Strength of Materials

STRENGTH
MODULE 02
 Holy Angel University
School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Structural Engineering

Lecture 04

Stress due to Combined

Loads

Introduction This lecture is an in-depth discussion of stresses due to combined

loads

This lecture focuses on

Content  Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
 Stress Transformation

Objectives After this lecture, the student should be able to

 Discuss and solve stress due to combined loads
 Analyze and solve thin-walled pressure vessels
problems
 Explain Mohr’s Circle

Related These are supplemental content necessary for this route

 The Efficient Enginer. (2019, August 1). Understanding
Stress Transformation and Mohr's Circle. YouTube.
Readings https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DH3546mSCM

References Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria &
Sons

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation

Chapter I: Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

A pressure vessel is a pressurized container, often cylindrical or spherical. The pressure acting on the
inner surface is resisted by tensile stresses in the walls of the vessel. If the wall thickness t is sufficiently
small compared to the radius r of the vessel, these stresses are almost uniform throughout the wall
thickness.

Cylindrical Tank

Consider the cylindrical tank of inner radius r and wall thickness t

shown in the figure below. The tank contains a fluid (or gas) under
pressure p. In this simplified analysis, we assume that the weights of
the fluid and the vessel can be neglected compared to the other
forces that act on the vessel. The tensile stresses in the wall that resist
the internal pressure are the longitudinal stress σl and the
circumferential stress σc (also known as the hoop stress), as shown on
the right.

The circumferential stress can be obtained from the free-body

diagram in the figure to the right. This free body is obtained by taking
the slice of infinitesimal length dx shown and cutting it in half along a
diametral plane. The fluid isolated by the cuts is considered to be part
of the free-body diagram. The resultant force due to the pressure
acting on the diametral plane is p(2r dx), where 2r dx is the area of
the plane. If we assume the circumferential stress σc in the wall of the
cylinder is constant throughout the thickness, then its resultant force is 2(σct dx). Neglecting the weight
of the fluid and the vessel, we find that the equilibrium of vertical forces becomes

Then, we are going to get the equation for σc, which is

𝑝𝑟
𝜎𝐶 =
𝑡

Meanwhile, to obtain the longitudinal stress σl, we cut the cylinder into
two parts along a cross- sectional plane. Isolating the cylinder and the .
fluid to the left of the cut gives the free-body diagram in the figure to
the right. For thin-walled cylinders, the cross-sectional area of the wall
can be approximated by (mean circumference) x (thickness) = (2πṝ)t,

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
where ṝ = r + t/2 is the mean radius of the vessel. Therefore, the resultant of the longitudinal stress is
σl(2πṝt). The resultant of the pressure acting on the cross section is p(πr2). From the equilibrium of axial
forces, we get

Assuming that ṝ ≈ r, we are going to get the equation for σl, which is

𝑝𝑟
𝜎𝑙 =
2𝑡

Spherical Tank

Using an analysis similar to that used for cylinders, we can derive the
expression for the tensile stress σ in the wall of the thin-walled,
spherical pressure vessel in the figures on the right. Because of
symmetry, different directions on the surface of the sphere are
indistinguishable. Therefore, the stress is constant throughout the
vessel. As shown in sectioned figure, we use half of the vessel as the
free-body diagram. The fluid is included in the free-body diagram, but
its weight is neglected together with the weight of the vessel. The
resultant force due to the pressure acting on the circular surface of the .
fluid is p(πr2), where r is the inner radius of the vessel. We use again the
approximation (2πṝ)t for the cross-sectional area of the wall, where ṝ
denotes the mean radius of the vessel and t is the wall thickness.
Therefore, the resultant force due to σ is σ(2πṝt). The equilibrium
equation will then be

Assuming that ṝ ≈ r, we are going to get the equation for σ, which is

𝑝𝑟
𝜎=
2𝑡

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation

PROBLEM #1: A cylindrical steel pressure vessel has hemispherical end-caps. The inner radius of the
vessel is 24 in and the wall thickness is constant at 0.25 in. When the vessel is pressurized
to 125 psi, determine the stresses in the cylinder and in the end-caps.

SOLUTION: The solution is pretty simple because it is just formula substitution.

FOR THE CYLINDER: FOR THE END CAPS:

𝑝𝑟 (125 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2)(24 𝑖𝑛) 𝑝𝑟 (125 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 )(24 𝑖𝑛)

𝜎𝐶 = = 𝜎= =
𝑡 0.25 𝑖𝑛 2𝑡 (2)(0.25 𝑖𝑛)

𝜎𝐶 = 12000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝜎 = 6000 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝑝𝑟 (125 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2)(24 𝑖𝑛)

𝜎𝑙 = =
2𝑡 (2)(0.25 𝑖𝑛)

𝜎𝐶 = 6000 𝑝𝑠𝑖

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
Chapter II: Stress Transformation

NOTE: The illustrations presented in this part of the module have different sign conventions as
compared to the sign convention used in the instructions and in the sample problems. However, both
sign conventions should yield the same results.

From an idealized stress-strain diagram, at low stress levels the strain increases linearly with stress
which is the elastic range of the material. Beyond certain stress level the material reaches a plastic state,
and the strain increases with no further increase in stress. The theories of stresses and strains presented
are for the elastic range only.

Normal and Shear Stresses in a Plane

Engineers frequently make approximations or simplifications of the

loadings on a body in order that the stress produced in a
structural member or mechanical element can be analyzed in a
single plane. When this is the case, the material is said to be
subjected to plane stress. For example, if there is no load on the
surface of a body, then the normal and shear stress components
will be zero on the face of an element that lies on this surface.
Consequently, the corresponding stress components on the
opposite face will also be zero, and so the material at the point
will be subjected to plane stress.

The general state of plane stress at a point is therefore

represented by a combination of two normal-stress components,
𝜎x 𝜎y, and one shear stress component, 𝜏xy, which act on four
faces of the element. For convenience, we will view this state of
stress in the x–y plane, Fig. (a). If this state of stress is defined on
an element having a different orientation as in Fig. (b), then it will
be subjected to three different stress components defined as 𝜎n,
𝜎t, 𝜏nt. In other words, the state of plane stress at the point is
uniquely represented by two normal stress components and one
shear stress component acting on an element that has a specific
orientation at the point.

In transforming the stress components from the orientation of an

original element to the orientation of a slanted element; this is like
knowing two force components, say, 𝑭x and 𝑭y directed along the
x and y axes, that produce a resultant force 𝑭𝑹; and then trying to
find the force components 𝑭n and 𝑭t directed along the n and t

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
axes, so they produce the same resultant force. The transformation for force must only account for the
force component’s magnitude and direction.

PROBLEM #2: Given the state of stress shown, determine the stress
components acting on the inclined plane a-a. Solve by drawing the
free-body diagram of the shaded wedge and applying the equilibrium
equations.

SOLUTION:

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
PROBLEM #3: The state of stress at a point in a member is shown
on the element. Determine the stress components acting on the
inclined plane AB. Solve the problem using the method of
equilibrium. Show the result on the sectioned element.

SOLUTION:

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
Principal Stresses and Maximum in-Plane Shear Stress

It can be seen that the magnitudes of the normal stresses, 𝜎n, 𝜎t, and shear stress 𝜏nt depend directly
on the angle of inclination 𝜃 of the planes on which these stresses act. In engineering practice, it is
often important to determine the orientation of the element that causes the normal stress to be a
maximum and a minimum and the orientation that causes the shear stress to be a maximum.

In-Plane Principal Stresses. To determine the maximum and minimum normal stress, we must
differentiate the equation for 𝜎n with respect to the angle of inclination 𝜃 and set the result to zero.
Solving this equation, we obtain the orientation of the planes of maximum and minimum normal stress.
Setting 𝜃 = 𝜃p, we obtain

There are two values of 2𝜃p the range 0-360°, with values differing by 180°. There are two values of 𝜃p
the range 0- 180°, with values differing by 90°. In other words, the solution has two roots, 𝜃p1 and 𝜃p2.
Specifically, the values of 2𝜃p1 and 2𝜃p2 are 180° apart, so 𝜃p1 and 𝜃p2 will be 90° apart. So, the planes
on which the principal stresses act are mutually perpendicular.

The values of 𝜃p1 and 𝜃p2 must be substituted into the

general equation of 𝜎n if we are to obtain the required
normal stresses. To do this we can obtain the
necessary sine and cosine of 2𝜃p1 and 𝜃p1 from the
shaded triangles shown in the figure. The construction
of these triangles is based on the equation above.

assuming that 𝜏xy and (𝜎x− 𝜎y) are both positive or

both negative quantities. Substituting these values into
𝜎n equation and simplifying, we obtain

Depending upon the sign chosen, this result gives the maximum or minimum in-plane normal stress
acting at a point, where 𝝈1 ≥ 𝝈2 This particular set of values are called the in-plane principal stresses,
and the corresponding planes on which they act are called the principal planes of stress.

Furthermore, if the trigonometric relations for 𝜃p1 or 𝜃p2 are substituted into the equation of 𝜏nt, it can
be seen that 𝜏nt = 0, in other words, no shear stress acts on the principal planes.

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
In-Plane Maximum Shear Stress. To find the maximum shear,
we must differentiate the equation for 𝜏nt with respect to the
angle of inclination 𝜃 and set the result to zero. Solving this
equation, we obtain the orientation of the planes of maximum
and minimum normal stress. Setting 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠, we obtain

The two roots of this equation, 𝜃𝑠1 and 𝜃𝑠2 can be determined from the shaded triangles shown. By
comparison with 𝜃p, tan 2𝜃𝑠 is the negative reciprocal of tan 2𝜃p and so each root 2𝜃𝑠 is 90° from 2𝜃p,
and the roots 𝜃𝑠 and 𝜃p are 45° apart. Therefore, an element subjected to maximum shear stress will be
45° from the position of an element that is subjected to the principal stress.

Using either one of the roots or the maximum shear stress can be found by taking the values of sin 2𝜃𝑠
and cos 2𝜃𝑠 from the figure and substituting them to the general equation of 𝜏nt. The result will be

In the second formula, 𝜃 corresponds to 𝜃s. The value of 𝜏max as calculated from this equation is
referred to as the maximum in-plane shear stress because it acts on the element in the x–y plane.

Substituting the values for sin 2𝜃𝑠 and cos 2𝜃𝑠 into the general equation of 𝜎n, we see that there is also
an average normal stress on the planes of maximum in-plane shear stress. We get

IMPORTANT POINTS:
 The principal stresses represent the maximum and minimum normal stress at the point.
 When the state of stress is represented by the principal stresses, no shear stress will act on the
element.
 The state of stress at the point can also be represented in terms of the maximum in-plane shear
stress. In this case, an average normal stress will also act on the element.
 The element representing the maximum in-plane shear stress with the associated average
normal stresses is oriented 45° from the element representing the principal stresses.

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
PROBLEM #4: The state of stress at a point is shown on the element.
Determine (a) the principal stresses and (b) the maximum in-plane shear
stress and average normal stress at the point. Specify the orientation of
the element in each case. Show the results on each element.

SOLUTION:

σx = -60 MPa, σy = -80 MPa, τxy = 50 MPa

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

−60 − 80 −60 + 80 2 −60 − 80 −60 + 80 2

𝜎1 = + (√ ) + 502 𝜎2 = √
− ( ) + 502
2 2 2 2
𝝈𝟏 = −𝟏𝟗. 𝟎𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝝈𝟐 = −𝟏𝟐𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 𝑴𝑷𝒂
2𝜏𝑥𝑦 2(50)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜃𝑝 = = ; 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟑𝟓°
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 −60 + 80 𝒑

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2 2

−60 + 80 2 −60 − 80
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( ) + 502 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2 2
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = −𝟕𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 −60 + 80
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜃𝑠 = − =− ; 𝜽𝒔 = −𝟓. 𝟔𝟓°
2𝜏𝑥𝑦 2(50)

CHECK DIRECTION OF τmax:

−60 + 80
𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ = − sin 2(−5.65°) + 50 cos 2(−5.65°)
2
𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ = 50.99 𝑀𝑃𝑎 . : 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑥′ − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
PROBLEM #5: The state of stress at a point is shown on the element.
Determine (a) the principal stresses and (b) the maximum in-plane shear
stress and average normal stress at the point. Specify the orientation of
the element in each case. Show the results on each element.

SOLUTION:

σx = 125 MPa, σy = -75 MPa, τxy = -50 MPa

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

125 − 75 125 + 75 2 125 − 75 125 + 75 2

𝜎1 = √
+ ( ) + (−50)2 𝜎2 = √
+ ( ) + (−50)2
2 2 2 2
𝝈𝟏 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝝈𝟐 = −𝟖𝟔. 𝟖𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂
2𝜏𝑥𝑦 2(−50)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜃𝑝 = = ; 𝜽 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟐𝟖°
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 125 + 75 𝒑

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2 2

125 + 75 2 125 − 75
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 √
= ( ) + (−50)2 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2 2
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝟐𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 125 + 75
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜃𝑠 = − =− ; 𝜽𝒔 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟕𝟐°
2𝜏𝑥𝑦 2(−50)

CHECK DIRECTION OF τmax:

125 + 75
𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ = − sin 2(31.72°) − 50 cos 2(31.72°)
2
𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ = −111.80 𝑀𝑃𝑎 . : 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑥′ − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stresses

Instead of memorizing equations for plane stress transformation, we will introduce a graphical solution
that is often convenient to use and easy to remember. Furthermore, this approach will allow us to
“visualize” how the normal and shear stress components and vary as the plane on which they act is
oriented in different directions.

If we establish coordinate axes, positive to

the right for 𝝈, and positive downward for
𝝉, and then plot, it will be seen that this
equation represents a circle having a
radius R and center on the axis at point.

This circle is called Mohr’s circle, because

it was developed by the German engineer
Otto Mohr.
Each point on Mohr’s circle represents the
two stress components 𝜎n and 𝜏nt acting
on the side of the element defined by the
n axis, when the axis is in a specific direction 𝜃.

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
Construction of the Circle
1. Establish a coordinate system such that the horizontal axis represents the normal stress, with positive
to the right, and the vertical axis represents the shear stress, with positive downwards.
2. Using the positive sign convention for 𝜎x, 𝜎y, 𝜏xy. Plot the center of the circle C, which is located on
the 𝜎-axis at a distance with the value of 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 from the origin.
3. Plot the “reference point” A having coordinates A (𝜎x, -𝜏xy). This point represents the normal and
shear stress components on the element’s right-hand vertical face, and since the n-axis coincides with
the x-axis, this represents 𝜃 = 0°.
4. Connect point A with the center C of the circle and determine CA by trigonometry. This distance
represents the radius 𝑅 of the circle.

Principal Stresses
1. The principal stresses and are the coordinates of points B and D where the circle intersects the 𝜎-axis,
where shear stress is zero.
2. These stresses act on planes defined by angles 𝜃p1 and 𝜃p2. They are represented on the circle by
angles 2𝜃p1 and 2𝜃p2 (not shown) and are measured from the radial reference line CA to lines CB and
CD respectively.
3. Using trigonometry, only one of these angles needs to be calculated from the circle, since 𝜃p1 and
𝜃p2 are 90° apart. Remember that the direction of rotation 2𝜃p on the circle represents the same
direction of rotation 𝜃p from the reference axis to the principal plane.

Maximum In-Plane Shear Stress

1. The average normal stress and maximum in- plane
shear stress components are determined from the circle
as the coordinates of either point E or F.
2. In this case the angles 𝜃𝑠1 and 𝜃𝑠2 give the orientation
of the planes that contain these components. The angle
2𝜃𝑠1 is shown and can be determined using trigonometry.
Remember that the direction of rotation 2𝜃𝑠 on the circle
represents the same direction of rotation 𝜃𝑠 from the
reference axis to the shear stress plane.

Stresses on Arbitrary Plane

1. The normal and shear stress components 𝜎n and 𝜏nt acting on a specified plane or n-axis, defined by
the angle 𝜃, can be obtained from the circle using trigonometry to determine the coordinates of 𝑃.
2. To locate P, the known angle 𝜃 must be measured on the circle in the same direction 2𝜃
(counterclockwise from the figure), from the radial reference line CA to the radial line C𝑃.

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
PROBLEM #6: Resolve Problem #5 using Mohr’s Circle.

PROBLEM #7: Resolve Problem #3 using Mohr’s Circle.

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
Absolute Maximum Shear Stress

Up to this point, our discussion has been limited to in-plane transformation of stress (transformation in
the xy-plane). The largest shear stress encountered in this transformation is called the maximum in-
plane shear stress and is denoted by τmax. However, τmax is not necessarily the largest shear stress at a
point. To find the largest shear stress, called the absolute maximum shear stress, we must also consider
transformations in the other two coordinate planes. In here, we are considering two states of stress,
namely, the plane state of stress and the general state of stress.

Plane State of Stress. Consider the state of plane stress on the right,
where σ1 and σ2 are the principal stresses and the xy-axes coincide with
the principal directions. Mohr’s circle for transformation in the xy-plane
is shown in the leftmost part of the figure below. The radius of this
circle is the maximum in-plane shear stress τmax = |σ1 – σ2|/2. The rest of
the figures below show Mohr’s circles representing stress
transformation in the zx- and yz-planes.

The absolute maximum shear stress τabs is the radius of the largest circle; that is,

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
It is standard practice to draw the three Mohr’s circles on a single set of
axes, as shown in the figure on the right. From our discussions, we can
draw the following conclusions:
1. If σ1 and σ2 have the same sign (both tension or both compression),
τabs is |σ1|/2 or |σ2|/2, whichever is larger.
2. If σ1 and σ2 have opposite signs (one tension and the other
compression), the absolute maximum shear stress is τmax = |σ1 – σ2|/2.

General State of Stress. A complete discussion of a general (three-

dimensional) state of stress at a point, as opposed to plane stress, is
beyond the scope of this text. It can be shown that any state of stress can be represented by three
principal stresses (σ1, σ2, and σ3) that act on mutually perpendicular planes, as shown below. The
corresponding Mohr’s circles are also shown below.

The absolute maximum shear stress is again equal to the radius of the largest circle (NOTE: plane stress
is a special case of general state of stress, where |σ3|=0:

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
PROBLEM #8: For the state of plane stress shown, determine the maximum in-plane shear
stress and the absolute maximum shear stress.

SOLUTION:

Based from the drawing, τabs = 50/2 = 25 ksi.

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 Lecture 4 – Stress Transformation
References: This part includes online references. This is to avoid plagiarism in the content of the
modules.
Chapter 1:
 The Efficient Enginer. (2019, August 1). Understanding Stress Transformation and Mohr's Circle.
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DH3546mSCM
 Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria & Sons
 R.C. Hibbeler, 2011. Mechanics of materials (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
Pearson Prentice Hall
 Pytel, A., & Kiusalaas, J. (2012). Mechanics of materials (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.
 Beer, F. P., Johnston Jr., E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2015). Mechanics of Materials (7th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter 2:
 The Efficient Enginer. (2019, August 1). Understanding Stress Transformation and Mohr's Circle.
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DH3546mSCM
 Chakraborti, M. (2018). Strength of materials (SI Units). New Delhi: S.K. Kataria & Sons
 R.C. Hibbeler, 2011. Mechanics of materials (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
Pearson Prentice Hall
 Pytel, A., & Kiusalaas, J. (2012). Mechanics of materials (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.
 Beer, F. P., Johnston Jr., E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2015). Mechanics of Materials (7th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.

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