concludes his popular text the
Līlāvatī with the śloka,
“Lilavati is born in a respectable family, stands out in any group of

enlightened persons, and has mastered idioms and proverbs (wise saying).
Whomsoever she embraces will be always being happy and prosperous,
always increasing.”
How beautifully Bhāskarācārya related mathematics with glorifying
pleasures of one who is blessed with grace of a beautiful virtuous lady.
However, the same verse could also be interpreted as:
“This Līlāvatī clearly explains (the mathematical topics) fractions,
simple fractions, multiplication etc. It also beautifully describes all the
problems in day-to-day transactions along with pure and perfect solutions
(of the problems). Rules are transparent and examples are beautifully
worded. Those, who master this Lilavati, will be happy and prosperous.”
The greatness of Bhāskarācārya is to make mathematics attractive
and irresistible. Bhāskarācārya is referred as Bhāskara II to distinguish him
from his namesake Bhāskara I of sixth century.
1. Place and period of Bhāskara
Bhāskara II, at the end of Golādhāya, says that he was born in śaka
1036 (i.e. A.D. 1114). He composed the work Siddhānta-Śiromaṇi at the
age of 36 years and composed Karaṇa-katūhalam when he was 69 years
old. Bhāskara II has covered in his mathematical text the remarkable
contributions of Āryabhata, Brahmagupta, Śrīdhara, and Padmanābha.
F - NO 47 – 488/12 (WRO) Page 60

Many examples given by Bhāskara II greatly resemble similar examples
with given in Gaṇita Sāra Saṅgraha of Mahāvīra.
According to S.B.Dixit a noted historian, the Bhāskara’s home was

Pāṭan (in Khandesh, 16 km south west of Chalisgaon in Maharashtra state).
A stone inscription was discovered by Dr. Bhau Daji in 1865 at Pāṭan.
According to inscription, Manoratha was grandfather of Bhāskara,
Maheśvara, father of Bhāskara, Lakṣminath, son of Bhāskara and
Caṅgadeva, grandson of Bhāskara. Caṅgadeva was chief astronomer in the
court of King Singhana of Yadava dynasty (King Singhana ruled at
Devagiri from śaka 1132 to 1159). Bhāskara II was associated with the
schools of Ujjain. He received education from his father.
2. Work of Bhāskara
Bhāskara II composed Siddhānta-Śiromaṇi consisting of four parts

namely, Līlāvatī, Bījaganitam, Grahaganitam and Golādhyāya but the
Līlāvatī and the Bījaganitam are treated as independent text.
The Līlāvatī is most popular work ancient Indian or Hindu

Mathematics. The Līlāvatī provides basic mathematics necessary for the
study of all practical problems (including astronomy) and deals with
operation of arithmetic, algebra, geometry (applications of right angled
triangle), mensuruation, Solution of Quadratic equations and theory of
permutations and combinations. The Līlāvatī contains 261 verses and is
divided in to 13 chapters (not by Bhāskara II but by later scribes).
A good number of commentaries on the Līlāvatī show the popularity

of the Līlāvatī. Some of them were (1) Parameśvara (about 1430 A.D.), (2)
Gaṇeṣa (Buddhivilāsinī) (1545 A.D.) (3) Muniśvara (about 1635 A.D.).
According Dr. R. C. Gupta, a well known historian of Indian mathematics,
the best traditional commentary is Kriyakramakari (C. 1534) which is joint
work of Śaṇkara Variyar and Mahiṣamaṅgala Nārāyaṇa (who compiled this
after the demise of Śaṇkara). There are number of versions of the Līlāvatī
in regional languages - Kannada and Telugu.
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List of commentaries on the Līlāvatī
Sr. Name of the Approximate time of Name of the

No. commentators on these commentators Commentaries
the Līlāvatī of
Bhāskarācārya
1 Gańgādhara 1420 A.D. Gaṇitāmṛtasāgari
or Amṛtasāri
2 Parameśvara 1430 A.D. Līlāvatīvyākhyā
3 Moṣadeva 1473 A.D. Līlāvatīṭīkā
4 Gaṇeśa Daivajña 1545 A.D. Budhivilāsinī
5 Dhaneśvara earlier than 1541 A.D. Līlāvatībhūṣaṇa
6 Sūryadāsa 1541 A.D. Mitabhāṣiṇī
7 Nārāyaṇa Earlier than 1588 A.D. Karmapradīpaka
8 Anonymaus Earlier than 1609 A.D. Līlāvatīprakāśa
9 Raṅganātha 1643 A.D. Mitabhāṣiṇī
10 Rāmakṛṣṇa 1650 A.D. Gaṇitamṛtalaharī
(A detailed list is also available)
Bījaganitam- algebra containing indeterminate analysis, it is

standard Hindu work on algebra. There a chapter on cyclic method called
Cakravāla. Due to its difficult treatment Bījaganitam was not popular as
Līlāvatī.
Grahaganitam deals with computation of planetary motions,

determination of mean and true position of planate, eclipses (lunar and
solar). Golādhyāya is the Jyotapatti contains trigonometry.
. Bhāskara II’s other famous work is Karṇa-katūhala, a hand book of

astronomy. Bhāskara II written a detailed Connentary on the Siddhānta-
Śiromaṇi called Vāsanā Bhāṣya which is interesting and some examples for
illustration are worked out.
3. Operations with zero
Bhāskara II discusses the concept of zero in the verses 44-45 of the

Lilavati.
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Verses are:-
Meaning:-
In addition, zero makes the sum equal to the additive. In involution and
(evolution) the result is zero. A definite quantity, divided by zero, is the
submultiple of nought. The product of zero is nought: but it must be
retained as a multiple of zero, if any operations impend. Zero having
become a multiplier, should not afterwards becomes a divisor, the definite
quantity must be understood to be unchanged. So likewise any quantity, to
which zero is added, or from which it is subtracted, (is unaltered).
The operation of addition, subtraction and multiplication with zero is

discussed by Brahmagupt and
a + 0 = a, a – 0 = a, a*0 = 0,
But a rough concept of infinity, that any other number when divided
by zero, gives infinity; first occur in Bhāskara II’s work. Bhāskara II had
clear notation of differential calculus. Bhāskara II makes the statement of
p*0 p
the form  this can be written in the form
q *0 q
p * p

q * q
There is no evidence of the specific use of the infinitesimal by

Bhāskara II but he had worked out some few result of differential calculus.
4. Differential calculus in the work of Bhāskara II
To determine accurately the daily motion of a planet, Bhāskara II

introduced the Tatkālika (instantaneous) method of dividing the day into a
large of small intervals, and comparing the position of planate at the end of
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successive intervals. The Tatkālika gati is essentially the instantaneous
motion of the planet. It the first example of differential calculus.
Bhāskara II writes this result in Siddhanta Siromani in the form
Meaning:- The product of the cosine of the semi diameter by the element
of the radius gives the difference of the two sines.
Explanation:- If y and y’ are the mean anomalies of the planet at the end of
successive intervals, Bhāskara II gives
Sin y – Sin y’ = (y – y’) Cos y
which is equivalent to δ(Sin y) = Cos y δy
Bhāskara II introduced an instantaneous method for finding the relative

motions of planets. He called this method as Tatkalika Gati .
He states: - If θ and θ` are mean angles of a moving planet at different

instants from a fixed position, then
sin θ’ – sin θ = (θ’ – θ) cos θ ,
This result suggests the definition of a differential dθ,
Let θ’ = θ + δθ . This gives,
sin (θ + δθ ) – sinθ = δθ cos θ
That is, cos θ = [sin (θ + δθ ) – sinθ] / δθ
In reference of calculus, if δθ  0, this result gives the derivative of sin θ,
This suggests that Bhāskara II knew the concept of limiting value of

θ and consequently that of a derivative in 12 th century. Newton (1662—
1726) and Leibnitz(1646—1716) introduced the same concept in 17th
century,that is, 500 years after Bhaskara.
Bhāskara II had gone deeper into differential calculus and stated that
the derivative (taken as a ratio of differential) vanishes at a maximum and
it is the concept of Rolle’s theorem-( Rolle a French mathematician (1652-
1719) in the year1691) .
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(Graha ganita)
“Where the planet’s motion is maximum, there the fruit of the

motion is absent.” (i.e. the motion is stationary)
5. Contributions to trigonometry
In ancient India, trigonometry was a part and parcel of astronomy,

and was not developed as a separate subject. In sulva sutra, Bodhayayana
developed the concept of trigonometry. We know the tables of sines give
by Āryabhata.
The most significant contribution of Bhāskara II in trigonometry is

Addition and subtraction theorem (i.e. sin (α ± β)). Bhāskara II coated
results on trigonometry in text “Jyotpatti” which is the last chapter in
Goladhyaya. Jyotpatti consists 25 Śhloka (stanzas)
Collectively, they mean:
“ The Rsines of any two arcs of a circle are reciprocally multiplied by their
Rcosines ; and their product is divided by the radius; the sum of the
quotient is equal the Rsine of the sum of the two arcs and their difference
is the Rsine of the difference of the arcs”
Mathematically, it means:
R jya (α ± β) = jya(α) x kojya(β) ± ko jya(α) x jya(β).
This amounts to
sin (α ± β) = sin(α) x cos(β) ± cos(α) x sin(β).
Bhāskara II gave two methods for the proof of this result.
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Bhāskara II called these addition and subtraction theorems of sine as
Samas Bhavana and Antara Bhavana respectively. From the above
formula, Bhāskara II defined the results for sin(2α), and sin(3α) and other
values for multiple angles.
6. The side of a regular polygon – Līlāvatī approach
In the Līlāvatī, Bhāskara II quoted a beautiful result of finding the

side of a regular polygon of n sides ( n from 3 to 9) inscribed in a circle
with known diameter. As a matter of fact any triangle can be
circumscribed, but not all polygons can be circumscribed. Bhaskara knew
this fact, and hence he dealt with only circumscribed polygons. It is to be
appreciated how Bhāskara II obtained the results with no tools available in
12 century.
Consider the following three shlok from Lilavati:
The collective meaning of these stanzas is as follows:
“Multiply the diameter of a given circle by the coefficients of

103923, 84853, 70534, 60000, 52055, 45922, and 41031 in order. Then
divide each of these products by 120000. And the result is the side of a
regular polygon of sides 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 respectively”
It is surprising how these coefficients were obtained by Bhāskara II.
This suggests the generalization of the above result as
Sn = (D x Pn) / 120000,
where, Sn = a side of a regular polygon of n sides ,
Pn = the coefficients mentioned in above paragraph,

taken in order
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D = diameter of the circle. In particular, when D = 120000, Sn = Pn.
Using above formula given in Lilavati , following are the sides of a

regular polygon of n sides , Here, D stands for the diameter of
circumscribing circle.
for n = 3, S3 = (D x103923)/ 120000= D x 0 .8660,.
similarly, the other values are:
for n = 4, S4= D x 0.7071,
for n = 5, S5 = D x 0.5878,
for n = 6, S6 = D x 0.5000,
for n = 7, S7 = D x 0.4339,
for n = 8, S8 = D x 0.3420,
for n = 9, S9 = D x 0.3826,
The method of deriving these coefficients Pn is not given in the

Līlāvatī. One of the ancient mathematicians, Gaṇeśa Daivajña, (16th
century) stated a result for finding these coefficients.
7. Sides and Application of Right Triangles
If any side of a right angled triangle is given then Bhāskara II gave a

formula to obtain the other side and the hypotenuse in the Līlāvatī. Śhloka
stating the result is as follows.
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Meaning: - “A side is put. From this multiplied by twice some assumed
number, and divided by one less than the square of the assumed number,
the upright is obtained. This being set apart, is multiplied by the arbitrary
number, and the side as put is subtracted; the remainder is hypotenuse.
Such a triangle is termed right-angled.”
It is stated that given side = a
Assumed number or arbitrary number = n
2an
Upright =
(n 2  1)
  2an   a (n  1)
2
This gives a right triangle with hypotenuse =   2  * n   a =

  (n  1)   (n 2  1)
Bhāskara II gave the explanation in his commentary with the use of

similar triangles.
The first triangle has side = n2-1, Upright = 2n, and diagonal n2+1 and
it is correct because (n2+1)2 = (n2-1)2 + (2n)2
Let the second triangle be similar to the above, with side = a.
In similar triangle the ratio of corresponding sides remains constant.
a
So upright of second triangle =  2n
n 1
2
Hypotenuse of first triangle = upright  n – Side
= 2n  n –(n2-1) = n2+1
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Then hypotenuse of second triangle = upright  n – Side
  2an   a (n  1)
2
=   2  * n   a =
  (n  1)   (n 2  1)
8. Some interesting examples in Līlāvatī on right triangle.
Example (1) Snake and Peacock
This is a page from a manuscript of the Līlāvatī of Bhaskara II (1114-

1185). This manuscript dates from 1650.
Meaning:- “ A snake’s hole (anthill) is at the foot of a pillar, 9 cubits high,

and a peacock is perched on its summit. Seeing a snake at the distance of
thrice the pillar moving (crawling) towards his hole, the peacock pounces
obliquely upon the snake. Say quickly at what distance from the snake’s
hole they meet, if both of them moves at the same speed.”
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Explanation:-
Pillar = AB = 9 cubits, B is the snake hole. The peacock perching at A sees

the snake at E which is moving towards B on the ground. Both starts
moving, the peacock from A and the snake from E, with the same speed.
Let c be the point on the ground where the peacock pounces on the snake.
The speed of the peacock and the snake is same both will cover
equal distance in equal time. So we have AC = CE. Also BE = 27 cubits.
Let BC = x so that CE = (27-x) cubits = AC.
In right angled triangle ABC, we have AB2 + BC2 = AC2
i.e. 92 + x2 = (27-x)2 on simplification gives x = 12 cubits.
Therefore the peacock attacks the snake at a distance of 12 cubits from the
snake-hole on the ground.
Example (2) Bamboo Problem
Meaning:- “If a bamboo, measuring 32 cubits and standing upon level

ground, be broken in one place by the force of the wind and the tip of it
meets the ground at 16 cubits, say mathematician at how many cubits from
the root it is broken.”
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Explanation:-
(32-x)2 = x2 + 162 or 322 - 64x + x2 = x2 + 162
or 322 – 162 = 64x or x = (32+16)*(32-16)/64 or x = 12
so broken bamboo 32 – 12 = 24 cubits
Example (3)
Meaning:- “The square of the ground intercepted between the roots and
the tip is divided by the (length of the ) bamboo, and the quotient severally
(sequentially) added to, and subtracted from, the bamboo, the halves (of the
sum and difference) will be the two portion of it representing hypotenuse
and upright.”
Explanation:- Suppose a bamboo of height a , standing vertically, is broken

at height x, and the tip falls to the ground at a distance b from the root of
the bamboo. A right triangle is now formed with the side b and hypotenuse
h = a-x then, x = (a - (b2/a))/2 and the hypotenuse h = (a + (b2/a))/2.
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9. Finding the second diagonal of a quadrilateral
Determination of the second diagonal when the four sides and one
diagonal of a quadrilateral is given.
Meaning:-“In the figure, first a diagonal is assumed. In the two triangles

situated on each side of the diagonal, this diagonal is made the base of
each, and the other sides are given, the perpendiculars and segments must
be found. Then the square of the difference of two segments on the same
sides being added to the square of the sum of the perpendiculars, the square
root of the sum of those squares will be the second diagonal in all
quadrilaterals.”
Explanation:- In the given figure BD is the given diagonal and ABCD is

quadrilateral whose sides known we find the diagonal AC.
D c = 51 G
H’ C
’’’
d =68
P2 ‘’’
P1 b = 40
H 11
BD = D1 = 77
A a = 75 B
Figure 5.5- Finding the second diagonal of a quadrilateral
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BD is a diagonal. To find the other diagonal AC.
P1, P2 are perpendicular to the first diagonal BD = D1 can be determined.

DH = D1c and HB = D1b are segments associated with P1. DH’ = D1d and
H’B = D1a are segments associated with P2.
Extend AH’ to G such that H’G = CH = P1.
Also, CG is perpendicular to H’G.
CG = H’H = DH – DH’ = D1c - D1d
Then the second diagonal AC = D2 is given by
AC2 = AG2 + CG2 = (P1 +P2)2 + HH’
= (P1 +P2)2 + DH – DH’
= (P1 +P2)2 + (D1c – D1d)2
In above example
side AB = a = 75,
side BC = b = 40,
side CD = c = 51
and side DA = d = 68,
given diagonal BD = D1 = 77.
Now to find DH
From triangle DCH and BCH
512 – (DH)2 = 402 – (BH)2
512 - 402 = (DH + BH)(DH – BH)
(DH – BH) = (512 - 402)/77 add both sides BD
77 
51
2
 402 
77 77  13
DH = = = 45
2 2
77 
75 2
 682 
77 77  13
Similarly DH’ =  = 32
2 2
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So HH’ = DH – DH’ = 45 - 32 = 13, and HB = BD – DH = 77 – 45 = 32
So that P1 = 24, P2 = 60
(AC)2 = AG2 + CG2 = (24 + 60)2 + (45 – 32)2 = 842 + 132 = 852
Second diagonal AC = 85.
10. Combinations in the Līlāvatī
The beauty of Līlāvatī is that it covers many topics of mathematics.

Ideas of combinations and examples on combinations are also covered in
Līlāvatī.
Meaning: - Write a number n reduce it by 1 continuously, make their

product upto n  r  1 divide this product by all consecutive numbers
starting from 1. This gives the result of combinations denoted by ncr .
Following is its explanation.
n n!
Out of n; 1 at a time is given by  = n c1
1 1!(n  1)!
n (n  1) n!
Out of n; 2 at a time is given by  = n c2
1 2 2!(n  2)!
Similarly out of n; r at a time is given by
n (n  1)(n  2)    (n  r  1) n!
 = n cr
1 2  3    r r!(n  r )!
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These combinations are used following example followed by above
slokoa in Līlāvatī
Meaning:-
In a pleasant, spacious and elegant edifice with eight doors

constructed by a skilful architect, as a palace for the lord of the land.
Tell me the combinations of doors taken one, two, three, etc. Say,
mathematician, how many are the combinations in one composition, with
ingredients of six different tastes sweet, pungent, astringent, sour, salt and
bitter, taking them by ones, twos, threes etc.
Solution of eight door problem:-
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Following are the combinations of eight doors opened one, two, three, etc
at a time
Number of ways
8 8
One door open a time = c1 = =8
1
87
8
Two doors open a time = c2 = = 28
1 2
8 876
Three doors open a time = c3 = = 56
1 2  3
8 87 65
Four doors open a time = c4 = = 70
1 2  3  4
8 87 65 4
Five doors open a time = c5 = = 56
1 2  3  4  5
8 87 65 43
Six doors open a time = c6 = = 28
1 2  3  4  5  6
8 8 7  6 5 4 3 2
Seven doors open a time = c7 = =8
1 2  3  4  5  6  7
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8 8  7  6  5  4  3  2 1
Seven doors open a time = c8 = =1
1 2  3  4  5  6  7  8
Total number of ways of opening doors is :
8+28+56+70+56+28+8+1= 255 = 28 -1
Similarly solution of combinations of six different tests

6 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of different types of compositions is = 26-1 = 63
6 6  5 6  5  4 6  5  4  3 6  5  4  3  2 6  5  4  3  2 1
     = 6+15+20+15+6+1= 63
1 1 2 1 2  3 1 2  3  4 1 2  3  4  5 1 2  3  4  5  6
At the end of Līlāvatī, Bhāskara II continued with the problems of

combination of digits if no digits are repeated. He also find the sum of all
numbers obtained by combination.
If total n digits d1, d2,.....dn are given and no digit is repeated then
we get n! numbers, and their sum is
n!
(d1  d 2  ......  d n )(1  10  .....  10( n 1) )
n
(1  10  .....  10( n 1) )  111...1(n  digits)
This can be easily proved
In (n-1)! Cases d1 is in unit place,

In (n-1)! Cases d1 is in 10’s place .........
In (n-1)! Cases d1 is in 10n-1 place.
Sum arising because of d1 alone is (n-1)!d1(1+10+..............+10n-1)
similarly considering the sum of all digits we have
n!
Sum = (d1  d 2  ......  d n )(1  10  .....  10( n 1) )
n
Bhāskara II given a problem that how many variations of number can be
obtained with the eight digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Tell promptly the sum of
these numbers.
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Solution:-
Here n = 8, and sum of digits 2+3+.....+9 = 44
Number of ways permutations n! = 8! = 40320
n! ( n 1)
Sum = (d1  d 2  ......  d n )(1  10  .....  10 )
n
8! ( 8 1)
= (2  3  ......  9)(1  10  .....  10 )
8
40320
= (44)(11111111)  2463999975360
8
Further Bhāskara II discussed with the examples where digits are repeated.
He obtained total numbers and their sum. Let there be n digits p of them
are d1, q of them are d2, r of them are d3......etc
Meaning:- “ The permutations found as before,being divided by the

permutations separately computed for as many places as are filled by like
digits, will be the variations of the number, from which the sum of the
numbers will be found as before.”
Therefore in n digits p of them are d1, q of them are d2, r of them are
d3......etc
n!
Total variations or permutations are =
p!q!r!......
When p digits which are all d1 are permutated among themselves, it does
not give rise to any new variation, but the total number of permutations (n!)
takes these into account, hence n! Ha to be divided by p!. Similarly q!, r!
...etc, should also come as divisior.
Sum of the numbers is found as before
n!
Sum =  (Sum of digits)(1 + 10 + ........10n-1)
p!q!r!......
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Bhāskara II discussed the problem of number of permutation when sum of
digits is fixed.
11. Cakravāla of Bhāskara II
Brahmagupta solved the equation Nx2 + 1 = y2 (erroneously called

Pell’s equation) by the method of Bhāvanā. But this method has following
limitations.
If a trial solution for Nx2 + k = y2 when k = 1, 2, 4 are available

then we obtain the perfect solution for Nx2 + 1 = y2. But if trial solution of
Nx2 + k = y2 contain k = 3 then we will not obtain the solution of given
equation.
For such cases Bhāskara II provided chakravāla or cyclic process

for the solution. Chakravāla means ‘circle’. It is observed that the same set
of operations being applied again and again in a continuous round so the
method is called chakravāla.
Bhāskara’s chakravāla is based on the following lemma
Lemma:- If Nx2 + k = y2 is an auxiliary equation where x, y, k are integers,

k being positive or negative then,
 xm  y  m  N  ym  Nx 
22 2
N    
 k  k  k 
where m is any arbitrary whole number.
Proof:-
We can find x and y such that Nx2 + k = y2

Also we have N(1)2 + (m2 – N) = m2
Then using Brahmagupta’s Bhāvanā
N x y k
2
1 m m -N
Kaniṣtha = x  m + y  1 = xm + y
jyeṣṭha = N  x  1 + y  m = Nx + ym
kṣepa. = k(m2 - N)
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Thus N(xm + y)2 + k(m2 - N) = (Nx + ym)2
Now divide by K2
 xm  y  m  N  ym  Nx 
2 2 2
N     ......................... (1)
 k  k  k 
xm  y
Now choose m so that is an integer and |(m2 – N)/k| is
k
xm  y m2  N ym  Nx
numerically small. Put = x1, = k1, = y1
k k k
Equation (1) becomes
N(x1)2 + k1 = (y1)2 where x1, k1, y1 are integers.
Now using x1, k1, y1 instead of a, k, y the process is repeated.

Thus we obtained new set x2, k2, y2 so that N(x2)2 + k2 = (y2)2
The process is repeated successively. After a finite number of repetitions
two integers x and y can be obtained such that
N 2     2 where  =  1 or  2 or  4
Once this solution is obtained using Brahmagupta’s Bhāvanā we obtain the

solution of Nx2 + k = y2.
Solution:- consider the equation 58x2 + k = y2
Step 1
Choose x and k so that left hand side is perfect square. So auxiliary
equation is
58(1)2 + 6 = 82 so that x= 1, k= 6, y=8, N=58
xm  y
Choose m so that = x1 is an integer, so m = 4, x1 = 2
k
m = 10, x1 = 3,
m = 16, x1 = 4
m = 22, x1 = 5,
m2  N m2  N
And | | in numerically small, but = -7, 7, 32 .......
k k
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for m = 4, 10, 16, 22..........
Now select m = 10, for which x1 = 3 and k1 = 7

ym  Nx 8 10  58 1
= y1 =  23
k 6
Now for x1 = 3 new equation is 58(3)2 + 7 = (23)2
so that x1= 3, k1= 7, y1= 23, N=58
Step 2
x 1 m  y1
choose m so that = x2 (say) is an integer so m = 4, x2 = 5
k1
m = 11, x2 = 8
m = 18, x2 = 11
m2  N m2  N
And | | in numerically small, which is -6, 7, 38 .........
k k
for m = 4,11,18.....
We can select smaller value of k2 as -6 or 7 we fix k2 = -6 and m = 4
y m  Nx 1 23 4  58  3
So 1 = y2 =  38
k1 7
Now the corresponding relation is 58(5)2 – 6 = (38)2
so that x2= 5, k2= -6, y2= 38, N=58
Step 3
x 2m  y2
choose m so that = x3 (say) is an integer so
k2
m = 2, x3 = -8 we can choose x3 = 8 because of (x3)2
m = 8, x3 = -13, we can choose x3 = 13 because of (x3)2
m = 14, x2 = -18, we can choose x3 = 18 because of (x3)2
m2  N
But | | is minimum for m = 8 so k3 = -1
k
y 2 m  Nx 2 38  8  58  5
So = y3 =  99
k2 6
We can choose y3 = 99 because of (y3)2
New equation is 58(13)2 -1 = (99)2
Using Brahmagupta’s Bhāvanā solution is
58(2574)2 + 1 = (19603)2
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Bhaskara II have solve this example in Bijganitam

Solution:-
Step 1:-
So auxiliary equation is
61∙12 +3 = 82 so that x= 1, k= 3, y=8, N=61
xm  y
Choose m so that = x1(say) is an integer, so m = 1, x1 = 3
k
m = 4, x1 = 4
m = 7, x1 = 5
m = 10, x1 = 6
m2  N m2  N
And | | in numerically small, so = -4 for m = 7
k k
ym  Nx 8  7  611
= y1 =  39
k 3
Now for x1 = 5 new equation is 61(5)2 - 4 = (39)2
This can be solved by Brahmagupta’s Bhāvanā
61(5/2)2 – 1 = (39/2)2
5 39 5 39 195 1523
, ,1 and , ,1 we get , ,1
2 2 2 2 2 2
Now performing
195 1523 5 39
, ,1 and , ,1 we get 3805, 29718, -1
2 2 2 2
Now
3805, 29718, -1 and 3805, 29718, -1
We get x = 226 153 980 and y= 1766 319 049
This is required solution.
Comments
1) Bhāskara II stated the results which are beginning of calculus. This

includes operations with zeros.
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2) Preliminary concept of infinitesimal calculus, along with
contributions towards integral calculus. Conceived differential
calculus after discovering the derivative and differential coefficient.
3) Stated Rolle’s mean value theorem, which is special case of mean
value theorem in analysis.
4) A proof of the Baudhayana Theorem by calculating same area in two
different ways.
5) In the Līlāvatī solutions of quadratic and cubic indeterminate
equations are explained.
6) In Bijganitam solutions of indeterminate quadratic equation of the
type ax2+1=y2. was solved using the Chakravāla method.
7) Use of Chakravāla and Bhāvanā method reduce many steps in
solving the equation than those in the Western methods. Chakravāla
method is the greatest contribution of Bhaskara II in Algebra which
comes over the limitations of Bhāvanā.
8) Bhāskara II also solved the equations of the type ax2-1=y2, and
a2x2+1=y2.
9) Bhāskara II has derived a beautiful method of finding the second
diagonal of a quadrilateral, where one diagonal and sides of
quadrilateral are known.
10) Bhāskara II discussed combination and permutation by
stating the results and example. Interesting thing is number of
permutation when sum of digit if fixed.
11) Bhāskara II used these results in astronomy.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Number of words 4869)
References
[1] B.B. Datta and A.N. Singh, History of Hindu Mathematics part I and
II, (Asia publishing house, single volume 1962)
[2] S.G.Dani, Ancient Indian Mathematics- A Conspectus, (Article in
RESONANCE, March 2012).
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[7] Dr. A.K.Bag, Mathematics in ancient and Medieval India
(Mathematics in ancient and Medieval India 1979)
[8] H.T.Colebrooke, Algebra with Arithmetic and Mensuration from
Sanscrit of Brahmegupta and Bhaskara (London, John Murray,
Albemarle Street, 1817)
[9] N. H. Fadke, Lilavati Punardarshan Varda Prakashan, Pune (Marathi).
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
End of chapter 5
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Chapter 6
Mādhava of Saṅgamagrāma
and
Kerala School of Mathematics
(Mādhava Founder of Kerala School of Mathematics)
(A Mathematician in Golden period of Mathematics
1350 A.D. – 1600 A.D.)
Introduction
In Kerala, a long stream of Mathematics starts from 1350 to 1600

A.D. and onwards. In this period, large number of Mathematicians and
remarkable discoveries in Mathematics and Astronomy are produced in
Kerala. All these Mathematicians are connected by unbroken continuity of
teacher- student lineage, called Kerala school of Mathematics. Here, school
means a discipline of mathematics. (and not an institution with some
infrastructure.)
The basic discoveries of Kerala school of Mathematics were study of

ratio of circumference and the diameter of a circle, trigonometric series,
infinitesimals, iterative functions and solutions of equations. As a result
mathematics jumped to infinite series. So the greatest achievement of this
school is a general algorithm of calculus, the development and applications
of infinite series techniques.
Mr. C.M.Whish, a civil servant in Madras establishment of East

India Company was the first Westerner to take a note of the work of the
Kerala School. In his paper in 1832, he drew attention of the world towards
Kerala School.
He presented a paper before Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain

and Ireland on the “Hindu Quadrature of the circle”. He brought in
light, the remarkable contributions to mathematics, contained in four
famous Kerala works: Tantra-Saṅgraha, Yukti bhāṣā, Karaṇa Paddhati,
and Sadratnamālā.
George Gheverghese Joseph in his book The Crest of the Peacock

stated that “the possibility that mathematics from medieval India,
particularly from the southern state of Kerala may have had impact on
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European mathematics of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries”. This
creates an interest to study mathematics developed by Kerala School in the
period 1350 A.D. to 1600 A.D.
1. Kerala Culture and illams.
Kerala has a rich tradition in art, literature and science. Kerala was
the birth place of an art called Kathakali. Kathakali dance combined art
with literature. It is a silent dance drama in which communication is, not by
words, but by gestures.
Kerala contained special type of temple-centred organizations: a

central temple surrounded by subsidiary temples. Many activities are
carried out under the supervision of temple. But the important role of
temple as an institution is creating and sustaining the intellectual activities
and investigations. It is also a meeting place of those who were involved in
the study of mathematics and astronomy.
There are three types of educational institutions in Kerala. All

education systems always preserve traditional Kerala Culture and rituals
and played a central role in practical and intellectual disciplines. The two
of them are cultural centres and temples.
The third important educational institution in Kerala is the

residences of individual teachers (called illams). Many students stay in
illams for study. The members of illams are limited. The students and
teachers work together. This is the place where knowledge is transmitted
from person to person without books or similar aids. The illams of Kerala
mathematicians and astronomer, such as Mādhava, Paramesvara, and
Dāmodara, became important centres of learning.
2. Student - Teacher Lineage of Kerala School
First great astronomer and mathematician of Kerala School was

Mādhava of Saṅgamagrāma. A few personal details are known about
Mādhava. In the text Venuvaroha of Mādhava, some information
regarding names of his family members and village are provided. Also
some information is present in Aryabhatiyabhasya of a mathematician
Nilkantha.
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Mādhava belonged to a house called ‘Bakuladhistita viharam’ (in
Sanskrit) or ‘Ilaininnapalli’ (in Malayalam) situated in the village
Saṅgamagrāma in central Kerala near Trissur and nearer to the railway
station ‘Irinjalakuda’. Nilkantha in his commentary on Āryabhatīya,
Aryabhatiyabhasya mentions that Parameśvaran was disciple of Mādhava.
According to Dr. K. V. Sarma, It is considered that Mādhava is flourished
in 1340- 1425 (A.D.). The Kerala School continued for about 200 years.
All the major personalities of Kerala School lived in the central Kerala.
Major personalities and Student - teacher Lineage of Kerala School

of Mathematics
Madhavan 1340- 1425 A.D.
Parameśvara 1360- 1460 A.D
Damodara 1410 – 1510 A.D
Nīlakaṇṭha 1443-1560 A.D Jyeṣṭhadeva 1500-1610 A.D
Citrabhanu 1550 A.D Acyuta Pisarati 1550-1621 A.D
Śaṅkara Vāriyar 1500 – 1560 A.D
This is the flourished period form the references in the texts

6
The major work of Mādhava are Venuvaroha & Sphutacandrapti

composed in 1400 A.D. and 1418 A.D. respectively. Mādhava calculated
the lunar longitude at nine equally distinct times in one day. He also
discussed the computation of longitudes of the planets.
Many verses of Mādhava are quoted by Parameśvara, Nilkantha,

Jyesthadeva and Sankar Variyar. All these personalities knew the original
contribution of Mādhava in the development of Kerala mathematics and
Astronomy. Hence there is a possibility that Mādhava wrote a text on
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mathematics and astronomy from which quotations were given. But such a
text is not available today. The basic contribution of Mādhava in
mathematics is discovery of infinite series for circular functions and arc
tangent function. He also calculated the instantaneous velocity of a planet.
The direct pupil of Mādhava was Parameśvara. He was born in 1360,

at Alathiyur, on the northern banks of the river Nīlā (the location of this
village is mentioned in his book goladipika , now situated in Palghat
district), in the family which is specialised in the study of astronomy and
astrology. Parameśvara was a long-lived and prolific writer. He wrote more
than twenty-five separate texts on mathematics, astronomy and astrology.
Parameśvara carried out continuous observations of eclipses over a period
of 55 years before stating his rules and corrections for the computation of
eclipses. The detailed record of the eclipses observed by Parameśvara is
found in text Siddhānta-dīpikā. Stated as
After these observations of eclipses over a long period and study of

many śāstras Parameśvara composed Dṛk-gaṇitam. He knew the
importance of checking theories against observations (Dṛk means to see
and gaṇitam means mathematical theories or calculation). He also wrote
Goladīpika dealing with various aspect of spherical astronomy.
Parameśvara mentions the date of composition of two works, Dṛggaṇitam
in śaka 1353 i.e. 1431 A.D. and composed Goladīpika in śaka 1365 i.e.
1443 A.D. Parameśvara also composed Grahaṇamaṇḍana, Grahaṇāṣṭaka,
Vākyakaraṇa, Candra-cchāyā-gaṇitam, and wrote commentries on
Āryabhaṭīyam of Āryabhata I, Mahābhāskarīyam and Laghubhāskarīyam
of Bhāskara I, and Līlāvati of Bhāskarācārya II.
Parameśvara’s student was his son Dāmodara, whose work did not
survive. Dāmodara’s astronomical writings are briefly quoted by his pupil
Nīlakaṇṭha.
Nīlakaṇṭha was student of Parameśvara and Dāmodara. He was born

in 1444 A.D. (he quoted his date of birth in Tantrasaṅgraha), in family of
Somatris in Trikkantiyur of Mallauram district. Nīlakaṇṭha gives the names
of scholars from whom he had acquired knowledge in his text
Siddhantadarpana. He learnt Vedanta Shastras from Ravi, and astronomy
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and Mathematics from Dāmodara and his Paramguru (senior teacher)
Parameśvara. Nīlakaṇṭha wrote a number of astronomical works such as
Golasara. But the best known of these is Tantrasaṅgraha, contain several
innovative astronomical and mathematical ideas, and also covers Dṛk-
gaṇitam composed by Parameśvara. In Tantrasaṅgraha he carried out
major revisions to the Āryabhatiya model for the planets, Mercury and
Venus. Nīlakaṇṭha calculated accurate specification of the equation of the
centre of the interior planets (130 years before the Keplar). His
Grahananirnaya deals with calculation of solar and lunar eclipses.
Nīlakaṇṭha was also in contact with contemporary astronomers outside
Kerala.
Dāmodara had a another student named Jyeṣṭhadeva from Alathiyur.

His major work, the Yukti-bhāṣa (in Malayalam) is in two parts. The first
part deals with rationale of several mathematical results of great
significance. Also it contains several result of Mādhava related to infinite
series for π and sine, computations of sine table and series approximations
along with their detailed rationale.
The second part of the Yukti-bhāṣa contains astronomical treaties of

various astronomical results. Also it covers proofs of many mathematical
procedures stated in Tantrasaṅgraha. This is the first work in Kerala
School that has preserved such rationale in detail.
Nīlakaṇṭha and Jyeṣṭhadeva were teachers of Śaṅkara Vāriyar. He

wrote a beautiful commentary on Tantrasaṅgraha, named the Yukti-dīpikā
which is largely based on Yukti-bhāṣa. Other work of Śaṅkara Vāriyar is
lengthy but unfinished commentary Kriyā-karmakarī on Līlāvatī.
The last known member of Kerala School was Acyuta Piṣāraṭi. He

was disciple of Jyeṣṭhadeva. He wrote a Malayalam commentary on
Mādhava’s Venuvaroha.
3. Sum of 1k + 2k + ......+ nk or sama-ghāta-saṅkalita for large n.
The method of calculating circumference without finding squares

roots is the greatest contribution of Mādhava. It is based on concept of
infinite series and covers the idea of Integration. This result gives us values
of π (for ratio of circumference to diameter) in terms of infinite series. We
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use the results of sama-ghāta-saṅkalita in Yukti-bhāṣa stated by
Jyeṣṭhadeva for finding infinite series of π.
The word used for summation in Indian mathematical text is

saṅkalita. Āryabhata – I gave the formulae for the summation of squares
and cubes of integers. These formulae are as follows
n (n  1)
S(n1)  1  2  ......  n 
2
n (n  1)(2n  1)
S(n2 )  12  2 2  ......  n 2 
6
 n(n  1) 
2
S ( 3)
n  1  2  ......  n  
3 3 3

 2 
Calculation of sama-ghāta-saṅkalita is given in Yukti-bhāṣa

S(nk )  1k  2 k  ......  n k where n is very large.
The method is as follows:
1) Sum of first n natural numbers Mūla-saṅkalita.

S(n1)  1  2  ........  n
 n  (n  1)  (n  2)  .......... .  2  1
 n  (n  1)  (n  2)  .......... .  (n  (n  2))  (n  (n  1))
 n.n  (1  2  ......  (n  1)
 n.n  S(n1)1
For large n, S(n1)  S(n1)1

S(n1)  n 2  S(n1)1
n2
So S 
(1)
n
2
2) Sum of square of first n natural numbers (Varga-saṅkalita)
Sum of squares of first n natural numbers is known as Varga-saṅkalita

given by
S(n2)  12  22  .......  n 2 or S(n2)  n 2  (n  1) 2  .....  12 ......(1)
(1)
We use nS n and
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nS(n1)  n (n  (n  1)  (n  2)  ....  2  1) ...................................(2)
Now (2) – (1)
nS(n1)  S(n2)  n (n  (n  1)  (n  2)  ....  2  1)  (n 2  (n  1) 2  .....  12 )

 (n (n  1)  (n  1) 2 )  (n (n  2)  (n  2) 2 )  ......  (n  1).1
 1.( n  1)  2(n  2)  3.( n  3)  ..........  (n  1).1
This can be written as
nS(n1)  S(n2) = (n-1) + (n-2) + (n-3) +......................+2 +1
+ (n-2) + (n-3) +......................+2 +1
+ (n-3) +......................+2 +1
nS(n1)  S(n2) = S(n1)1  S(n1) 2  S(n1)3.......... ... ......................................................(3)
n2
Right hand side of (3) is called saṅkalita- saṅkalitaI and S 
(1)
n
2
So equation (3) becomes
(n  1) 2 (n  2) 2 (n  3) 2
nS  S
(1)
n
( 2)
n =    .........
2 2 2
1 1 ( 2)
nS  S
(1)
n
( 2)
n = ((n  1) 2
 ( n  2) 2
 ( n  3) 2
 ......) = (Sn1 )
2 2
1 ( 2)
nS(n1)  S(n2) = (Sn1 ) .....................................................................(4)
2
n2
 S and S 
( 2) ( 2) (1)
But when n is very large S n 1 n n
2
So equation (4) becomes
S(n2)
nS(n1)  S(n2) 
2
n 2 ( 2) S(n2)
n  Sn 
2 2
n3
S ( 2)
n 
3
3) Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers (Ghana-saṅkalita)
Sum of cube of first n natural numbers is called as Ghana-saṅkalita
given by
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S(n3)  n 3  (n  1)3  .....  13
Using same process as in Varga-saṅkalita we have
nS(n2)  S(n3)  S(n2)1  S(n2)2  S(n2)3  ........
n3 (n  1)3 (n  2)3 (n  3)3

n  S(n3)     ......
3 3 3 3
n4 1
 S(n3)  S(n3)1
3 3
But for large n Sn  Sn 1 gives
( 3) ( 3)
n4
S ( 3)
n 
4
4) Sum of 1k + 2k + ......+ nk or sama-ghāta-saṅkalita for large n.
Sum of kth power of first n natural numbers is called as sama-ghāta-

saṅkalita given by
S(nk )  n k  (n  1) k  .....  1k
So that
nS(nk 1)  S(nk )  S(nk11)  S(nk21)  S(nk31)  ........

( k 1) nk
and S n 
k
n k 1
results S
(k)

k 1
n
x k 1
(In modern text we use  x dx 
k
, in Indian mathematics, repeated
k 1
summations are also calculated)
4. Summation of a geometric series
The geometrical representation of convergence of summation of

geometric series is beautifully explained in Nīlakaṇṭha’s
Aryabhatiyabhasya and Jyeṣṭhadeva’s Yukti-bhāṣa.
Let r be a real number such that -1< r < 1 show that
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1+ r +r2 + r3 + .........= (Infinite Series) and
1+ r +r2 + r3 + .........= (finite Series)
Proof:- (Visual Demonstration for r < 1only)
In above figure
( 1 - r ) + ( r - r2) + (r2 - r3) +............= 1

( 1 - r ) (1+ r +r2 + r3 +.................) = 1
Therefore
1+ r +r2 + r3 +.................=
In Finite case
( 1 - r ) + ( r - r2) + (r2 - r3) +.......+ (rk – rk+1) = 1- rk+1
Taking the factor ( 1 - r ) common from each term on left hand side and
rearrange we get
1+ r +r2 + r3 +.................+ rk =
The above result of infinite series can be stated in other way as:
Triangle ABC and triangle FBE are similar triangles. Length AC = AF = 1.
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Also ABC and DEC are also similar, we have
But AC = 1, DE = AF = 1, AD = EF = r, then, CD = 1 – r
Putting the values in above result we have
AB =
But AB = 1+ r +r2 + r3 +........
So the result is
1+ r +r2 + r3 +.................=
or r +r2 + r3 +.................= =
Discussion:-
1) Finding the area under a curve
In above figure Area of I = 1 (1- r) = (1 – r ) as y = 13

Area of II = r3 (r2- r) = r4 (1 – r) as y = r3
Area of III = r6 (r3- r2) = r8 (1 – r) as y = (r2)3
Total area of (I) + (II) + (III) = (1-r)(1 + r4 + r8)
So the area under the curve between x = 0 to x = 1 is
(1 – r) + r4 (1 – r ) + r8 ( 1 – r ) +......= (1 – r)( 1 + r4 + r8.....)
= (1 – r)
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=
= (as r gets nearer to1)
In modern mathematics it is
2) Construction of a tangent to a curve.
The problem is to find the slope tangent to curve at x = 1.

= 3 as
More generally for the curve y = xk slope of tangent at x=1 is given by
at =1.
3) Discussion of a problem of zero divided by zero.

Find the value of at x=1, which is an example of (0/0)
as x→1
Find the value of as x→ 1
5. Specific example of Summation of a geometric series
Nīlakaṇṭha gave explanation of how to find sum of infinite

geometric series. The specific series discussed by Nīlakaṇṭha is
Nīlakaṇṭha obtained sequences as follows

,
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So we have general result
Explanation:- As we add more terms in the above equation, the difference

between and power series of becomes extremely small. Hence if we
take all the terms of infinite series right hand side becomes zero and we get
the result as
6. Derivation of binomial series for
In Yukti-bhāṣa Nīlakaṇṭha presented a beautiful derivation of

binomial series for with the use of iterative substitution.
Using above explanation in sun of infinite geometric series obtained series
for . For this series we have sequences as follows.
Continuing the process of replacing divisor b present in the last term

of the bracket by c, we have to make a subtractive correction every time.
We obtain the series in which all even terms are negative, and series is as
follows,
..
It is mentioned in Yukti-bhāṣa and Kriyā-karmakarī that there is no

logic end to this process. However the process may be terminated after
obtaining desired accuracy by neglecting subsequent phalas (terms) as
their value become smaller and smaller.
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Explanation: - put , then hence above series is
nothing but a known binomial series
or
which is convergent for -1 < x < 1.
7. Mādhava’s Series for π
The infinite series is credited to Mādhava but quoted by Śaṅkara

Vāriyar in his commentary Yukti-dīpikā and Kriyā-karmakarī. The method
of calculating circumference without finding square roots is the greatest
contribution of Mādhava based on concept of infinite series. Also it covers
the idea of Integration. This result gives us values of π. The quoted verse is
as follows
Meaning:- The diameter multiplied by four and divided by unity,

decreases and increases should be made in turn of diameter multiplied by
four and divided one by one by the odd numbers beginning with 3 and 5.
This series is written as
or
The proof of result is depending on the properties of similar triangles

and several techniques including the ideas of integration and
differentiation.
The circle is inscribed in a square of side equal to the diameter of the

circle. This circle touches the middle points of the sides of square. A
quarter of the circle with the circumscribing square is shown in the figure.
The half side of square PPn is divided into small number of equal parts PP1,
P1P2, P2P3, ........ Pn-1Pn each of length PP1, PP2, ...... are called bhujās.
The points P, P1, P2,.........Pnare joined to centre O. The line OP1 cuts the
circumference at Q1, similarly line OP2 cuts the circumference at
Q2,......and OPn cuts the circumference at Qn.
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Lines OP1, OP2, ...... OPn are called as karṇas. From P, P1,
P2,....perpendiculars PR1, P1R2, .... are drawn on next karṇas. Means PR1 is
perpendicular from P on OP1, P1R2 is perpendicular from P1 on OP2
similarly Pi-1Rn is perpendicular from Pi-1 on OPi. Now from Q1, Q2,..
which are the points of intersection of karṇas and circumference of circle
perpendiculars are drawn on next karṇas. Q1S2 is perpendicular on OP2,
Q2S3 is perpendicular on OP3 and Qi-1Si is perpendicular on OPi.
Then from similar triangles OPP1 and OPR1
or
(OP = r is the radius of circle and is the length each subdivision of PPn).
Again from similar triangles P1R2P2 and POP2
OR
Similarly
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, and
Similarly triangles OP1R2 and OQ1S2 are similar
OR
(Putting from above result and is radius of circle r).
Similarly
If the arcs are sufficiently small, or divisions of PPn are sufficiently large
then
PR1 = PQ1, Q1S2 = Q1Q2, ......... Qn-1Sn = Qn-1Qn
Hence
arc PQn = PR1 + Q1S2 + Q2S3 +..........+ Qn-1Sn

= + + + .........+
= + + + .........+ (OP = r)
Now we can approximate it to any one of following expression
or
The relation in above equations is
The actual value of circumference lies between and
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The difference of and is
because op = r and opn=
As the number of partitions of PPn increases length of each sub interval

approaches to zero. We have
Using binomial expansion for each term
For the first term
For the second term
For the last term
We have
+ + ........
.......+
+ +......
n k 1
Using
(k)
sama-ghāta-saṅkalita S 
k 1
n
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,
Using above results
Now put
as required.
This series does not converge rapidly. It is so slow that even for
obtaining the value of correct to two decimal places we have to find
hundreds of terms and for getting correct to 4 or 5 decimal places we
have to find millions of terms.
To find the accurate value circumference we have to derive rapidly

converging series. Yukti-bhāṣa deals with the rapidly converging series
and contains many series derived from original series by grouping the
elements. The new series obtained converges rapidly.
= 8d
Similarly
= 4d -8d
8. Mādhava’s Series for in terms of tan . (Mādhava Gregory Series)
Mādhava beautifully expressed circumference in terms of diameter

and the detail proof is also given in the last article. The other series
represented is following verses is a Mādhava-Gregory Series quoted in
Kriyā-karmakarī and assigned to Mādhava
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Kriyā-karmakarī 692-693.
Meaning:- The product of the given sine- chord and radius, divided by the
cosine chord, is the first result. Then a series of results are to be obtained
from this first result and the succeeding ones by making the square of the
sine-chord the multiplier and the square of the cosine-chord the divisor.
When these are divided in order by the odd numbers 1, 3, 5...etc, the sum
of the terms in the even places is to be subtracted from the sum of the terms
in the odd places to get the arc. The smaller of the sine and cosine-cord is
to be used for calculation.
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Proof as stated in Kriyā-karmakarī
Consider the arc XB of a circle less than a +ve octant of the circle
with centre is O. The circle is inscribed in a square whose side is 2r, r is
radius of circle. Join OB and produce it to cut the side of square in C. Let
AB be the half sine chord = s and half cosine chord OA = c
Repeating the same procedure as per the last section for arc XB. Divide
XC in to n parts each of equal length . So that XC = n and
But XC = n . so above equation is
Now from the similar triangles OAB and OXC
or putting this value in above series
but and tan
Finally we have
tan
This series was derived by Mādhava in 14th century before Gregory. Now it
is called as Mādhava- Gregory series.
9. Derivation of Mādhava’s Rsine and Rversine series.
The sine and cosine series were well-known in the Āryabhaṭa

School and are derived in the Yukti Bhāṣa. there are two more of the
achievements of the great Mādhava. For the sine series the text
Tantrasaṃgraha states
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(Quoted in Yukti Bhāṣa p. 192)
(One should multiply the arc and the resulting products by the square of the
arc, and these should be divided in order by the squares of the even
numbers combined with their roots, and multiplied by the square of the
radius. The arc and these products should be placed one beneath the other
in order and the lower ones should be subtracted from the upper ones for
getting the sine-chord.)
If a is an arc, and r the radius of a circle then,
Let q = a
= =
= =
Hence sine-chord = q - + - +......
sine-chord =
But sine-chord = r sin and a = r = a/r
putting these values in above equation, we have sine series

sin = -
The series for the verse sine is made similarly
(One should multiply one and the resultant products by the square of the
arc and divide in order by the squares of the even numbers diminished by
their roots, and multiplied by the square of the radius. But let the first be
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divided by the radius multiplied by two only. These terms should be placed
one beneath the other in order and the lower ones should be subtracted in
order from the one above them in order to get the arrow......)
i.e. the versed sine or the śara of the sine chord, as the Indians put it
......
......
and Versed sine or śara = 1 – cos

so Versed sine or śara = r – r cos = ......
But cosine-chord = r cos and a = r

We have cos =1-
The derivation of these series making use of the saṃkalita of the parts of a
whole or integration employed in getting the series for is based on still
subtler analysis and proceeds stage by stage.
For a detailed mathematical treatment of this remarkable contributions of
Kerala School, readers may go through following work :
1) Dr.T.A.Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in Ancient and Medival India,

Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1999. (p. 184 -190).
2) Dr. A.K. Bag, Mathematics in Ancient and Medival IndiaI,
Chaukhambha Orientalia, Varanasi, 1979 (p. 271 – 285).
10. Contrbution of Parameśwaran
Parameśwaran contributed in geometry. Some of his results are given

below.
A) In a triangle, the product of any two sides divided by the diameter
of the circle circumscribing the triangle = the altitude on the third
side. That is AB* AC = AE* AD
(The result also stated by Brahmagupta)
Proof: - In triangle ABC, AD is the altitude to the base BC and AE is its
circum-diameter. Join CE. Then triangles ACE and ADB are similar.
Hence AC/AE = AD/AB or AB* AC = AE* AD
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This result is useful for finding the circum-diameter of triangle. AB and
AC are two sides of a circumscribed triangle and AD is the perpendicular
on the third side then the diameter of circum-circle is (AB*AC)/AD and
radius of circum-circle is (AB*AC)/(2*AD).
Application of this result:-
We know how to construct a triangle if three sides are given. But with the
use of above theorem if two sides of a triangle are given and altitude of a
triangle or diameter of the circle circumscribing the triangle are known
then we can construct a triangle also.
B. Some properties of the chords of a circle
Statement :- The difference of the squares on the chords of any two arcs of
a circle = the product of the chord of an arc equal to the sum of two arcs
and the chord of an arc equal to the difference of the two arcs.
This is similar to algebraic identity:-
X2 – Y2 = (X+Y)(X-Y)
Proof is given using chords of the circle
Proof:- Let AB and BC be any two arcs of a circle. Note that the arcs have
a common point B. Let AB be the greater arc. On the arc AB mark a point
D so that arc AD = arc BC.
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So that
arc DB = arc AB- arc AD = arc AB – arc BC.

= the difference of two arcs
arc AC = arc AB + arc BC = Sum of the two arcs
We have to prove that AB2 – BC2 = AC BD
Now arc AD = arc BC so that AD = BC
From the B and D draw perpendicular to AC to meet it at E and F

respectively. ACBD is a cyclic quadrilateral and sides AD and BC are
equal So that DF = BE and DB = EF.
In the triangle ABC
AB2 – BC2 = (AE2 + EB2) – (BE2 + EC2)

= AE2 - EC2
= (AE + EC) (AE – EC)
= (AE + EC) (AE – AF)
= (AC DB)
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C. The product of any two chords of a circle is equal to the difference
between the squares on the chord of the arithmetic mean of the
arcs and the chord of the semi-difference of the arcs.
This result is stated as
Product of two full chords is equal to the difference in the squares of the
full chords associated with half the sum and difference of the arcs.
(From the last diagram)
AC x DB = square on the chord of (1/2)(arc AC + arc DB)

- square on the chord of (1/2)(arc AC - arc DB)
Proof:- Consider the two chord AC and DB

arc AC + arc DB = (arc AB + arc BC) + (arc AB – arc AD)
= 2 arc AB (because arc BC = arc AD)
arc AC - arc DB = (arc AD + arc DB + arc BC) – (arc DB)
= 2arc BC (because arc AD = arc BC)
AC DB = AE2 – EC2 = AB2 – BC2 (by last result)
Hence the result is
AC x DB = square on the chord of (1/2)(arc AC + arc DB)
- square on the chord of (1/2)(arc AC - arc DB)
This result stated above can be put in the modern trigonometric
language as:-
(Sin A) (Sin B) = Sin2
Put
Sin2C – Sin2 D = Sin(C + D) Sin (C - D)
In Indian geometry, a sine function is defined in term of arc of a circle.
D. Proof of Formula for the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral when

sides are known
Sum of the product of the two pairs associated with a diagonal is
equal to the product of the diagonal with the third diagonal.
Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral. Its sides AB > BC > AD > CD.
Take a point E on the arc AC so that arc CD = arc AE. Then chord ED is
parallel to chord AC. H is the midpoint of are ED.
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arc ED = arc AD – arc DC
Similarly take a point F on the arc AB so that arc AF = arc BC. Then
chord FB is parallel to chord AC. G is the midpoint of arc FB.
arc FB = arc AB – arc BC
We have result
arc HE + arc EA + arc AF + arc FG = arc HD + arc DC + arc CB + arc BG

so that arc HEAFG = arc HDCBG or HG is diameter of the circle
circumscribing the cyclic quadrilateral ABCD.
Now BD is called as first diagonal of the cyclic quadrilateral and AC is

second diagonal. These are the full chords associated with sums of the arcs
associated with different pairs of adjacent sides.
Now interchange the sides AB and BC. We have a new cyclic quadrilateral
AFCD. We can obtain one more diagonal DF which is of the full chord
associated with the sum of the arcs associated with the opposite sides. This
is “third diagonal” of cyclic quadrilateral ABCD.
arc DF = arc DC + arc CF = arc DC + arc AB
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similarly if we interchange the sides AD and DC, we obtain cyclic
quadrilateral ABCE having diagonal EB which also another third diagonal
of cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, but
arc EB = arc EA + arc AB = arc DC + arc AB = arc DF
we have arc EB = arc DF or both third diagonals are same. There is no

more possibility of choosing pairs from a given set of four arcs, so no more
diagonals possible.
Now the product of sides associated with first diagonal BD is (AB) (BC)
and (AD) (DC) and the sum is (AB) (BC) + (AD) (DC).
Using last result
(AB) (BC) = square of chord of ((arc AB + arc BC)/2) - square of chord

of ((arc AB - arc BC)/2)
(arc AB + arc BC)/2 = arc AG = arc CG
and ((arc AB - arc BC)/2 = arc FG = arc GB
(AB) (BC) = (AG)2 - (GB)2
Similarly (AD) (DC) = (AH)2 - (HD)2
(AB) (BC) + (AD) (DC) = (AG)2 - (GB)2 + (AH)2 - (HD)2
= (AG)2 + (AH)2 - (GB)2 - (HD)2
Triangle HAG is right angled triangle because HG is diameter of the circle
circumscribing the cyclic quadrilateral ABCD.
We have (AG)2 + (AH)2 = (HG)2
(AB) (BC) + (AD) (DC) = (HG)2 - (GB)2 - (HD)2
Also triangle HDG is right angled triangle
(HD)2 + (DG)2 = (HG)2 or (HG)2 - (HD)2 = (DG)2
So that (AB) (BC) + (AD) (DC) = (DG)2 - (GB)2
(AB) (BC) + (AD) (DC) = (DG)2 - (GB)2
= (chord DG + chord GB) (chord DG - chord GB)
= (chord DG + chord GF) (chord DG - chord GB)
= DF DB = DB DF
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= DB EB Because DF = EB
This show that sum of the products of the two pairs of sides associated with
the first diagonal BD is equal to the product of the first diagonal with third
diagonal.
We have proved that

(AB) (BC) + (AD) (DC) = DB DF .......(1)
For second diagonal result can be proved as
(AB) (AD) + (BC) (CD) = AC DF ............(2)
Now For the quadrilateral AFCD, we have
(CF) (CD) + (AF) (DA) = AC BD or
(AB) (CD) + (BC) (DA) = AC BD ...........(3)
Let us denote the sidesof cyclic quadrilateral AB, BC, CD, and DA by a, b,
c and d respectively, and diagonals AC, BD and DF by x, y and z
respectively as shown in figure then above three equations are
a.b + c.d = y.z, a.d + b.c = z.x, a.c + b.d = x.y
multiplying any two equations and dividing by third we get squares of
three diagonals, thus
, , z=
Note:- The four sides of quadrilateral taken two at a time give only six
products which are a.b, a.c, a.d, b.c, b.d and c.d. these products can be
taken in pairs without any term repeating in any pairs, gives three types of
combinations. Hence there cannot be a fourth diagonal.
E. Area of a cyclic quadrilateral in terms of diagonals.
The area of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the product of the three

diagonals divided by twice the circumdiameter.
Consider the second diagonal AC as base of two triangles ADC and

ABC. Now from the vertex D draw the perpendicular DM to AC and
extend it to meet BF at point O. Now from the vertex B draw the
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perpendicular BN on diagonal AC. But ED is parallel to AC parallel to FB.
So BO is perpendicular to BF at O. It follows that BN and DO are parallel
and MO = BN. Thus DM + BN = DM + MO = DO.
Area of quadrilateral ABCD = area of triangle ADC + area of triangle ABC

=
In triangle FDH
DF
So, Area of quadrilateral ABCD =
Area of quadrilateral ABCD =
F. Area of a cyclic quadrilateral in terms of sides.
We have obtained area of cyclic quadrilateral in terms of diagonals

and diameter of circle. Three diagonals can be obtained in terms of sides of
quadrilateral but problem remains to find the diameter.
Now we obtain the formula for area of cyclic quadrilateral in terms

of sides. As a result we obtain the circumdiameter in terms of sides. The
formula for area in terms of sides is
where s = (semi-perimeter)
Proof
Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral. Diagonal BD divides the
quadrilateral in to two triangles BCD and ABD.
In triangle ABD, AE is the altitude on side BD similarly in triangle

BDC, CF is the altitude on side BD. M is the mid-point of diameter BD.
We denote R, radius of circle circumscribing the quadrilateral ABCD.
In triangle ABD, and
In triangle BCD,
Area of triangle ABD = and
Area of triangle BCD =
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AE and CF are perpendicular to a common line so they are parallel
to each other. Now produce altitudes AE and CF such that they form the
opposite sides of a rectangle, whose length is AK = CH which is sum of
altitudes and breadth CK = AH = EF = distance between (feet of the) two
altitudes. AC is the diagonal of cyclic quadrilateral ABCD and rectangle
AHCK.
The procedure of finding the area of the cyclic quadrilateral is same

as in the area by diagonals. It is expressed as area of two triangles into to
which it is divided by diagonal and calculate the area of the triangle by
using the diagonal as the base and the perpendicular drawn to its altitudes.
Only the difference now is that the sum of these altitudes will be obtained
in terms of the sides of the quadrilateral.
So from rectangle AHCK

(AC)2 = (AH)2 + (HC)2 or x2 = (AH)2 + (HC)2
(HC)2 = x2 - (AH)2
and Area of cyclic quadrilateral ABCD =
the square of the area of ABCD =
= ( )
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To find CK = AH = EF = distance between (feet of the) two altitudes.
The feet of the altitude of a triangle is always closer to the smaller side this
leads two possibilities the midpoint M of BD lies either between the feet of
the perpendicular E and F or not.
Case I: - In the above diagram AB > AD and CD > BC. In this case
midpoint M of the diagonal BD lies between E and F the feet of the
altitudes.
In triangle BCD the difference between the projections of CD and

BC on BD = FD – BF = (FM +MD) – (BM – FM) = 2FM
(because MD = BM)
Similarly in triangle ABD the difference between the projections of AB

and AD on BC = BE – ED = (BM + ME) – (MD – ME) = 2ME
– –
So FM = and ME =
– –
FE = FM + ME = +
(By above result) AB2 – BC2 = (AC DB)
FE = =
FE =
Case II: - If AB > AD and CB > CD in this situation the midpoint M of

BD lies on the same side of E and F.
In triangle BCD the difference between the projections of CD and
BC on BD = BF - FD = (BM + MF) – (MD - MF) = 2FM
Similarly in triangle ABD the difference between the projections of AB
and AD on BC = BE – ED = (BM + ME) – (MD – ME) = 2ME
–
So FM = and ME = =
Hence EF = ME – MF =
=
In both the cases, the difference of the projections or distance between feet
of the altitude = difference between the sum of the squares of pairs of
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opposite sides divided by twice the diagonal having the feet of the altitude
on it.
Using the abbreviations a, b, c, d for sides and x, y for diagonals
EF =
So sum of altitudes (HC)2 = x2 - (AH)2 = x2 - (EF)2
= x2 -
the square of the area of ABCD =
We have proved
and
so =
the square of the area of ABCD
=
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Put s =
the square of the area of ABCD = (s-a)(s-b)(s-c)(s-d)
area =
G. Formula for the radius of a circle circumscribing the cyclic

quadrilateral (circum radius) in terms of sides.
Sum of the altitude = AE + CF =
Area of cyclic quadrilateral ABCD = y
R=
This is the formula for the radius of a circle circumscribing the cyclic
quadrilateral (circum radius) in terms of sides.
11) Nīlakaṇṭha’s formula for finding length of arc in terms of chord.
The most significant contribution of Kerala School is to find the

approximate value of the arc of a circle in terms of chord. In Indian
trigonometry the arc is calculated in terms of sine chord (ardhajyā) and
versed sine chord. This result is credited to Nīlakaṇṭha. He stated the
results in Ganitpāda as
Meaning:-
The square root of one and one third of the arrow and the square of
the (sine) chord is the arc nearly.
Result for the arc is stated as arc a =
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Here the arc is calculated in terms of its sine chord ‘s’ and its versed sine
chord, which is same as the height of twice arc ‘h’.
Sine chord = ardhajyā = AD = s
Arrow = versed sine = DB = h
Method of calculating above result
In figure AB is the arc required to be found out. Let h be its height.

Let c1 be the length of chord of arc AB whose height is h 1, and c2, c3,....arc
chords of the arcs got successively bisecting it and h 2,h3, .....be the heights
of these arcs.
Arc AC is double arc AB. Height of AC is h. Draw the diameter

BOK through B, it will bisect the chord AC at right angle at D. AD is the
given sine-chord (ardhajyā) of arc AB.
Chord AB2 = = AD2 + BD2 = s2 + h2
E is the middle point of arc AB, join E and O, which is centre of the circle
and AB is the arc of this circle. EO bisects the chord AB at F.
Chord AE2 = Chord EB2 = = AF2 + EF2 =
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Similarly
Similarly
=
Continuing this process, we have
When n is sufficiently large arc will be very small and the chord can be
equated to the arc, we write as
Proceeding inversely and assuming or

Arc =4 = square of twice of arc
........................................................................
........................................................................
+............................+
4 +............................+
22
s +h 4 +............................+
From similar triangles BDA and BKA
or
Also triangles AEF and EFB are similar and triangles EFB and BKE are
similar so triangles AEF and BKE are similar
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Neglecting higher power of h1
Similarly, h2 = and h3
So will be geometrical progression with 1/16 as common
ratio, hence
Therefore
s2 + or s2 +
a1 =
Nīlakaṇṭha noted that this is only an approximate value. He recommended
the use of this formula for small arcs only.
Comments
1) Mādhava knows the Āryabhata’s method of finding the value of

by inscribing a regular hexagon in the circle. This involves square
root.
2) Mādhava stated the foundation of calculus.
3) Mādhava found the value of using by the method of calculating
circumference without finding square roots is one of the
contributions of Mādhava based on concept of infinite series. Also
found the value of in terms of infinite series. This series converges
slowly.
4) Mādhava found the series of arctan (tan-1), sine, versed sine and
cosine.
5) Parameśwaran quoted all the results of cyclic quadrilateral, diagonal
in term of sides, area in term of diagonals and area in terms of sides.
6) Parameśwaran found the formula for the radius of a circle
circumscribing the cyclic quadrilateral (circum radius) in terms of
sides.
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7) Jyeṣṭhadeva quoted all the major results from Mādhava with proof in
his major work, the Yukti-bhāṣa. He stated the wonderful result of
finding the approximate value of length of arc in terms of chord.
8) Similarly Nīlakaṇṭha quoted the results in Tantrasaṅgraha.
_______________________________________________________
Total No of words 7,730
References

[5] George Gheverghese Joseph, The Crest of the Peacock, Princeton
University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, United Kingdom.
[6] George Gheverghese Joseph, APassage to Infinity, SAGE Publication
India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
[7] T Padmanabhan, (Article in Resonance February 2012), Calculus is
Developed in Kerala.
[8] Kim Plofker, Mathematcs in India (Culture and History of
Mathematics – 7), Hindusthan Book Agency, New Delhi 2009.
[9] Editor, C.S. Seshadri, Studies in the History of Indian Mathematics
(Culture and History of Mathematics – 5), Hindusthan Book Agency,
New Delhi 2009.
[10] Editor, Gerard G. Emch, R. Sridharan, M.D.Srinivas,
Contributions to the History of Indian Mathematics(Culture and
History of Mathematics – 3), Hindusthan Book Agency, New Delhi
2009.
Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1999.
[12] Proceedings of the International Seminar and Colloquium on 1500
years of Āryabhateeyam, Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad, Kochi 2002.
F - NO 47 – 488/12 (WRO) Page 119

[13] Dr.A.W. Vyawahare, Madhava’s Contribution to Mathematics,
NUMTA BULLETIN Jan 2008.
[14] Dr. A.K. Bag, Mathematics in Ancient and Medival IndiaI,
Chaukhambha Orientalia, Varanasi, 1979
[15] Dr.A.W. Vyawahare, BODHAYAN GEOMETRY.
[16] Proceedings of the International Seminar and Colloquium on 1500
years of Āryabhateeyam, Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad, Kochi 2002.
End of chapter 6
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Chapter 7
Srinivasa Ramanujan
“Every positive integer was one of his personal friends”

J.E. Littlewood
Srinivasa Ramanujan, was one of India’s greatest mathematical

genius. He worked on contemporary mathematics but the approach of his
work was typically in the tradition of Indian Mathematicians. According to
Ramanujan “An equation for me has no meaning unless it expresses a
thought of God.” Dr. George Andrews, a renowned researcher on the
Ramanujan mathematics remarks, “Most mathematical research is
spontaneous. Very little of it comes by having axioms and deducting
theorems from axioms.”
1. Life Sketch of Srinivasa Ramanujan
He was born in Erode in the Madras Presidency, a small village

about 400 km southwest of Madras, on 22nd December 1887. When
Ramanujan was seven years old,, his teacher said that when zero is divided
by any number, the result is Zero, Ramanujan immediately asked him
whether zero divided by zero also gives zero. This shows early signs of his
genius.
He passed primary examination in 1897 and stood first in the district.
He joined Town High School-Kumbakonam in1898. He had mastered a
book “Advanced Trigonometry written by S. L.Loney” at the age of 13 yrs.
In 1904 he joined Government College at Kumbakonam. In 1906 he
joined Pachaiyappa’s college at Madras.His first paper was published in
1911, a 17 page work on Bernoulli numbers in a journal of the Indian
Mathematical Society. He worked as a petty clerk at the Madras Port Trust
in 1912. Later he received a scholarship from the Madras Government to
devote all his time to research. In 1914 he went England. In 1916
Cambridge University granted him a degree of Bachelor of Science. In
1919 – he returned India.
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2. Ramanujan Number 1729
1729 is known as the Ramanujan number after a famous story when

G. H. Hardy visit Srinivasa Ramanujan in the hospital.
G. H. Hardy told “I remember once going to see him when he was ill
at Putney. I had ridden in taxi cab number 1729 and remarked that the
number seemed to me rather a dull one. "No," Ramanujan replied, "it is a
very interesting number; it is the smallest number expressible as the sum of
two cubes in two different ways." Generalizations of this idea have created
the notion of “taxicab number”. 1729 is written as
1729 = 13 + 123 = 93 + 103
The next bigger numbers are
4104 = 163 + 23 = 153 + 93
13832 = 243 + 23 = 203 + 183
40033 = 343 + 93 = 333 + 163
Largest known similar number is
885623890831 = 75113+77303 = 87593+59783
3. Nested square roots.
One of the first problems he posed in the journal of the Indian
mathematical Society was:
Find the values of
(1)
(2)
He put up the solution of first problem as

n (n + 2) = n =n
put f (n) = n (n + 2)
f (n) = n =n
= n
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Put n =1 we get
3 =
Similarly second result gives
4=
He formulated an equation to solve the infinitely nested radicals problem.
x+n+a=
This journal put Ramanujan on the world’s mathematical map .
4. Highly composite number
A highly composite number (HCN) is a positive integer n with

number of divisors more than a number smaller than n. Some highly
composite numbers are
Composite no. Divisors no. of divisors

6 1,2,3,6 4
36 1,2,3,4,6,9,12,18,36 9
72 1,2,3,4,6,8,9,12,24,36,72 11
144 1,2,3,4,6,8,9,12,18,36,72,144 12
240 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,10,12,15, 20
16,20,24,30,40,48,60,80,120, 240
1680 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,12,15,16,20,21, 40
22,24,28,30,35,40,42,48,56,60,70,
80,92,105,112,140,168,210,240,
280,336,420,560,840,1680
The highest highly composite number listed by Ramanujan is

6746328388800 (a 13 digit number) having 10080 factors.
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5. Partition of natural numbers.
The number of ways in which a given number n can be split into smaller
numbers such that their sum is n is called the partitioning of n denoted by
p(n).
Partition of n is also a natural number.

For n=4 partitions are as follows.
4 =4
=1+3
= 2+2
=1+1+2
= 1+1+1+1
p(4) = 5 ,where p is a Partition Function
Similarly for n=5, p(5) = 7, n=6 p(6) = 11
The interesting part is:
Can we find p(n) without numerating all the partitions of n? and
Ramanujan gave the first answer.
1/ 2
1 2n 

P( n )  e  
4 3  3 
Where π is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter and
e = 2.71828 approximately. The symbol stands for ‘asymptotically
equal to’.
Properties of partition function.
Ramanujan established following congruence theorems on partition

(1) p(5n + 4 ) is always divisible by 5, that is p(5n + 4 ) 0 (mod 5)
so that p(4), p(9), p(14), p(19) …. are always divisible by 5.
(2) p(7n + 5) is always divisible by 7, that is p(7n + 5 ) 0 (mod 7)

so that p(5), p(12), p(19), p(26)….. are always divisible by 7.
(3) p(11n+6) is always divisible by 11, that is or p(11n + 6) 0 (mod 11)

so that p(6) , p(17), p(28), p(39) ….. are always divisible by 11
(4) p(25n + 24) is always divisible by 25, that is p(25n + 24) 0 (mod 25)
i.e. p(24), p(49), p(74), p(99)… are always divisible by 25.
(5) p(35n + 19) is also divisible by 35, that is p(35n + 19) 0 (mod 35)
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i.e. p(19), p(54), p(89)……. are always divisible by 35.
Ramanujan established following important identity

p(4) + p(9)x + p(14)x2 +….=
6. Other significant Contributions
Goldbach’s conjecture:
The statement of Goldbach’s conjecture is: Every even integer greater

that two is the sum of two primes, that is, 6=3+3.
Ramanujan and his associates reached to a conclusion that every
integer could be written as the sum of at most four primes (Example:
43=2+5+17+19).
Fermat’s Theorem: He also did considerable work on the unresolved
Fermat theorem. While on this problem he reached to the conclusion that a
prime number of the form 4m+1 is the sum of two squares.
7. A part of Letter by Ramanujan to G. H. Hardy
“I beg to introduce myself to you as a clerk in the Accounts Department of
the Port Trust Office at Madras (India).
I have had no university education but I have undergone the ordinary
school course.
If you are convinced that there is anything of value, I would like to have
my theorems published.
Being inexperienced, I would very highly value any advice given to me.”
“I am striking out a new path for myself.
I have made a special investigation of divergent series in general.
The results I get are termed by the local mathematicians as “startling“…
I would request you to go through the enclosed papers.”
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Comments
(1) Ramanujan considered his workings to be for his personal interest
alone. Blank paper was very expensive to Ramanujan . Therefore he
only recorded the results. Ramanujan would do most of his proofs on
slate and then transfered the results to paper.
(2) He published a brilliant research paper on Bernoulli numbers in 1911
in the journal of the Indian mathematical society and gained
recognition for his work. Despite his lack of a university education, he
was becoming well known in the Madras as a mathematical
genius. He worked on study the Bernoulli numbers, although this was
entirely his own independent discovery.
(3) Ramanujan had significant contribution in different areas of
mathematics. Some of which are
Magic Squares, Sums of Series, Combinational Analysis,
Polynomials, Number Theory, Hyper-geometric series, Euler’s
constant, Cubic Equations and Quadratic Equation,
Divergent series.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
References

[2] Dr. A.W. Vyawahare and Mrs Aruna Shobhane,
PPT presented on125th Birth Anniversary of Sirnivasa Ramanujan -
a National Mathematics Year – 2012.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
End of Chapter 7
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Chapter 7
Summary
Indian culture is based on Logic and Mathematics. Many

mathematical results, Baudhāyana theorem, constructions of altars,
geometrical constructions, use of number system are used by Indians very
long back (Indus Vally Mathematics has period 2300B.C. – 1700B.C.).
Indian Mathematicians made significant contributions in the world of
Mathematics from the Vedic time. Unfortunately work of Indian
mathematicians remains covered for many reasons.
Some mathematical concepts are fundamental. These concepts get

absorbed in the general thinking of all peoples of the world. So it is
difficult to pinpoint a specific period of time of birth of these concepts (or
development of mathematical concepts). One such basic concept is
introducing the place value system and the number zero, the credit for
which goes to Ancient Indian mathematicians specially Brahmagupta.
All the Indian mathematicians show interest in the Astronomy. In

most of all texts of Indian mathematicians along with Astrology a separate
chapters on measuring units and mathematics are included. There is a
gradual development of mathematics in India. In fact there are no water
tight compartment such as arithmetic, algebra, geometry and trigonometry.
This gives the fact that Indian mathematics is practically useful in daily
life. In case of many results necessary proofs are provided.
When we have a beautiful path of development of mathematics in

India. The Indus Valley civilisation (called as Harappan civilisation) dates
back to 2500 – 3000 B.C. This was city civilisation; archaeological
evidences show that the principles of city planning had been adopted. This
civilisation gives clear evidences of application of geometry in daily life.
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Construction of simple geometric figures such as square, rectangle, triangle
and circle are well were known to the people. Weights used are in the form
of cubes. Plumb bobs were made with remarkable accuracy. The highlight
of this civilisation was its knowledge of baked bricks used in the
constructions. The most ideal ratio of the length, breadth and thickness
(4:2:1) of a brick, which is good for efficient bonding strength and the
principles of city planning was known to the people in the Indus Valley
civilisation. But no text of this period is available.
The Śulbasūtras is text available from the period 900 B.C. but the
name of the author is not in the text. There are nine Śulbasūtras existing.
Four of them are significant in mathematics named by Vedic scholars
Baudhāyana, Āpastamba, Mānava and Kātyāyana. The Śulbasūtras contain
rich principles of mathematics, basically of ‘geometry’. The outstanding
feature of Śulbasūtras is consistency and completeness of geometrical
results and application of these results in actual construction shows that
Śulbasūtras have deeper significance.
Āryabhata - I was the first Indian astronomer and a mathematician.
Āryabhata - I was born in 476 A.D. Āryabhata wrote two books, (1)
Āryabhatīya and (2) Āryabhata-siddhanta. He wrote Āryabhatiya when he
was 23. His name appeared in three different stanzas (verses) of
Āryabhatīya. This is the first text in which the name of author appeared.
The first part of Āryabhatīya is DaśaGītika pāda consists of 13
stanzas (of which 10 stanzas are in gītika metre). This chapter basically
states unit of time (Kalpa, Manu and yuga), Circular units of arcs (degree
and minute) and linear units (yojana, hasta and aṅgula).
The second part of Āryabhatīya is gaṇita pāda, consisting of 33

stanzas dealing with mathematics. Important mathematical topics discussed
in this section are approximate value of π, Geometrical figures and their
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properties and mensuruation, Arithmetical method of finding the square
root and the cube root, Arithmetic progression, geometric progression,
Simple and compound interest, The method of solving the first order
indeterminate equations of the type ax + c = by.
The interesting part is alphabetical system of numerical notation, the

first ten notational places and the place value shows that Āryabhata knew
the decimal system. Alphabetical system of numerical notation shows that
a number however big can be written in concise way. Without knowing the
decimal number system such conversion is not possible.
Brahmagupta was born in 598 A.D. in Bhinmala, situated on the

north border of Gujarath in South Marwar. The well known works of
Brahmagupta are ‘Brahama Sphuta Siddanta (the Opening of the
Universe)’ and ‘Khanda Khadyaka’.
Brahama Sphuta Siddanta contains 1008 verses (slokas) in 25
chapters. Chapter 12 is devoted to Arithmetic and geometry consisting of
56 verses. Chapter 18 deals with Algebra in 102 verses. These are the only
two chapters on the Mathematics. The major contributions are many results
on calculating the sides of right angled triangle in different ways, A
beautiful method to obtained infinitely many solutions of the equation Nx 2
+ 1 = y2, defined a quantity having properties of modern zero and defined
some properties of modern zero.
Mahāvīra was the first Indian mathematician who wrote a separate

text on mathematics Ganitha Sāra Saṅgraha in 850 A.D. Ganitha Sāra
Saṅgraha contains nine chapter of about 1100 śhiokas and contain
elementary topics in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, mensuruation,
measurements of gold silver ornaments etc. Elementary algebraic
equations of one variable were used for distribution of property, purchase-
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sale transaction etc. The work of Mahāvīra is important because it is a
collection summarizing elementary mathematics of his time and provides a
rich source of information on ancient Indian Mathematics. Ganitha Sāra
Saṅgraha was widely used in South India.
The greatness of Bhāskarācārya is to make mathematics attractive

and irresistible. Bhāskarācārya is referred as Bhāskara II. He has written
three texts on mathematics Līlāvatī, Bījaganitam, Grahaganitam and
Golādhyāya. Līlāvatī is most popular work ancient Indian or Hindu
Mathematics. A good number of commentaries on Līlāvatī show the
popularity of Līlāvatī. Bījaganitam- algebra containing indeterminate
analysis, it is standard Hindu work on algebra. In Bijganitam solutions of
indeterminate quadratic equation of the type ax 2+1=y2. was solved using
the Chakravāla method. There is a chapter on cyclic method called
Cakravāla. Golādhyāya is the Jyotapatti contains trigonometry. Bhāskara
stated the important result of expansion of Sin(A+B). Bhāskara II
discussed combination and permutation by stating the results and example.
Interesting thing is number of permutation when sum of digit if fixed.
Bhāskara II has derived a beautiful method of finding the second diagonal
of a quadrilateral, where one diagonal and sides of quadrilateral are known.
Bhāskara also coated the result of finding the side of regular polygon
inscribed in a circle
Mathematicians before Mādhava were working on Arithmetic,

Algebra, Trigonometry and Combinatorics. Work of Mādhava in calculus
and infinite series motivates Mathematics from finite to infinite. We
discussed, Mādhava’s “calculus without limits” and infinite series.
Mādhava knows the Āryabhata’s method of finding the value of
by inscribing a regular hexagon in the circle. This involves square root.
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Mādhava found the value of using by the method of calculating
circumference without finding square roots is one of the contributions of
Mādhava based on concept of infinite series. This series converges slowly.
Mādhava found the series of arctan (tan-1), sine, versed sine and cosine.
Mādhava stated the foundation of calculus.
Parameśwaran quoted all the results of cyclic quadrilateral, diagonal
in term of sides, area in term of diagonals and area in terms of sides.
Parameśwaran found the formula for the radius of a circle circumscribing
the cyclic quadrilateral (circum radius) in terms of sides.
Jyeṣṭhadeva quoted all the major results from Mādhava with proof in
his major work, the Yukti-bhāṣa. He stated the wonderful result of finding
the approximate value of length of arc in terms of chord. Similarly
Nīlakaṇṭha quoted the results in Tantrasaṅgraha.
To sum up, the contributions of Indian mathematicians are notable,
deep and philosophical. Many results in Indian mathematics are coated in
the form of stanzas and śloka. The work on the trigonometry by
Bodhayan developed using circle and not by using right angled triangle.
Hence trigonometric functions are called circular functions. Many results
on geometry, algebra, arithmetic and trigonometry and stated by most of
the Indian mathematicians.
Work on calculus was started by Bhāskara II, later developed by

Mādhava. Mādhava developed infinite series using basic concept of
integral calculus and by using theory of functions.
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The report contains complete information regarding development of
Mathematics in India and put light on Indian contributions in the field of
Mathematics. The present work is also a detailed survey of Mathematical
work by ancient Indian Mathematicians.
F - NO 47 – 488/12 (WRO) Page 132

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Project Completion Report:- File No.

47 - 488/12 (WRO) Pune

Contribution of Indian Mathematicians with special

Sanjay Madhukarrao Deshpande

Dr.Anant Wasudeo Vyawahare

Name of the College

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Key words: Śulbasūtras, Baudhāyana

The above śhloka in Sanskrit shows the importance given to

The Śulbasūtras are of great importance because these deal with

There are nine Śulbasūtras existing. Four of them are significant in

1. Period and place

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In Baudhāyana and Āpastamba Śulbasūtras contain separate section

2. Basic construction in planer geometry

The Śulbasūtras contain the methods of construction in planer

(i) Determining East-West line

The basic thing in the construction of all altars is to draw east-west

Meaning: - “Fix a pole (or gnomon) on a ground level at O, draw a

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(ii) Perpendicular bisector of a given line

This method was explained by Kātyāyana after determining east-

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This method is used to draw a perpendicular on a given line. This has

In a triangle with sides p, q, r if r2 = p2 + q2 then the sides with

i) Let PQ be given measure (Pramāna).

PT = PQ+PT = a + a/4 = 5a/4

If M and N are any two points on plane also MN = PQ = a. Now fix

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Other Baudhāyana triplets are also found in Śulbasūtras and used

3. Construction of a square of given side

Let PQ be the given chord (Measure or Pramāna). We construct a

1) Let EW, the Prāci (east-west line) so that EW = PQ.

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Many times it becomes difficult to construction a square by drawing

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There are five methods to draw a square in Śulbasūtras. We can construct

4. Theorem of square of the diagonal

The actual enunciation of the theorem (on the diagonal) in the

Meaning: - “The diagonal cord of a rectangle makes both (the squares)

Meaning: - “The diagonal cord of a square makes double the area”.

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5. Construction of Mahavedi (construction of trapezium)

Mahavedi has the shape of symmetric (isosceles) trapezium. Base

First method is called as ‘Ekarajjuvidhi’ (one rope method). Other

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The Baudhāyana theorem is applied in the finding a square whose

It follows from the fact (DE) 2 + (EF) 2 = (DF) 2

This is direct application of Baudhāyana theorem

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Let ABCD is larger square and PQRS is smaller square. Obtain

7. Transformations of Areas (Figures)

Interesting results of transformation of area are

(2) To construct a triangle equivalent to a given square in area,

(3) To construct a square equivalent to a given isosceles in area. etc

To obtain such transformation of areas, rule of sum of two squares and

(7a)To convert a rectangle in to a square

If ABCD is given rectangle, a square AB2C2D with side AD is

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Similarly many applications are in Śulbasūtras, some of them are :

(i) To convert a square in a rectangle,

(ii) To convert a rectangle or a square in to a symmetric trapezium,