Special Issue Article

Advances in Mechanical Engineering

2018, Vol. 10(2) 1–12
Ó The Author(s) 2018
Design, analysis, and experimental DOI: 10.1177/1687814018760021
journals.sagepub.com/home/ade
validation of a novel seamless
automatic transmission for electric
vehicle

Jie Yu1,2, Ligang Yao1, Chengcheng Ren1, Xiaolei Yan2 and Li Lin3

Abstract
The transmission system has an important influence on the dynamic performance, endurance mileage, and energy saving
in an all-electric vehicle. This article proposes an innovative two-speed seamless dry-friction automatic transmission sys-
tem to improve the dynamic performance and endurance mileage of an all-electric vehicle with the existing battery tech-
nology. The proposed system consists of two-stage epicyclical gear sets without outer ring gears, a dry-friction clutch,
and a brake band, realizes a seamless shifting between any two speeds in an electric vehicle. Based on the working princi-
ple and dynamic modeling of the proposed seamless dry-friction automatic transmission system, the ratio optimization
was carried out to improve the dynamic performance and the power consumption at the same time, and the combina-
tion of the weight ratio method and the multi-island genetic algorithm method was introduced to solve the optimization
problem. It is shown both theoretically and experimentally that the proposed seamless dry-friction automatic transmis-
sion method demonstrates a better dynamic performance and shifting comfort when compared to the automated man-
ual transmission with same transmission ratio.

Keywords
Seamless auto transmission, electric vehicle, experiment, simulation

Date received: 6 June 2017; accepted: 17 January 2018

Handling Editor: Haiping Du

Introduction be a more suitable option for EVs.2,3 For this reason,

In the recent years, electric vehicle (EV) technology had
been developed rapidly due to the air pollution prob-
lems and petroleum shortage. The EVs are usually
equipped with a single-speed gearbox to minimize the
cost, volumes, losses, and drive train mass.1 However,
EVs with a single-speed gearbox require high-
performance traction motor and battery to meet the
dynamic performance requirements such as maximum
climbing slope, velocity, and acceleration. Compared to
the single-speed gearbox transmission system, a two-
speed gearbox transmission system with the character-
istics of vehicle drivability and high efficiency seems to
several types and structures of the two-speed gearbox
transmission system are proposed for the drive train
system of EVs. Among these two-speed transmissions,
the simulation and experiments on the two-speed
1
Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
2
Fujian University of Technology, Fuzhou, China
3
Fujian Wanrun New Energy Technology Co., Ltd., Fuzhou, China
Corresponding author:
Jie Yu, Fuzhou University, No. 2, Xueyuan Road, Fuzhou 350116, Fujian,
China.
Email: 95677615@qq.com

Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License
(http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without
further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/
open-access-at-sage).
2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

automated manual transmission (AMT) are studied,4,5

and an inverse AMT with the dry clutch located at the
rear of the transmissions is introduced to obtain a
seamless gear shifting and to avoid the traction inter-
ruption of traditional AMT.6–8 Also, a two-speed con-
tinuously variable transmission (CVT) and a two-speed
dual-clutch transmission (DCT) were compared with
the manual transmission (MT) using simulations on
several standard drive cycles and found that both the
two-speed DCT and simplified CVT improve the over-
all power train efficiency. However, each of the config-
urations has unique cost and energy consumption-
related trade-offs.9–11 Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the power train system.
Since the key requirements in an EV are least energy
consumption and maximum possible endurance mile-
age, the AMT is of keen interest because of its lower
weight and higher efficiency compared to other types
of transmissions, such as automatic transmission (AT),
CVT, and DCT.12 However, a fundamental limitation
of the AMT is the power interruption during gearshift
due to the restriction of mechanism and principle.
Hence, a two-speed transmission system with smooth
gearshift and high efficiency is necessary and crucial
for the EV transmission.13 Figure 2. A 3D exploded view diagram of gear set.
To meet the desired dynamic performance and effi-
ciency for the EV, this article presents a novel seamless
dry-friction automatic transmission (SDAT), taking 2. In Figures 1 and 2, the SDAT system includes dry-
advantages of its mechanical construction and realizing friction clutch C, brake band B, input shaft, a front sun
seamless gearshift. The structure and work principle of gear S1, a rear sun gear S2, carrier, and output shaft.
the proposed SDAT system are introduced. Then, to fit The dry-friction clutch and the brake band are intro-
a particular operating driving cycle of the vehicle, the duced to direct the power flow during the gearshift.
gear ratios are optimized based on the vehicle simula- The gearbox is divided into two parts. The wet part is
tion model using a method combining the weight ratio used for decorating a planetary gear train, and the dry
method and an intelligent optimization method. part is used for decorating the shift control compo-
Finally, the experiments on an EV with SDAT are con- nents, such as clutch and brake band. Such design can
ducted, and the results show that the EV with SDAT avoid the quality of gear oil be affected by the wear
has a seamless upshift. debris from shift component, improving the operating
life time of the gear. The dry-friction clutch is trans-
planted directly from the clutch of the conventional
The structure, working principle, dynamic MT system, and the shift process becomes easier than
modeling, and gear ratio optimization for the MT system since the synchronizer is absent.
the SDAT system Therefore, the proposed SDAT has the characteristics
of reliable operation and long service. By controlling
As mentioned above, the SDAT system has a signifi- the speed of the two sun gears, a fast and smooth gear-
cant influence on the characteristics of the EV. Hence, shift is realized. To obtain a smooth gearshift in the
a novel SDAT system is proposed considering the basic brake-to-clutch gearshift of transmission, it is necessary
requirements of EV. The structure, working principle, to synchronize the incoming clutch as well as a precise
dynamic modeling, and gear ratio optimization for the pressure control for the engagement of the off-going
SDAT system are presented in this section. brake band. The novel transmission connected to the
electric motor and final drive can avoid the need for a
torque converter, due to its relatively low efficiency.
The structure of the proposed SDAT system
As shown in Figure 1, the power train system for EV
mainly consists of a battery, motor, SDAT, and final The working principle of the SDAT system
drive. The SDAT comprises a two-stage epicyclical gear As shown in Figure 3, the gearshift for SDAT is easy
set without outer ring gears, as shown in Figures 1 and to realize by controlling the working state of the clutch
Yu et al. 3

Figure 3. Power transmission path: (a) power transmission in the first gear and (b) power transmission in the second gear.

and the brake band. When the clutch C is disengaged 1. If the front sun gear is completely grounded by
and the brake band B is engaged, the SDAT works in engaging the brake band (i:e: vs1 = 0), the first
the first gear; when the clutch C is engaged and the gear ratio can be obtained as
brake band B is disengaged, the SDAT works in the
second gear; when the clutch C and the brake band B vin Z1
=1+ = i1 ð3Þ
are both disengaged, the SDAT works in the neutral vout Z2
gear.
2. If the front sun gear and the rear sun gear are
To understand the working principle of SDAT, the
fixed together by engaging the clutch
kinematic relation among the front sun gear, the rear
(i:e:vs1 = vs2 = vC ), the second gear ratio is
sun gear, and the carrier need to be examined in detail.
obtained
The ratio between the front sun gear S1 and the rear
sun gear S2 is proposed by the perspective of standing vin
on the carrier (planetary gear train is simplified to fixed = 1 = i2 ð4Þ
vout
axis gear train) and is given as
3. If neither the clutch nor the brake band is
vs1  vC Z2 engaged (vs1 6¼ 0, vs1 6¼ vs2 ), the neutral gear
iC12 = = ð1Þ
vs2  vC Z1 ratio can be obtained and is given as

where vs1 denotes the front sun gear speed, vc is the
carrier speed, vs2 is the rear sun gear speed, Z1 is the
teeth number of the front sun gear, and Z2 is the teeth
number of the rear sun gear.
According to equation (1), the gear set of SDAT has
2 degrees of freedom, and two steps of gear ratios are
possible by controlling the working state of clutch and
brake band. Since the rear sun gear S2 is connected to
the input shaft and the carrier to the output shaft, the
gear ratio of the transmission (the ratio between the
input speed and the output speed) can be expressed as
vin vs2
= ð2Þ
vout vC
where vin denotes the input speed of transmission and
vout is the output speed of transmission.
By examining equations (1) and (2), three different
gear ratios can be achievable:
vin Z1 Z1 vs1
=1+  = ig ð5Þ
vout Z2 Z2 vC
where i1 and i2 represent the first and the second gear
ratios, respectively, and ig is the transient gear ratio
during the gear shifting process.
Dynamic modeling of the power train system with
SDAT
To carry out the ratio optimization task, it is necessary
to build a simulation model which includes a driving
cycle, energy storage, a vehicle control, and the power
train system (as shown in Figure 4). The power train
system consists of an electric motor, input shaft,
SDAT, output shaft, final drive, and longitudinal vehi-
cle dynamics, as shown in Figure 5. Due to the page
4 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
Figure 4. Simulation model for the EV with SDAT.
Figure 5. Block diagram of the power train system simulation
model.
constraints, this section only focuses on the model of
the power train system with SDAT.
Dynamic modeling for motor and flexible input shaft. In this
article, the input and output shafts of SDAT are mod-
eled as spring–damp systems, and other components of
the power train system are considered as rigid bodies.
Thus, the electric motor is considered as a rotating
rigid body, and its torque Tm can be interpolated from
a look-up table as a function of the accelerator pedal
position ap and the motor rotational speed vm 14
 
Tm = f ap , vm
Then, the equation for the elasticity of input shaft
connecting the motor and SDAT can be written as
Tm = kis ðum  us Þ + cis ðvm  vs2 Þ
where angle um  us is the torsion angle of the flexible
input shaft, kis is the elastic coefficient of the input
shaft, and cis is the damping factor of the input shaft.
Dynamic modeling for SDAT. Equation (1) shows the
kinetics of the two-stage epicyclical gear system under
steady-state conditions. As shown in Figure 6, the
dynamic equations of elements for the transmission
system built according to the principle of virtual work
are as follows
X
N
Tm  TCL  Rs2 Fs2p2j = Js2 v_ s2
j=1
Figure 6. Block diagram of the transmission system.
X
N
TBR + TCL  Rs1 Fs1p1j = Js1 v_ s1 ð9Þ
j=1
X
N X
N
Rs1 Fs1p1j + Rs2 Fs2p2j  TT = Jc0 v_ c ð10Þ
j=1 j=1
Jp1 v_ p1  Jp1 v_ c = Rp1j Fs1p1j  Rp1j Fp2p1j ðj = 1, 2, . . . , N Þ
ð11Þ
Jp2 v_ p2  Jp2 v_ c = Rp2j Fs2p2j  Rp2j Fp1p2j ðj = 1, 2, . . . , N Þ
ð12Þ
ð6Þ
Jc0 = Jc + Nmp1 R2C1 + Nmp2 R2C2 ð13Þ
whereJs1 , Js2 , Jc , and Jc0 denote the inertia of the front
sun gear, the rear sun gear, the carrier, and the carrier
ð7Þ with pinions, respectively; Jp1 and mp1 denote the iner-
tia and mass of the single long planet gear, respectively;
Jp2 and mp2 denote the inertia and mass of the single
short planet gear, respectively; Rs1 , Rs2 , Rp1 , and Rp2
denote the front sun gear radius, the rear sun gear
radius, the long planet gear radius, and the short planet
gear radius, respectively; Rc1 is the distance between the
centers of the front sun gear and the long planet gear;
Rc2 is the distance between the centers of the rear sun
gear and the short planet gear; N is the number of long
planet gears or short planet gears; Fs1p1 is the meshing
force between the front sun gear and the long planet
gear; Fs2p2 is the meshing force between the rear sun
gear and the short planet gear; Fp1p2 is the meshing
ð8Þ
force between the long planet gear and the short planet
gear; and TCL , TBR , and TT denote the torque of clutch,
Yu et al. 5

brake band, and the output torque of SDAT, In equation (22), the positive rotational direction of
respectively. brake band is considered as the energizing mode of the
Moreover, the kinematic relationship between the band brake.
components of the two-stage planetary gear set is According to equations (16) and (17), the gear shift-
ing process can be divided into torque phase and inertia
RC1 vc = Rs1 vs1 + Rp1 vp1 ð14Þ phase for analysis.15 During the shift process, a coordi-
nated control of the clutch, brake band, and the motor
RC2 vc = Rs2 vs2 + Rp2 vp2 ð15Þ
is the key to realize seamless shift and change the
According to equations (1) and (8)–(15), the overall SDAT output torque smoothly.
dynamic equations of SDAT system can be obtained as
Dynamic modeling for final drive and longitudinal vehicle
Tm + TBR  TT =Js1 v_ s1 + Js2 v_ s2 + Jc0 v_ c = J1 v_ s2 + J2 v_ c
dynamics. Since the output shaft is modeled as a spring–
ð16Þ damp system, the output torque of SDAT is expressed
Rs2 as
Tm  TCL + ðTBR + TCL Þ = J3 v_ s2 + J4 v_ c ð17Þ
Rs1
TT = kos ðuT  uos Þ + cos ðvT  vos Þ ð24Þ
where
where angle uT  uos is the torsion angle of the flexible
Rs2 output shaft, kos is the elastic coefficient of output shaft,
J1 =  Js1 + Js2 ð18Þ cos is the damping factor of output shaft, and vos is the
Rs1
  speed at the end of output shaft next to the final drive,
Rs2 and the relationship between vos and the wheel speed
J2 = Js1 1 + + Jc0 ð19Þ
Rs1 vw is
 2  2  2
Rs2 Rs2 Rs2 vos = ifd vw ð25Þ
J3 =  Js1 + Js2 + Jp1  Jp2
Rs1 Rp1 Rp2
Then, using the torque balance equation and lumped
ð20Þ
mass method,16 the longitudinal vehicle dynamics can
   
Rs2 Rs2 Rs2 Rc1 be expressed as follows
J4 = Js1 1 + + Jp1 1
Rs1 Rs1 Rp1 Rp1
  ð21Þ ifd 1
Rs2 Rc2 v_ w = TT  Tv ð26Þ
+ Jp2 1 Jv Jv
Rp2 Rp2
where Jv is the combined inertia of the vehicle and
For the SDAT system proposed in this article, the wheels, ifd is the final drive ratio, and Tv is the resisting
clutch connecting the front sun gear and the rear sun torque on the vehicle that can be calculated as follows
gear is same as the conventional single-plate dry clutch
type. Thus, the relation between the normal applied Tv = Twind + Troll + Tslope ð27Þ
force on the plate FCL and the resulting torque is14
where Twind , Troll , and Tslope are the resisting torques
 
2 R3o  R3i from wind, rolling, and slope, respectively, and can be
TCL = mp FCL signðvS2 Þ, FCL  0 ð22Þ calculated as follows
3 R2o  R2i

where mp is the coefficient of friction between the plates CD Af 2

Twind = Rw u ð28Þ
and Ri and Ro denote the inner and outer radii of the 21:15 v
friction plate, respectively. Troll = Rw mv g sinðuroad Þ ð29Þ
In this article, the brake of the front sun gear is
designed to be of dry band brake type. As a result, the Tslope = Rw froll mv g sinðuroad Þ ð30Þ
relationship between the applied normal force at the
end of the band FBR and the resulting torque is where Rw is the dynamic radius of the wheel, CD is the
frontal area of vehicle, Af is the drag coefficient of vehi-
 cle, mv is the mass of vehicle, g is the acceleration due
FBR RD ðemD uD  1Þ, vs1  0, FBR  0
TBR = ð23Þ to gravity, uroad is the angle of road slope, and uv is the
FBR RD ð1  emD uD Þ, vs1 \0, FBR  0
velocity of vehicle that can be calculated from the fol-
where RD is the radius of the drum brake, mD is the fric- lowing relation
tion coefficient between band and drum, and uD is the
angle of wrap. uv = Rw vw ð31Þ
6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

By combining equations (6), (7), (17), (25), and (26) Table 1. The main parameters of the electric vehicle for ratio
together, the full-state dynamics of the system are given optimization.
as follows
Components Parameters Values
8
> Tm = kis ðum  us Þ + cis ðvm  vs2 Þ
>
> v_ = J4
Vehicle body Curb mass (kg) 9800
>
> s2 ðT + TBR  TT Þ + J1 J4JJ 2
Gross mass (kg) 13,500
>
> h J1 J4 J2 J3 m i 2 J3
>
> Rs2 Frontal area (m2) 7.0
>
> T m  T CL + ð TBR + T CL Þ
< Rs1 Drag coefficient 0.6
v_ c = J2 J3JJ
3
ð T m + TBR  TT Þ + J2 J3JJ
1
ð32Þ Rolling radius (m) 0.436
>
> h 1 J4 i 1 J4
Final drive gear ratio i0
>
> T  T + Rs2
ð T + T Þ
>
> m CL Rs1 BR CL Battery pack Rated capacity (AH) 258
>
>
> TT = kos ðuT  uos Þ + cos ðvT  vos Þ
> Rated voltage (V) 537
>
: i Motor Rated/peak power (kW) 80/160
v_ w = Jfdv TT  J1v Tv Peak speed (r/min) 4000
Peak torque (N m) 900
The full-state dynamics of the system was applied in
the EV simulation in the next section.

Table 2. The dynamic performance requirements.

The gear ratio optimization for the SDAT system
To improve both the dynamic performance and power Name Value
consumption for EV, finding the desired values of i1 Maximum speed (km/h) 100
and the final drive gear ratio i0 becomes a multi- Maximum slope at 10 km/h vehicle speed (%) 20
objective optimization problem. At present, the meth- 0–50 km/h acceleration time t50 (s) <20
ods to solve the multi-objective optimization problem
mainly include conventional methods and intelligent
optimization methods.17 The conventional methods, 8
>
> F ð xÞ = PC fator = E100
100
such as the weight ratio method, tend to transform the < 1 
Gmax Gmax u u
multi-objective optimization problem into a single- Min F2 ð xÞ = D fator = 20 Gmax  + 10 maxu max
>
> t t
max
objective optimization problem. Obviously, such : + 70 50  50
t50
method is of highly computationally efficient, but it
depends on the designer’s experience, and the optimal ð33Þ
results are not always guaranteed. To solve the multi-
X = ½x1 , x2  = ½i0 , i1  ð34Þ
objective optimization problem effectively, this article
8 
uses the combination of weight ratio method and the > g1 ð xÞ = Gmax  Gmax  0
>
<
intelligent optimization method. Here, the multi-island g2 ð xÞ = umax  umax  0
genetic algorithm (MIGA) is used for solving the s:t: Gð xÞ =  ð35Þ
>
> g3 ð xÞ = t50  t50 0
multi-objective optimization problem. For this mission, :
g4 ð xÞ = Ft  Fu  0
an EV with the parameters shown in Table 1 is selected
as the target vehicle to formulate the optimization where F1 (x) and F2 (x) are the first and second objective
problem. The main constraints of optimization are the functions, respectively; PC fator is the electric power
dynamic performance (Table 2) and high efficiency consumption per 100 km; E100 is the total power con-
requirements. The optimization flowchart is shown in sumption during 100-km driving cycle; D fator is a

Figure 7. dynamic performance factor; Gmax is the design value at
In the optimization process, the weight ratio method peak slope on the first gear; Gmax is the actual value at
was adopted to obtain the dynamic performance objec- peak slope; umax is the design value at maximum speed;

tive function from the 0–50 km/h acceleration time, the umax is the actual value at maximum speed; t50 is the
maximum velocity, and the peak slope. Here, the weight design value at 0–50 km/h acceleration time; t50 is the
ratio for the acceleration time is 0.7, the weight ratio actual value for 0–50 km/h acceleration time; drag coef-
for the peak slope is 0.2, and the weight ratio for the ficient of vehicle; Ft is the maximum driving force; and
maximum velocity is 0.1. In addition, the economic Fu is the maximum adhesion of road surface.
objective function was obtained based on the power MIGA is an advanced version of the genetic algo-
consumption per kilometer under certain driving cycle. rithm (GA) of parallel distribution, which has not only
Then, the iterative calculations were carried out using a better ability to obtain a global solution but also
the MIGA method. The optimization objectives and computationally efficient than the conventional GA.
constraints are listed below According to the rule of ‘‘survival of the fittest’’ in the
Yu et al. 7

Figure 7. The flowchart of MIGA optimal calculation.

process of biological evolution, the GA encodes optimi- Table 3. The parameters of multi-island genetic algorithm.
zation problem solution space of the individual and
takes the encoded individual populations into genetic Name Value
operations (such as selection, crossover, and mutation). Value range: i0 2.1 \ i0 \ 6.2
Finally, the optimal solution or the combination of the Value range: i1 2.0 \ x \ 2.2
optimal solution can be found through iterations. Default variable bound (absolute value) 1000.0
MIGA divides a large population into a number of Migration interval 5
Number of generations 10
subpopulations, called ‘‘island,’’ and uses conventional
Number of islands 10
GA algorithms on each island to carry out subpopula- Random seed value 21
tion evolution. The parameters of MIGA are shown in Rate of crossover 1.0
Table 3. Rate of migration 0.01
The calculation results for dynamic and power con- Rate of mutation 0.01
Rel tournament size 0.5
sumption factors are shown in Figure 7. Then, the opti- Subpopulation size 10
mal ratios for i1 and i0 are selected from the Pareto
solution set. The calculated results of the state point
i1 = 2:16 and i0 = 2:8 are 0.126 for dynamic factor and
0.522 for power consumption factor. The calculated feature in Figure 10 shows that the current velocity can
results of the optimal point i1 = 2:18 and i0 = 6:19 are follow the desired velocity from driving cycle, which
0.139 for dynamic factor and 0.514 for power consump- means that the dynamic performance satisfies the driv-
tion factor (Figure 8). ing cycle demand.
Using the obtained optimal design point, the charac-
teristics of acceleration and peak slope are shown in Experimental verification on the vehicle
Figure 9. As shown in Figure 9(a), the peak slope
changes with the speed of EV. For example, the peak
with novel SDAT
slope is 21.8% when the EV is operating at 10 km/h. It After understanding the design and analysis of the pro-
can also be observed from this figure that the current posed SDAT in the previous sections, the seamless shift
velocity changes as the acceleration time increases. For process was verified by real EV test. As shown in
example, the 0–50 km/h acceleration time of the EV is Figure 11, the results from a real driving cycle were
about 17.5 s. The maximum velocity of EV in the simu- obtained from the experiment on the EV with SDAT.
lation is about 103 km/h. Under the NEDC.aut driving Data collection for the motor speed and velocity from
cycle, the power consumption is about 0.52 kW h/km the test carried out on EV is presented in Figure 12.
at the optimal design point. The velocity tracking The gear shifting characteristics of a upshift process
8 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 8. The iterative results of optimization target: (a) calculated history of dynamic factor and (b) history of power
consumption factor.

for the EV with AMT is shown in Figure 13, whereas
the proposed SDAT method is shown in Figure 14.
Based on the test results shown in Figures 12–14, it
can be concluded that the vehicle with SDAT has a
seamless upshift since the velocity increases steadily
during the shifting process, but the vehicle with
AMT does not have such smooth shift
characteristics. It is worth mentioning that the
power consumption per kilometer is about 0.53 kW
h/km, and the upshift time is about 0.5 s for SDAT,
as shown in Figure 15. As stated earlier, the power
consumption obtained in simulations is about 0.52
kW h/km, the simulation accuracy is verified by the
experiment result.
Yu et al. 9

Figure 9. Dynamic characteristic for EV at the optimal design point: (a) characteristics of peak slope and (b) characteristics of
acceleration.

Conclusion driving cycle demand. Based on the experimental data

This article proposed a novel two-speed seamless trans-
mission with two-stage epicyclical gear sets, a dry-
friction clutch, and a brake band. By choosing the opti-
mal design point (i1 = 2:18 and i0 = 6:19), the maxi-
mum velocity, the peak slope, and 0–50 km/h
acceleration time of target EV are about 130 km/h,
21.8% at 10 km/h, and 17.5 s, respectively. For the
NEDC.aut driving cycle, the power consumption is
about 0.52 kW h/km, and the velocity can follow the
analysis, the upshifting time for SDAT is about 0.5 s
with the best power consumption of 0.53 kW h. As
compared with the vehicle with AMT, the vehicle with
SDAT has achieved a seamless shifting characteristic.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or /publication of this
article.
10 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 10. Velocity tracking feature in NEDC.aut.

Figure 11. The gearshift and power consumption test: (a) the novel SDAT, (b) the vehicle with SDAT for test, (c) data acquisition
software for test and (d) additional weight for test.
Yu et al. 11

Figure 12. Some data from the real velocity test.

Figure 13. Upshift process of the real velocity test with AMT.

Figure 14. Upshift process of the real velocity test with SDAT.

Figure 15. Gear shifting curve in the test.

12
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: The authors would like to thank the financial support
from the Fujian Science and Technology Agency (2016H6009
& 2015J01179) and the Nature Science Foundation of China
(51275092 & 51505085).
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