Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100130

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Developments in the Built Environment

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Properties of pervious concrete incorporating fly ash as partial replacement

of cement: A review
Elnaz Khankhaje a, Taehoon Kim a, *, Hyounseung Jang a, Chang-Soo Kim a, Jimin Kim a,
Mahdi Rafieizonooz b
a
Architectural Engineering Program, School of Architecture, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, 232 Gongneung-ro, Gongneung-dong, Nowon-gu,
Seoul, 01811, South Korea
b
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Yonsei-ro 50, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Disposing fly ash in to landfill of coal fire power plant initiated environmental and health problems. A lot of
Fly ash researchers have conducted research to study the addition of fly ash (FA) as cement replacement in pervious
Pervious concrete concrete (PC). The aim of this paper was to review the impact of adding FA as partial substitution of cement in
Cement
PC. The experimental outcomes from different previous studies have indicated that the void content and
Sustainable concrete
permeability of PC decreased with adding FA due to filler effect of FA. The optimum substitution level of cement
with FA was obtained to be 10–30%. However, with increasing the level of replacement affects the hydration
procedure resulting lower strength. PC containing FA showed higher abrasion resistance and lower drying
shrinkage compared to normal PC. It can be concluded that using FA as partial substitution of cement would be
environmentally friendly in association with more sustainable PC.

1. Introduction One of the most important elements in the production of PC is the

Nowadays, pervious concrete (PC) is used a sustainable option for
many aspects of civil and environmental engineering such as water
management systems (Elnaz et al., 2022; Frey et al., 2005; Khankhaje
et al., 2016). In this regard and due to several environmental benefits of
using PC such as controlling stormwater runoff, decreasing water and
soil pollution, and restoring groundwater supplies, its utilization has
been increased for over 30 years in many countries, especially in Europe,
Japan, and United States (Babu et al., 2022; Huang et al., 2010; Kryeziu
et al., 2013; Ming-Gin et al., 2022). Utilizing PC pavements offers more
advantages including the preservation of natural ecosystems, reduction
in pavement-tire noise, a decrease in glare on the road surfaces, and
reducing the cost of the lifecycle (ACI 552, 2010; Hamdulay and John,
2015, El-Hassan and Kianmehr, 2018; Ming-Gin et al., 2022).
In general, the void content of PC can be assumed from 15% to 25%,
and the water permeability is normally between 0.2 and 0.6 cm/s
(Chindaprasirt et al., 2008; Khankhaje et al., 2018; Rangelov et al.,
2016). PC with low strength can only be used in limited functions, like
parking lots, sidewalks, subbases for traditional pavement, and recrea-
tion squares (ACI 552, 2010; Khankhaje et al., 2017; Najm et al., 2017).
cement which is used as a raw material and resulted in the diffusion of
massive amounts of CO2 to the surrounding environment. Therefore, it is
vital for the concrete industry to reduce the utilization of unfriendly
cement in construction projects. In this respect, utilizing replacement
materials such as silica fume, fly ash (FA), blast furnace slag (BFS), etc.
To substitute the cement is an appropriate path to minimize the CO2
emissions and towards sustainable developments. Golewski (2021) re-
ported that incorporating pozzolanic additives as cement replacement
can cause meaningful reduction in CO2. Using waste materials creates an
opportunity to reduce global CO2 emissions by approximately 22%
(Flower and Sanjayan, 2007). According to the pozzolanic properties of
these alternative materials, and similar to the cement hydration process,
hydrated calcium silicate (C–S–H) can be formed (dos Santos Gentil
et al., 2020). Using FA decreased the early strength of normal concrete
(Rafieizonooz et al., 2016). While several researcher achieved that
combined and replaced other pozzolanic materials such as silica fume
besides FA can improve the properties of concrete and produce green
and sustainable concrete (Golewski, 2022; Golewski and Szostak, 2022).
Golewski (2022) showed that using nano admixtures and nano silica
fume with FA as cement replacement in concrete could be a beneficial

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kimth@seoultech.ac.kr (T. Kim).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100130
Received 31 December 2022; Received in revised form 29 January 2023; Accepted 8 February 2023
Available online 9 February 2023
2666-1659/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
E. Khankhaje et al.
substitute to improve environmental and mechanical properties. More-
over, Teixeira et al. (2016) investigated life cycle assessment of using FA
as cement replacement in production of concrete. They concluded that
FA ash minimize negative environmental impact of concrete by using as
cement replacement. They proved that using FA is a sustainable alter-
native for cement replacement and a possible method to enhance the
environmental performance of the concrete industry.
Considering the several environmental and economical disadvan-
tages of utilizing cement in the production of PC, global researchers
display a strong interest to investigate the possibility of utilizing
pozzolanic materials, especially FA as a partial substitute for cement.
However, a strong review on the use of Fly ash to replace part of cement
in the production of pervious concrete is yet to be established. Therefore,
the aim of this review study was to discuss the past studies related to
utilizing FA in the production of PC as a partial replacement of cement.
The procedure adopted in this paper is to carefully analyze the outcomes
of previous works and to present the collected data and analysis in an
understandable type for future researchers.
2. Fly ash
From the burning of coal in power plants, two types of coal ash
named bottom ash (BA) and FA are produced which are one of the most
plentiful and complicated anthropogenic materials (Chindaprasirt et al.,
2007). Over 80% of coal ash is considered FA while the rest is BA (Mehta
et al., 1996; Rafieizonooz et al., 2016). Due to some environmental is-
sues such as causing dangerous soil, air, and water pollution, the BA and
FA cannot be directly released into the environment (Ren and Sancaktar,
2019). BA particles normally are captured via water flow from the
bottom of the boiler, and FA particles commonly are collected by elec-
trostatic or mechanical precipitation from flue gas (Yao, 2013; Yao et al.,
2015). Nowadays, FA is mostly placed in the area of the landfill or stored
at coal power plants, which requires a large area and also occupies a
large amount of soil, and finally induces soil contamination (Ahmar-
uzzaman, 2010). According to Rafieizonooz et al. (2022), around 600 to
800 million tonnes of FA have been produced annually worldwide. It
seems that as the request for electricity increases the problem of FA and
BA disposal is only anticipated to worsen. For instance, Taiwan pro-
duced more than 95% of its energy through the utilization of imported
coals. In this respect, more than 47 million tons of coal were imported to
Taiwan in 2018 (Lo et al., 2021). On the other hand, Australia (59%),
Russia (20%), Indonesia (11%), South Africa (6%), and Canada (2.5%)
are the top five importing coal countries. The disposal of this FA is a
risky task as produced FA may contain some trace elements such as lead
and arsenic. Thus, recycling FA in construction projects as construction
materials can decrease the environmental problems because of FA
dumping. Besides, when FA is utilized as a substitution for cement in
construction projects, it can reduce the price of construction and save
energy. It can be concluded that the comprehensive utilization of FA is
an essential task and need to be considered worldwide (Wei et al., 2020;
Gimhan et al., 2018).
From the literature review, it is clear that an average of close to 20%
FA has been significantly utilized as a portion substitution material in
the concrete and cement industry (Blissett and Rowson, 2012). Ac-
cording to the statistics, the annual usage rate of FA as a partial sub-
stitution for cement reached 9.14%, 44.8%, 31%, and 11.5% in the US,
India, China, and Europe, respectively (Bhatt et al., 2019; Blissett and
Rowson, 2012). On the other hand, in the production of concrete and
bricks, the usage rate of FA in the US, India, China, and Europe reached
32.05%, 7.6%, 45%, and 17.51% respectively (Bhatt et al., 2019; Blissett
and Rowson, 2012). Using FA in PC can increase sustainability with
decreasing the amount of FA disposal in landfills and reducing carbon
emission with reducing the used of cement (Andrade et al., 2009; Mahdi
Rafieizonooz et al., 2017; Rafieizonooz et al., 2022; Singh and Siddique,
2016; Abdulmatin et al., 2018; Tho-In et al., 2012).
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Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100130
2.1. Physiochemical characteristics of FA
The chemical and physical characteristics of FA have been analyzed
and studied by many researchers. FA consists of powdery and fine par-
ticles mainly spherical in shape, either hollow or solid, frequently
amorphous (glassy), and SEM images showed that it has a spongy
appearance in nature (Figs. 1 and 2). In addition, Table 1 indicates the
physical characteristics of FA utilized by various works. According to
Fig. 3, the particle size of most FA is lower than a 0.075 mm or No. 200
sieve. The Blaine fineness normally ranges between 3000 and 4200
(cm2/g) and while its specific gravity ranges from 2.0 to 2.5, which is
less than those of cement (Aadil Gulzar, Kamran Rafiq Sofi, Sajad Jabbar
Tantray, Sadaqat Mir, Anjuman Ni et al., 2022; Basu et al., 2009; Mat-
tigod et al., 1990; Roy et al., 1981; Saboo et al., 2019). The colour of FA
can vary from black, gray to tan, related to the amount of unburned
carbon (Ahmaruzzaman, 2010).
Compared to its physical characteristics, the chemical properties of
FA is greatly affected by the characteristics of the coal being combusted
and the procedures utilized for storage and handling. The main phase of
FA includes Quarts, Mullite, and Iron oxide as presented in Fig. 4. In
addition, Table 2 indicates that the main component of FA is silicon
dioxide (SiO2), which makes it possible to be utilized in the fabrication
of concrete as a partial substitution for cement. According to ASTM C618
and ASTM C618-15, 2012), FA can be categorized into two classes: class
F and class C. The sum of the SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 contents of both FA
classes must surpass 50%. However, this amount for (class C) FA must be
between 50% and 70%, while for (class F) FA it should be more than
70%. Additionally, the calcium oxide (CaO) content in (class C) FA
should surpass 18% while for (class F) FA this content should be lower
than 18%. The (class C) FA with a high amount of calcium is typically
produced from the combusting of low-rank coals and has more cemen-
titious properties than (class F) FA and because of that, the concrete
produced by class C FA showed better early strength than normal con-
crete. Ahmaruzzaman (2010) reported that the abrasion resistance of
concrete made with (class C) FA was slightly better than both normal
concrete and concretes involving type F FA. The low-calcium (Class F)
FA is normally made from the combusting of higher-rank coals that are
pozzolanic in nature and due to this reason concrete made with (class F)
FA presented better long-term performance than conventional concrete.
Siddique (2004) indicated that (class F) FA can be appropriately utilized
up to 50% of cement substitution in the production of concrete for use in
precast elements, and reinforced cement concrete construction. Using
high volume of (class F) FA in concrete improved mechanical properties
and durability (Oner et al., 2005).
3. Influence of FA on characteristics of PC
According to Table 3, several studied investigated the influence of
using FA as cement substitution on properties of PC by producing
various mix designs. The summary of the results obtained from various
studies showed in Table 4.
3.1. Influence of FA on permeability and void content
The results of void content and permeability of PC incorporating FA
obtained by several researchers are showed in Figs. 5 and 6. Different
trends can be observed from Figs. 5 and 6 due to using different mix
designs, various type of FA and additives by several researchers. Ac-
cording to ACI 552R-10, 2010, the typical range for void content and
permeability for PC are 15–25% and 0.2–0.54 cm/s respectively. The
results indicated that the permeability and void ratio of PC decreased
with increased percentages of FA due to the filler effect from FA and its
pozzolanic activity, which created secondary C–S–H gels that resulted in
cohesive activity, therefore decreasing voids and permeability. The
range of void content and permeability research results varies from 13 to
35% and 0.03–1.3 cm/s.
E. Khankhaje et al.
Fig. 2. SEM image of (a) Cement (b) FA (Lo et al., 2021).
Table 1
Physical characteristics of FA.
References
Singh et al. (2021)
Saboo et al. (2019)
Muthaiyan and Thirumalai
(2017)
Swe et al. (2016)
Shafabakhsh and Ahmadi
(2016)
Ong et al. (2016)
Usha K N and B K Smitha (2016)
Fig. 3. Particle size distribution of FA (Muthaiyan and Thirumalai, 2017).
Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100130
Fig. 1. (a) cement (b) Gray FA (c) Burned FA (Shafabakhsh and Ahmadi, 2016).
Fig. 4. XRD spectrum of Coal FA (M. Rafieizonooz et al., 2017b).
According to Fig. 6, Opiso et al. (2019) achieved the lowest perme-
ability (0.03 cm/s) among other studies because of the different mix
design fractions utilized and adding fine sawdust (FSD) as filler. How-
ever, it is already beyond the minimum approvable permeability of more
than 0.01 cm/s (Kevern et al., 2008).
Deepika et al. (2014) reported that by using FA (class F) up to 20%
the permeability of PC decreased. Similar findings were reported by
Specific gravity (g/ Blaine fineness (cm2/ Mishra and Jena (2018), Swe et al. (2016), Wang et al. (2019), Shafa-
cm3) g)
bakhsh and Ahmadi (2016), Endawati et al. (2018), Khurd and Patil
2.04 – (2015), Zerdi et al. (2016), Septiandini et al. (2021), G. Amirthaga-
2.47 4200
deshwaran et al. (2019) Deepa Shri et al., 2016 and Al-sallami et al.
2.45 –
(2020). Muthaiyan and Thirumalai (2017) observed that the replace-
2.07 3290 ment of class C FA (10–20%) reduced about 12–16% of the total voids
2.10 3500 compared to the control mix. It could be due to the micro-filler influence
of FA. In addition, they indicated that the permeability of FA PC reduced
2.28 3097
2.00 –
with increasing FA content, and it ranged from 1.19 cm/s to 0.641 cm/s.
In addition, Ganesh et al. (2021) confirmed those results after 10% FA
was replaced in the place of cement, the coefficient of permeability is
reduced by 42.15% (from 1.02 to 0.59 cm/s). Singh et al. (2021) indi-
cated that the water permeability and void content results of PC con-
taining FA up to 20% were in the ranges from 0.44 to 0.55 cm/s and
17.5–18.5% respectively, and lie inside the approvable range of void
content (15–35%) recommended by ACI 552R-10, (2010).
Rasiah (2010) and Aoki et al. (2012) reported that water perme-
ability and void content insignificantly reduced with using low calcium
FA up to 50%. Aoki et al. (2012) showed that the average void content
and permeability of PC mixtures were around 33% and 1.3 cm/s
respectively. They concluded that there was no considerable effect on
the density, void content, and permeability of PC. Liu et al. (2019)
confirmed their results and reported that the permeability and porosity
were not influenced by the dosage of FA. It could be due to the fact that
cement was partially substituted by FA with an equal volume method.
3.2. Influence of FA on strength of PC
The results of strength of PC incorporating FA obtained by several
3
E. Khankhaje et al. Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100130

Table 2
Chemical composition of FA.
References CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 SO3 MgO K2 O Na2O LOI Others

Hwang and Yeon (2022) 5.0 30.8 9.9 39.6 11.4 0.4 1.0 0.9 7.6 0.6
Saboo et al. (2019) 11.3 47.5 21.7 8.2 1.7 2.5 – – 2.5 –
Shafabakhsh and Ahmadi (2016) 1.6 50.9 27.9 4.7 – 2.3 – – 3.7 –
Liu et al. (2019) 10.7 51.3 22.8 6.9 1.9 2.8 – – – –
Muthaiyan and Thirumalai (2017) 10.8 51.6 23.2 7.2 1.9 2.9 – – 2.5 –
Swe et al. (2016) 11.1 41.7 24.2 13.2 2.8 2.2 2.6 0.7 0.4 0.7
Subramaniam and Sathiparan (2022) 6.3 50.8 28.0 7.0 0.4 1.2 1.9 1.5 – 1.0
Ni et al. (2022) 11.7 42.1 29.1 6.8 1.9 1.9 0.9 2.2 – 1.2
Lin et al. (2022) 35.5 29.5 19.3 3.5 7.4 1.8 – – – 3.1
Singh et al. (2021) 0.3 57.4 40.0 1.1 0.0 0.3 0.9 0.1 – –
Opiso et al. (2019) 23.3 23.9 9.1 28.5 3.0 9.7 0.6 – 16.0 0.9
Wang et al. (2019) 3.8 56.2 26.7 4.4 – 0.1 – 1.3 – 0.1
Mohammed et al. (2018) 17.5 36.4 14.1 22.4 1.0 2.6 2.1 0.2 1.5 –
Ong et al. (2016) 8.40 46.0 17.8 18.2 2.59 0.95 2.16 0.59 1.49 –
Peng et al. (2018) 12.5 50.2 30.5 2.1 0.4 0.1 – 1.3 1.1 1.8
Muthaiyan and Thirumalai (2017) 10.8 51.6 23.2 7.2 – 2.9 – – 2.5 –
Soto-Pérez and Hwang (2016) 39.6 30.8 9.9 5.0 11.4 0.4 1.0 0.9 – 0.6
Jo et al. (2015) 39.6 30.8 9.9 5.0 11.4 0.4 1.0 0.9 7.6 0.6

Table 3
Summary of PC mixtures containing FA.
Reference Fly ash (%) Cement (kg/ W/B Coarse aggregate (kg/ Fine aggregate (kg/ Superplasticizer (kg/
m3) m3) m3) m3)

Subramaniam and Sathiparan 5–20 435–517 0.3–0.45 1360 – –

(2022)
Singh et al. (2021) 5–20 323–383 0.38 2117 – –
Al-sallami et al. (2020) 30–50 150–210 0.45 1530–1800
Wang et al. (2019) 10–40 B:A 0.22 0.31 B:A 0.22 – –
Saboo et al. (2019) Fly ash 5–20 245–298 0.33 1568 – 1–2
Metakaolin 2
Opiso et al. (2019) Fly ash 10 442 0.34 1700 – –
Fine sawdust 8
Liu et al. (2019) 3–12 410–462 0.30 1503 – 3.8
Peng et al. (2018) Fly ash 10–30 196–224 0.35 1450 – –
Blast Furnace 10–30
Slag
Mishra and Jena (2018) 5–10 236.232 – 1381 10–20% 2.194 lit
Muthaiyan and Thirumalai (2017) 10–20 200–225 0.34 1640 – –
Shafabakhsh and Ahmadi (2016) 5–20 272–340 0.34 1395 105 2–5
Ong et al. (2016) 15 320 0.32 1448 134 (9%)
Aoki et al. (2012) 20–50 A:B 3.6–4 0.35 A:B 3.6–4 7.5–10% –

Table 4
A summary of properties of PC containing FA.
Reference Void Permeability Compressive strength
(%) (cm/s) (MPa) 28 d

Subramaniam and 17–23 0.17–0.88 13–32

Sathiparan (2022)
Singh et al. (2021) 17–18 0.40–0.55 14–18
Al-sallami et al. (2020) 27–33 – 5–8
Liu et al. (2019) 13–14 0.38–0.40 15–20
Saboo et al. (2019) 27–31 – 4–10
Opiso et al. (2019) – 0.03 11
Wang et al. (2019) 21–23 0.61–0.69 20–35
Peng et al. (2018) 27–28 0.55–0.70 7–9
Mishra and Jena (2018) 21–35 0.84–1.46 15–25
Muthaiyan and 25–27 0.8–0.9 8–9 Fig. 5. Comparison of the void content of PC contain FA.
Thirumalai (2017)
Soto-Pérez and Hwang – 0.55–0.76 21–23
(2016)
However, some of these studies reported that adding FA to PC caused
Ong et al. (2016) 27 0.25 14 the reduction of early strength in PC. It might be because of the decrease
Shafabakhsh and Ahmadi 20–24 0.18–0.24 18–26 of cement content caused by the decline of cement binder utilized to
(2016) cover the aggregate particles and decreased bonding strength between
Aoki et al. (2012) 31–37 0.92–1.30 6–9
coarse aggregates. Instead, due to the higher water absorption of FA,
adding FA decreases the water necessary for the hydration of cement.
researchers are illustrated in Fig. 7. All the results (4–35 MPa) almost fall Therefore, unfinished cement hydration reduced the connection be-
within the range of normal compressive strength for PC reported by tween coarse aggregates and reduced the strength of PC. Joyal et al.
ACI522R-10 (3–20 MPa). (2017) found that the tensile and compressive strength of PC samples

4
E. Khankhaje et al.
Fig. 6. Comparison of the permeability of PC contain FA.
Fig. 7. Comparison of the compressive strength of PC contain FA.
decreased by the replacement of FA by up to 20%. Ong et al. (2016) also
confirm their results and found that the addition of class F FA increased
from 0% to 15%, and the compressive strength reduced from 15.7 MPa
to 14.6 MPa (6%). According to Hamdulay and John (2015) with using
FA up to 35% the flexural and compressive strengths of PC decreased.
They explained that the major reason may be the grade and quality of
FA. Joyal et al. (2017) verified these results by using FA up to 20%.
Muthaiyan and Thirumalai (2017) investigated the influence of partial
cement replacement by 10% and 20% of FA (class C) on the character-
istics of PC. They achieved that the compressive strength of 5.70–8.83
MPa (at 28 days) with binder contents of 250–400 kg/m3 that contained
FA up to 20%. They reported that the compressive, tensile, and flexural
strength reduced slightly, with cement substitution up to 20% by FA.
Aoki et al. (2012) indicated that the substitution of cement by 20% and
40% FA decreased the compressive strength approximately by 9% and
65% respectively (28 days).
On the other hand, several studies investigated the long-term influ-
ence of FA on strength of PC. It was found that the rate of increasing
strength was lower initially and increased as the age increased when
compared to conventional PC. This can be due to the development of
cement hydration and the pozzolanic activity of the FA with free lime
liberated from cement hydration. The gradual rate of pozzolanic prop-
erties results in a slower strength improvement in FA PC but noticeable
strength achievement is typically detected from 28 to 90 days. Rasiah
(2010) reported that the replacement of 50% cement with FA, by mass,
can decrease the 28-day compressive strength of PC by 4%. The PC with
50% FA presented a growth of 50% in strength from 7 days to 28 days of
curing. Singh et al. (2021) studied the influence of adding FA up to 20%
as cement replacement fin PC mixture. It was detected that the
compressive strength decreased by 9.41, 4.86, 1.52, and 0.92%, at 28
days when compared to the control mix (12.43 MPa) at 28 days at 20,
15, 10, and 5% substitution levels of FA respectively. Deepika et al.
(2014) and Sata et al. (2016) confirmed their results. This is due to that
the FA has postponed the pozzolanic activity when compared to cement
(M. Rafieizonooz et al., 2017a; Siddique, 2004; Tangpagasit et al.,
2005). While, as shown in Fig. 8, at 90 days of curing time the
5
Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100130
Fig. 8. Compressive strength of PC incorporation FA (Singh et al., 2021).
compressive strength increased up to 3.09, 2.34, 2.06, and 1.07% at 20,
15, 10, and 5% substitution of cement with FA as compared to the
control PC mix (12.62 MPa). Similar behavior was observed for tensile
strength. According to Fig. 9, it could be due to the pozzolanic activity as
well as the fineness of FA particles resulting in a total enhancement in
the characteristic of cement binder and the improvement in the micro-
structure of the transition area present among the binder material and
the aggregate.
Liu et al. (2019) studied the properties of PC containing 3%, 6%, 9%,
and 12% FA. It was found that the addition of FA reduced the flexural
and compressive strength at the early time of the curing period (28 day).
It is reported that by increasing the quantity of FA up to 12%, the
compressive strength 34% reduced. However, the result showed that
with increasing curing period (up to 150 day) the strength of the
FA-modified PC increased. As the curing time increased, the rate of
hydration enhanced progressively which resulted in the strong bonding
between coarse aggregates. They concluded that even though adding FA
is not positive to the characteristics of PC, it is yet possible to utilize FA
as a replacement for cement in PC and the rate of strength gain was
growing with an enhancing curing time.
In contrast to these studies, some other research showed that FA
could be positively influenced the mechanical performance of PC by
combining other pozzolanic materials or adding admixtures. Some of the
researchers tried to improve the quality of FA and increase the pozzo-
lanic aspects of FA by burning or grounding it. Carmichael et al. (2020)
found that the optimum mix design with W/B of 0.34 incorporating 40%
nano FA particles led to the highest tensile and compressive strength of
3.89 MPa and 20.93 MPa respectively (28 days). By increasing the
quantity of nano FA up to 40%, the tensile and compressive strength also
improved. However, by increasing the quantity of nano FA beyond 40%,
the strength was reduced slightly. It could be due to the excessive ex-
istence of pozzolanic and filler materials. Shafabakhsh and Ahmadi
(2016) investigated the influence of FA (5, 10, 15, and 20%) on the
strength of PC. They burned FA to decrease the amount of unburned
carbon and enhance the pozzolanic compounds. They reported that by
enhancing the substitution rate of cement with FA, initially the
compressive and tensile strength enhances and then, reduces. The
specimen containing 10% of FA showed the maximum amount of
compressive and tensile strength. It also might be due to the creation of
C–S–H gel by FA and then, filling and strengthening the cement paste
and crystallization of new materials in the pores of the transition area.
While, by increasing the FA content, the compressive and tensile
strength reduces because of decreasing the performance and lack of
existing required water.
On the other hand, several researchers used superplasticizer (SP) to
reduce the negative impact of higher water absorption of FA and
improve the properties of PC. Swe et al. (2016) tested the replacement of
cement by FA (20%–60%) with adding SP. It was reported that the
specimens incorporating FA illustrated higher compressive strength
than the control mix design because of the pozzolanic properties of FA
which reacts especially after 28 days. Wang et al. (2019) investigated
E. Khankhaje et al.
Fig. 9. SEM micrographs of PC incorporating (a) 0%FA, (b) 5%FA, (c)20%FA (Singh et al., 2021).
the influence of FA up to 40% on the performance of PC by adding
superplasticizer and superfine silica fume. It was observed that the
compressive strength improved from 25.7 MPa to 34.5 MPa when the
amount of FA increased from 0 to 20%. They achieved the highest
compressive strength between PC mixtures containing FA (Fig. 7). They
recommended a mix design of C/A (0.20–0.24) and 20% FA content for
producing PC with the compressive strength more than 30 MPa and
acceptable permeability. In addition, Usha K N and B K Singh et al.
(2021) studied the effect class F FA up to 30% on properties of PC with
using superplasticizer. It was found that the PC with 20% substitution of
cement by FA illustrations higher compressive and tensile strength
compared to PC without FA. While Specimens with 10% and 30% re-
placements showed less strength than compared to control mix design.
Al-sallami et al. (2020) studied the influence of Class F FA on the
performance and behavior of PC with the ratio for the partial substitute
of cement by FA ranging of 30–50%. It was observed that with 30% FA
substitution by weight of cement, flexural strength, and compressive
strength improved by 38.34, 40, and 40% at 90 days of curing time,
respectively. It could be due to the micro-filler influence of FA and its
pozzolanic characteristics, which formed secondary C–S–H gels that
resulted in cohesive activity, thus decreasing voids, and improving the
modulus of elasticity and strength. They indicated that the 50% sub-
stitution of cement with FA resulted in a decrease strength of PC. This
performance might be due to the fact that at 50% FA substitution, some
FA particles will stay inactive and will not participate in the hydration
process, which means that secondary C–S–H gel will not produce, and
FA particles will perform as filler therefore that it will not improve the
strength but will enhance the density and decrease the void content.
Other studies inspected the effect of using FA combined with other
pozzolanic materials and admixtures to increase hydration and improve
the influence of FA on the performance of PC. Opiso et al. (2019)
examined the field and lab behavior of mixed PC while incorporating
class C FA as a partial substitution of cement and fine sawdust (FSD) as
an internal filler and curing agent admixture. They concluded that the
blended PC achieved more strength at 28 days of curing by 10.8 MPa.
However, it was marginally less than the value of compressive strength
of 13.5 MPa on PC containing FA and Fe2O3 nanoparticles (28 days)
(Vázquez-Rivera et al., 2015). According to the De Weerdt et al. (2011),
the moderate strength improvement of PC with FA and FSD might be
contributed to the gentle reaction of FA in the creation of calcium
aluminate precipitates. It can be reported that the flexural strength of PC
containing FA and FSD after 28 days of curing time achieved 4.167 MPa
which was greater than that needed for parking lots (3.5–4.5 MPa) as per
ACI 552R-10, (2010). The achieved flexural strength was quite higher
than the results of the study conducted by Muthaiyan and Thirumalai
(2017) on mixed PC with a 10% FA substitution rate which might be due
6
Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100130
to their lower cement-to-aggregate ratio of 1:6.7. Peng et al. (2018)
assessed the influence of replacement content of FA and blast furnace
slag (BFS) on the physical and mechanical characteristics of PC. It was
reported that BFS and FA both reduced the compressive strength of PC at
the early age of curing time up to 28 days, which could be contributed to
the faster hydration speed of cement than BFS and FA. However, PC
contained BFS and/or FA displayed almost similar strength at a longer
period of curing time (60 d). It can be said that at the same substitution
rate and compared to the conventional PC mix, the compressive strength
was changed more obviously by the influence of FA than BFS, which
contributed to the various chemical composition of FA and BFS. In
comparison to FA, BFS included a higher value of CaO, which created a
more appropriate alkaline environment for the pozzolanic activity.
Therefore, FA presented a more intense influence on strength at the
early age of curing time than BFS. Similarly, Babu et al. (2022)
concluded that the strengths of PC can be enhanced by combining BFS
and FA. It was observed that the highest compressive and tensile
strength achieved at 15% of BFS and 20% of FA which is about 29.48
MPa and 3.74 MPa respectively. Saboo et al. (2019) studied the effect of
class-F FA (up to 20%) and metakaolin (up to 2%) as a partial substi-
tution for cement and they utilized a superplasticizer for admixture.
They indicated that the strength of PC increased with an increase in FA
and metakaolin content.
3.3. Influence of FA on durability of PC
Many researchers investigated the effect of FA on durability of
normal concrete. They reported that using FA as cement replacement
enhanced durability of normal concrete especially in long-term of con-
crete life (Ahmaruzzaman, 2010; Rafieizonooz et al., 2017b). Using high
volume of (class F) FA in normal concrete improved durability subjected
to freeze-thaw and chloride ions (Siddique, 2004). Moreover, the normal
concrete incorporating (class C) FA showed better abrasion resistance
compared to control mix (Ahmaruzzaman, 2010). However, limited
studies investigated the durability of PC incorporating FA. Singh et al.
(2021) assessed the abrasion resistance of PC incorporating FA up to
20% in terms of mass loss. It was reported that with increasing amount
of FA, the abrasion resistance increased, and the percentage mass loss
decreased. Comparable findings were stated by Septiandini et al. (2021),
Sata et al. (2016),Woo et al. (2011). According to Siddique (2004), it
could be due to the filler and pozzolanic properties of FA. Moreover,
Rasiah (2010) reported that the drying shrinkage after 56 days was
reduced by 21% for PC specimen containing 50% FA. It could be due to
the cement substitution with FA increased the dimensional stability of
PC. Aoki et al. (2012) confirmed their findings. However, Liu et al.
(2019) indicated the influence of using FA on freeze–thaw performance
E. Khankhaje et al.
of PC. It was found that compressive strength of PC incorporating 12%
FA decreased by 27.2% under 50 freeze–thaw cycles. This is due to the
addition of FA reduced the connection between the aggregates, which
finally led to weak bonding.
4. Conclusion
This review study has investigated the effects of FA on the properties
of PC and durability performance. According to the extensive review of
research data, the following conclusions can be drawn.
• Addition of FA reduced water permeability and void ratio of PC. It
might be due to filler character of FA and its pozzolanic activity,
which created secondary C–S–H gels, and reducing total voids con-
tent and permeability.
• In addition, using FA as partial replacement of cement decreased the
early age strength of PC. It could be due to the reduction of cement
caused in the decline of cement paste utilized to cover the coarse
aggregate and decreased the connection of aggregates. Moreover,
because of the greater upper water absorption of FA, adding of FA
decrease the water essential for cement hydration. Therefore,
unfinish cement hydration decreased the connection among the ag-
gregates and reduced the final strength of PC. The rate of gaining
strength increased as the age of curing increased with adding FA as
partial cement replacement in PC. It could be due to the present of
Silica in FA that formed C–S–H gel, which resulted in an increase in
the connection between the aggregate and paste.
• The optimum substitution level of cement with FA was obtained to be
10–30%. However, with increasing the level of replacement to
higher than optimum (30–50%) affects the hydration procedure
resulting a slower strength gain; this process in the negative way
affects the strengths. The grinding and burning of FA improved the
pozzolanic reactivity of FA, improved the hydration of binding and
the strength of PC. Using superplasticizer, silica fume, slag and
metakaolin clearly enhanced the strengths of PC incorporating FA at
lower levels of replacement because of connection improvement at
the interface of the coarse aggregates and cement biner.
• Drying shrinkage reduced with adding FA as substitution of cement
in PC. It could be due to the cement replacement with FA increased
the dimensional stability of PC. With increasing amount of FA, the
abrasion resistance of PC increased. This could be due to the
pozzolanic reaction and filler properties of FA which resulted in
enhanced abrasion resistance and reduced mass loss. Subjected to
freeze–thaw cycles, the compressive strength of PC with adding FA
decreased. This could be due to the addition of FA reduced the
connection among the aggregates, which caused weak bonding and
decline of freeze–thaw resistance.
• Whereas the compressive strength and permeability are frequently
reduced by adding FA as partially cement replacement, PC incor-
porating FA still has acceptable strengths and permeability for
various applications. In addition, using FA in PC is useful as a view of
environmental sustainability and waste decrease.
5. Future visions of PC contain FA
This review article presents the properties of PC incorporating FA.
Although the growing recognition of FA as a sustainable partial
replacement of cement. It can be concluded that several researchers
have successfully utilized FA in producing PC. It has been noticed that
the data is insufficient on the durability properties of PC contain FA. Few
studies are available on the combined effects of FA and other additives in
producing PC. Therefore, further studies are vital to promote wide-
spread field implementation of PC incorporating FA. The recommen-
dation for further research has been proposed as follows.
7
Developments in the Built Environment 14 (2023) 100130
• Further studies on long-term behavior and properties assessment of
PC incorporating FA are needed and must be conducted to analyze
their sustainability advantages during the design life. It is proposed
to develop a model for the CO2 emission and cost analysis. The
assessment of leaching performance for PC contain FA is vital to
prove whether it can be used safely as construction material or not.
Moreover, the effect of FA on thermal and sound insulation of PC is
needed to give an in-depth knowledge for using PC as pavement.
• It is recommended that the durability test against harsh environment
be applied to investigate the behavior of PC contain FA for long-term
performance subjected to different conditions.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of
Korea (NRF) grant funded by the (MSIT) (NRF-2022R1A4A3026883)
and the Korea Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement
(KAIA) grant funded by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Trans-
port (RS-2022-00143493).
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