NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION ON MICRO-COMBUSTOR

FOR VARYING PARAMETERS

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of

M.Tech.

In

Thermal Power Engineering

By

DURGESH CHAVHAN
(211321009)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI-620015

MAY 2023
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project titled NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION ON

MICRO-COMBUSTOR FOR VARYING PARAMETERS is a bonafide record of
the work done by

DURGESH CHAVHAN (211321009)

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of
Technology in Thermal Power Engineering of the NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI, during the year 2022-2023.

Dr. S. VEDHARAJ Dr. K. PANNIRSELVAM

Project Guide
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology
National Institute of Technology
Head of the Department
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli – 620015

Project Viva-voce held on _____________________________

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ABSTRACT
A micro-combustor is one of the important devices in heat generation to power miniaturized
products such as micro-robots. There is a growing interest in developing micro combustors as
a power source due to their inherent advantages of higher energy density, higher heat and mass
transfer coefficients, and shorter recharge times. The study provides a detailed analysis of the
combustion process in micro-combustors, which is essential for developing efficient micro-
scale combustion systems.

Micro-combustor is a compact combustion device that is used to burn a fuel-air mixture in a

controlled manner to produce power. Many elements influence the performance of a micro-
combustor, including the fuel-air mixture used, and the geometry of the combustion chamber.
The impacts of Fuel-Air Equivalent Ratio (Ø) on the micro-combustor would be investigated
to determine the optimal performance of developed micro-combustors.

The pressure and temperature time curves offer insights into pressure fluctuations, combustion
stability, and temperature distribution within micro-combustors. These curves are essential for
validating, calibrating, optimizing, and analyzing numerical models, fostering the development
of efficient and reliable micro-combustors. Minimal variation in the pressure-time and
temperature-time curves signifies stable combustion. The study calculates important
combustion parameters, such as ignition delay time and combustion duration. Experimental
validation confirms close agreement between observed and experimental outcomes across
various equivalence ratios. Notably, at an equivalence ratio of 1.0, the maximum temperature
reaches approximately 4000K, while the maximum pressure reaches around 16.5 bar.
Combustion efficiency increases with equivalence ratio, reaching approximately 99.7% at an
equivalence ratio of 1.0. Furthermore, ignition delay time decreases with increasing
equivalence ratio, reaching 0.1ms at an equivalence ratio of 1.0.

Keywords: Fuel-Air Ratio (Ø), Ignition delay time, Combustion duration, Micro-combustor,
Swiss Roll Micro-combustors, Combustion Efficiency

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I profusely express my sincere gratitude to the almighty for having provided me the golden
opportunity to bring out this thesis completely successful. Sincere thanks are extended to my
guide Dr. S. VEDHARAJ has brought his professionalism and expertise in guiding and
shaping the project to various levels.

I express my gratitude to Dr. K. PANNIRSELVAM Head of the department, Mechanical

Engineering Department, National Institute of technology Tiruchirappalli, for his support and
encouragement to this project.

I sincerely thank my project coordinators Dr. S. VENKATACHALAPATHY, Professor,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology (NIT),
Tiruchirappalli, Dr. SHAHUL HAMEED, Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, National Institute of Technology (NIT),Tiruchirappalli, Dr. P. KAUSHIK,
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology
(NIT),Tiruchirappalli, and Dr. G. RAJASEKARAN, Assistant Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology (NIT),Tiruchirappalli for their
valuable suggestions during the project reviews.

I express my earnest gratitude to Mr. J. KALIL BASHA and Mr. B. SATHISHKUMAR

research scholars for his sincere help during the project.

I wish to thank my parents for the moral support they provided to make this project a success.
I thank all the staff members and my friends who directly or indirectly helped me for the
successful completion of this project.

DURGESH CHAVHAN
(211321009)

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page No
ABSTRACT i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS vii

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview 1
1.1.1 General 1
1.1.2 Overview of micro-combustion 2
1.1.3 Needs of micro-scale combustion 3
1.1.4 Application of micro-combustion 4
1.1.5 Challenges in micro-combustion 5
1.1.6 Ignition Delay 7
1.2 Background 8
1.3 Practical Micro-combustors 8
1.3.1 Swiss Roll Micro-combustors 9
1.3.2 Cylindrical Micro-combustors backward facing steps 10
1.4 Converge 3.0 Software 10

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Performance studies 11

2.2 Inference 16

CHAPTER 3 : Problem Identification

3.1 Problem Statement 17

3.2 Research Objectives 17

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 CHAPTER 4 : METHODOLOGY

4.1 Flow of work 19

4.2 Design of micro-combustor using SolidWorks 19
4.3 Simulation using Converge Software 20
4.4 Physical Models 22
4.5

CHAPTER 5 : RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1 Effects of Hydrogen/air equivalence ratio on Pressure- 25

time curve
5.2 Effects of Hydrogen/air equivalence ratio on 26
Temperature-time curve
5.3 Validation of the results 28
5.4 Pressure and Temperature Contours 29
5.5 Variation in Combustion Efficiency of micro-combustor 31
with equivalence ratio.
5.6 Combustion Characteristics 33
5.6.1 Ignition delay 33
5.6.2 Combustion duration 34

CHAPTER 6 : CONCLUSION AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE STUDIES

6.1 Conclusion 35
6.2 Scope for future studies 36

REFERENCES

iv
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Comparison of typical micro and macro combustor 6

variables
4.1 Dimensions of micro cylindrical combustor 20

4.2 Boundary conditions 21

4.3 Source table 22

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Various applications of micro-combustion 5

1.2 Comparison of specific energy densities of Li-ion batteries with 6

hydrocarbon and oxygenated fuels as well as different engines
1.3 Diagram for determining ignition delay period 7

1.4 2D and 3D view of Swiss roll micro combustor. 9

4.1 Methodology 18
4.2 2D and 3D view of cylindrical micro combustor. 20

5.1 Pressure-time curve for different equivalence ratios 25

5.2 Maximum Pressure-time curve for different equivalence ratios 26

5.3 Mean Temperature-time curve for different equivalence ratios 27

5.4 Validation between numerical and experimental data 28

5.5 Pressure and Temperature contour for equivalence ratio = 0.2 29

5.6 Pressure and Temperature contour for equivalence ratio = 0.4 29

5.7 Pressure and Temperature contour for equivalence ratio = 0.6 30

5.8 Pressure and Temperature contour for equivalence ratio = 0.8 30

5.9 Pressure and Temperature contour for equivalence ratio = 1.0 31

5.10 Variation in combustion efficiency relative to the equivalence 32

ratio
5.11 Variation in ignition delay relative to the equivalence ratio 33

5.12 Variation in combustion duration relative to the equivalence ratio 34

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 LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Ø Fuel-Air Equivalent Ratio

ID Ignition Delay in ms
pmax Maximum Pressure in MPa
MEMS Micro-electromechanical systems
UAVs Unmanned aerial vehicles.
MTPV Micro-thermo photovoltaic systems
SiC Silicon Carbide
Li-ion Lithium-ion
𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Combustion Efficiency
.
𝑚𝑖𝑛 Mass flow rate inlet
𝑞𝐻2,𝑖𝑛 Mass fraction of hydrogen at inlet
.
𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 Mass flow rate outlet
𝑞𝐻2,𝑜𝑢𝑡 Mass fraction of hydrogen at outlet

vii
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
1.1.1 General

Miniaturization of devices is a prevailing trend in industries like aviation,

biotechnology, chemical processes, IT, and medicine[8]. This drive stems from the need to
optimize resources and reduce expenses. Compact devices provide benefits such as enhanced
control, precise measurements, and increased adaptability. However, as newer applications
necessitate higher efficiency, lighter weight, and improved reliability, the development of
miniature devices becomes more intricate, especially in areas like space propulsion and battery-
powered devices[5].

Miniature devices rely on various energy sources, including batteries, fuel cells, and
combustion, to power their operations[2]. Combustion plays a vital role by converting the
chemical energy of fuels such as hydrogen, natural gas, fuel oils, gasoline, and alcohols into
thermal energy. This thermal energy can be further transformed into kinetic or electrical energy
through secondary processes. However, due to the limited volume available in miniature
devices, combustion-based energy converters must function on a small scale, known as micro-
combustion, where the confined space's characteristic length typically ranges from 100 to 1000
micrometers[14].

The incorporation of micro-combustors in miniature devices presents numerous

benefits, such as autonomous and decentralized operation, increased efficiency, decreased
emissions, and improved reliability and cost-effectiveness[11]. Consequently, significant
research and development endeavors are dedicated to advancing micro-combustor technology
for diverse applications. The initial focus involves examining the fundamental aspects of
micro-combustion and exploring potential uses. The paragraph then addresses the challenges
specific to combustion in micro devices and highlights the potential advantages when
compared to conventional combustors.

In the field of miniaturized electromechanical systems, various micro power generation

systems such as fuel cells, micro turbines, and other energy systems have been created and
produced as energy sources[4]. Combustion-based micro power generation systems stand out
due to their higher energy density and longer lifespan in comparison to conventional chemical

1
batteries. Nevertheless, the development of these systems encounters the obstacle of substantial
heat dissipation in micro combustors, which are vital for converting fuel's chemical energy into
thermal energy[7].

Extensive research has been dedicated to studying combustion stability, thermal

performance, entropy generation, and combustion efficiency in micro-combustors. Among
these parameters, combustion efficiency is of utmost importance as it reflects the fuel
utilization rate and plays a crucial role in addressing the energy crisis by reducing energy
consumption[16]. Researchers have explored various approaches to enhance combustion
efficiency. For instance, Pan et al. demonstrated promising results by utilizing porous media to
stabilize the flame, leading to prolonged gas residence time and improved combustion
efficiency. Wan et al. conducted an extensive investigation on lean hydrogen/air flames in a
micro cavity-combustor, uncovering the relationship between wall thermal conductivity and
combustion efficiency[10]. Their findings emphasized that a moderate thermal conductivity of
the solid wall resulted in higher combustion efficiency. Furthermore, Yang et al. examined the
impact of inlet pressure, inlet temperature, and cavity depth on combustion efficiency in
different micro combustors, highlighting their significant influences[13].

The miniaturization trend in various industries has spurred the development of micro-
combustion technologies to meet the energy demands of miniature devices. Combustion-based
micro power generation systems offer higher energy density and longer lifespan[12]. However,
the challenge lies in improving combustion efficiency due to significant heat loss. This thesis
work aims to investigate the impact of multiple factors on the combustion efficiency of a
hydrogen-fueled micro-cylindrical combustor, advancing the design of efficient micro-
combustion systems[8].

1.1.2 Overview of micro-combustion

The occurrence of combustion on a micro scale, involving minute amounts of reactants
and resulting in micro-scale heat release, is known as micro combustion. This process involves
the rapid oxidation of a fuel in the presence of oxygen, which produces heat, light, and a variety
of combustion byproducts. The reaction produces a significant quantity of heat and radicals,
which aid in the combustion process. Micro combustion systems have been thoroughly
researched and constructed for a variety of applications, including micro power production,
propulsion systems, micro-chemical reactors, and micro-scale heating.

2
 The pursuit of higher energy densities and power densities in small-scale devices serves
as a driving force behind micro combustion research. Through the miniaturization of the
combustion chamber and precise control of reactant flow and mixing at the micro-scale,
researchers aim to optimize performance and combustion efficiency. Micro combustion
systems operate under conditions of rapid heat transfer and short residence times, resulting in
improved heat transfer and more efficient combustion. These advancements in micro
combustion have significant implications for applications like portable power generation in
micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) and micro-scale propulsion for small unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs). These applications demand lightweight and compact power sources
that can deliver high energy densities. Micro-scale combustion shows promise in achieving
superior energy density compared to traditional batteries or fuel cells, making it an attractive
option for specific niche applications.

Despite its potential, micro combustion poses several challenges. Ensuring stable and
reliable combustion at such small scales is complex due to factors like flame stability, limited
heat transfer, and reactant mixing. Combustion instabilities, including flame quenching and
flashback, can further impede the performance and dependability of micro combustion systems.
Nonetheless, ongoing research and development efforts are actively addressing these
challenges by investigating innovative designs, materials, and combustion strategies. These
endeavors aim to unleash the full potential of micro combustion technology, enabling compact
and efficient energy conversion systems for various applications.

1.1.3 Needs of micro-scale combustion

The advancement of nano and micro-fabrication technologies has revolutionized the
miniaturization and multifunctionality of devices like portable electronics, imaging systems,
chemical analyzers, and biomedical devices. To meet their power needs, compact and durable
power sources are crucial. Although batteries are commonly employed, they suffer from
limitations in energy density, recharge time, cycle life, and environmental impact. Micro-scale
combustion offers a promising solution by efficiently converting fuel's chemical energy into
thermal energy, enabling its conversion into kinetic or electrical energy. Integrating micro-
combustors into miniature devices brings numerous benefits, including autonomous operation,
improved efficiency, reduced emissions, and enhanced reliability. Consequently, micro-
combustor research and development have gained significant traction.

3
 Micro-scale combustion finds application across various industries. For example,
micro-satellite thrusters necessitate precise thrust control and high specific impulse for long-
term station keeping. Conventional battery-based thrusters fall short in terms of specific
impulse and thrust-to-weight ratios. Additionally, the integration of microelectronic and micro-
mechanical systems on a single chip is an emerging trend. On-chip micro-power generators,
known as power MEMS, hold immense potential in enhancing the functionality of portable
devices equipped with micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS).

Micro-scale combustion meets the demand for compact, robust, efficient, lightweight,
and rapidly rechargeable power sources across diverse industries. Its superior energy density
surpasses conventional batteries, enabling the advancement of micro-electromechanical
systems for applications like biomedical devices, chemical sensing, telecommunication, and
micro-propulsion. Integrating micro-combustion technologies into miniature devices has the
power to transform their power supply capabilities, opening doors to innovative technological
possibilities.

1.1.4 Applications of Micro-Combustion

The versatility of micro-combustion extends to numerous potential applications, driven
by the considerably higher energy storage capacity of hydrocarbons compared to current
lithium-ion batteries. While Li-ion batteries offer 1.2 MJ/kg of storage capacity, hydrocarbons
provide an impressive 45 MJ/kg of chemical energy. Even a relatively less efficient micro-
combustor can rival batteries in terms of efficiency, thanks to this significant disparity.
Consumer electronics like mobile phones, laptops, and military communication devices would
greatly benefit from this technology, substantially reducing charging and downtime.

However, a significant obstacle in realizing this potential lies in the efficient conversion
of thermal energy generated by micro-combustion into usable electrical energy. Overcoming
this challenge is crucial for the widespread adoption of micro-combustion as a viable
alternative to batteries. Fig. 1.1 demonstrates various additional applications where micro-
combustion can be employed. Notably, micro-combustion finds importance in propelling small
air vehicles weighing under 10 kg, requiring thrust within the range of 1-10 mN. Electric
propulsion systems currently compete with micro-combustion in this domain. Employing
arrays of micro-combustors and thrusters in a series-parallel configuration can achieve thrust
augmentation. This scale-out approach enables the accumulation of substantial power and

4
thrust from individual devices that produce only minute amounts, offering enhanced control
and redundancy, thus proving advantageous for propulsion systems.

In summary, the diverse applications of micro-combustion, ranging from electronics to small

air vehicle propulsion, hinge on the efficient utilization of thermal energy. By leveraging
advancements in conversion technologies like thermoelectric and thermo-photovoltaic
systems, micro-combustion has the potential to revolutionize industries and enable compact,
efficient power generation.

Fig. 1.1 Various applications of micro-combustion [4]

1.1.5 Challenges in Micro-Combustion

The implementation and regulation of combustion in micro-combustors pose specific
challenges that necessitate attention. A critical obstacle involves confining the combustion
process within a restricted space, which is susceptible to internal conditions. A primary concern
lies in effectively sustaining self-sustaining micro-combustion, as heat loss through the
combustor walls presents a significant hurdle. The high surface area-to-volume ratio
characteristic of micro-combustors accelerates flame quenching by hastening the dissipation of
generated heat through the walls, thus limiting flame sustainability.

Micro-combustors encounter additional hurdles in achieving thorough fuel and oxidizer

mixing, as well as complete combustion, within the confined space. Insufficient residence time
for effective mixing and combustion can lead to incomplete combustion and diminished
operational efficiency. Moreover, the downsizing of combustors intensifies the thermal and

5
chemical connections between the flame, flame-wall interface, and combustor structure due to
the increased surface-to-volume ratio. Research investigations have delved into the impact of
heat loss on flame extinction in channels, examining factors such as flow velocity, Lewis
number, and channel width. These inquiries have underscored the significance of near-wall
flame quenching and flame curvature in determining flame extinction.

Overall, micro-combustion presents unique challenges due to the small scale of the
combustors, including rapid flame quenching and difficulties in achieving complete
combustion.

Variables Macro-combustor Micro-combustor

Length scale ~0.2 5.0e^-04 – 1.0e^-02 m
Surface area/ Volume Small (~4) Very large (~200)
Inlet Pressure ~4 MPa 0.001 – 0.4 MPa
Inlet Temperature Ambient Ambient
Mass flow rate ~140 kg/s 0.01e^-03 – 2e^-03 kg/s
Residence time ~7 ms ~1 ms
Thrust-weight ratio 20:1 100:1
Power Density 1960 MW/m2 3000MW/m2

Table 1.1 Comparison of typical Macro and Micro-combustor variables

Fig 1.2 Comparison of specific energy densities of Li-ion batteries with

hydrocarbon and oxygenated fuels as well as different engines [6]

6
1.1.2 Ignition Delay

In a diesel engine, the ignition delay is defined as the time gap between the
commencement of injection and the start of combustion. This delay period is made up of (a)
physical delay caused by atomization, vaporization, and mixing of air-fuel, and (b) chemical
delay caused by pre-combustion processes. Physical and chemical delays occur at the same
time.

Ignition delay timing in micro combustors pertains to the duration between the ignition
source activation and the subsequent ignition of the fuel-air mixture. These miniature
combustion systems exhibit dimensions ranging from micrometers to millimeters. Similar to
larger combustion systems, factors such as fuel properties, air-fuel ratio, temperature, pressure,
and the inclusion of ignition enhancers or additives influence the ignition delay timing in micro
combustors. However, the ignition process in these small-scale devices can exhibit distinctive
characteristics.

In micro combustors, the ignition delay times can be shorter due to enhanced heat
transfer and diffusion resulting from reduced dimensions. Surface effects and confinement
further impact the combustion process and ignition delay. Controlling and understanding
ignition delay timing is vital for reliable and efficient combustion in micro-devices, influencing
startup time, stability, and overall performance. Optimizing ignition delay can enhance
operational efficiency and reliability in diverse micro combustor applications.

Fig. 1.3 Diagram for determining the ignition delay period [12]

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1.2 Background
Micro-combustors, both micro-scale (up to 1 mm diameter) and meso-scale (for larger
devices), mimic the functionality of their larger counterparts in miniature form. Previous
investigations have explored various geometries for micro-combustors, such as constant-
diameter, backward-facing step, Swiss roll, and annular configurations. Due to space
limitations, fuel and oxidizer mixing is a challenge in micro-combustors, resulting in premixed
operation. The inlet introduces premixed fuel and oxidizer, igniting at high temperatures to
form a flame. The ensuing combustion produces high-temperature gases, which can be
harnessed by a micro-turbine to generate power for electronic devices.

Micro-combustors present notable advantages, especially as a substitute for lithium-ion

batteries. Their utilization of hydrocarbon fuels results in higher energy density and extended
operation time compared to batteries. Additionally, micro-combustors offer environmental
benefits by generating primarily water and carbon dioxide, avoiding harmful chemicals and
heavy metals found in batteries. Their compact size and lightweight nature make them desirable
for portable electronics.

Nonetheless, micro-combustors are not without their limitations. The high surface-to-
volume ratio in these devices contributes to significant heat loss, potentially leading to thermal
quenching. Flame instability can arise in both small and large micro-combustors, while the
short residence time hinders complete combustion. Achieving thorough combustion is crucial
for minimizing emissions and maximizing usable energy. Micro-combustors find application
in mechanical systems like micro-turbines and micro-rockets, as well as micro-thermo
photovoltaic (TPV) systems that convert thermal energy to electrical energy. These
miniaturized devices integrated into micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) aim to match
the performance of their larger counterparts in thermal, electrical, and mechanical power
densities.

1.3 Practical micro-combustors

The configuration of micro-combustors can vary extensively depending on their

intended application. When constructing these devices, three primary material groups are
commonly employed. The first group comprises silicon and silicon-based materials, widely
used in MEMS devices. Advanced micro-fabrication techniques enable the realization of
intricate designs with exceptional precision. The second group includes metals and alloys like
stainless steel, iron, and copper, offering high-temperature resilience without degradation. The

8
last group encompasses non-metallic materials such as ceramic and alumina, known for their
mechanical strength and elevated melting points. Schubert et al. have introduced advanced
micromachining technologies capable of achieving micron-level accuracy in metals and alloys.
Considering the typical dimensions encountered in practical micro-combustors, the fabrication
process does not pose significant technical challenges. The following section will explore two
types of micro-combustors featuring relatively simple geometries, distinct from straight
cylindrical tubes or rectangular channels.

1.3.1 Swiss-roll micro-combustors

Numerous studies have focused on Swiss-roll micro-combustor configurations. The

fundamental concept revolves around utilizing thermal energy from combustion products to
preheat the unburned mixture, extending flammability limits. A simplified counter-current heat
exchanger model is commonly used. Both non-catalytic and catalytic Swiss-roll micro-
combustors, with channel widths ranging from millimeters to sub-millimeter scales, have been
fabricated and tested. Catalytic reactions sustain combustion even at low Reynolds numbers
and lower temperatures, compared to pure gas-phase combustion. Flame position is influenced
by Reynolds number, combustor wall thermal properties, and heat loss to the ambient. Proper
catalyst coatings, like platinum, enable self-ignition and even "flameless" combustion under
specific flow conditions. Advanced two-dimensional numerical models predict extinction
limits by considering temperature-dependent gas and solid properties, viscous flow, surface-
to-surface radiation heat transfer, and one-step chemical reactions. Flame stability studies in
simplified heat recirculation micro-burners derived from Swiss-roll micro-combustors reveal
the profound impact of heat recirculation on blow-off limits but minimal effect on extinction.
Ongoing research continues to explore this intriguing topic.

Fig 1.4 2D and 3D view of Swiss Roll Micro-combustor.

9
1.3.2 Cylindrical tubes with backward facing steps

Cylindrical tubes have been widely utilized to investigate fundamental aspects of

micro-combustion due to the simplified two-dimensional nature of the flames. Achieving flame
stabilization in straight cylindrical tubes poses significant challenges. The research group at the
National University of Singapore, led by Professor S.K. Chou, introduced an effective
approach using a millimeter-sized cylindrical tube with a backward facing step to control the
flame position. This configuration has been employed as an emitter in micro-thermo-
photovoltaic (TPV) systems. Experimental findings demonstrated that the backward facing
step effectively stabilizes flames in micro-combustors compared to straight cylindrical tubes.
Li and colleagues further confirmed that the peak wall temperature can be localized within a
narrow zone across a wide range of flow conditions, such as flow velocity and fuel-air
equivalence ratio. For optimal performance of the micro-TPV generator, achieving a high wall
temperature with a uniform distribution is desirable. Hence, attention is focused on the wall
temperature distribution and radiation power through the combustor wall. It was observed that
reducing wall thickness and decreasing step height contribute to higher wall temperatures.
Recently, a comprehensive experimental study was conducted to characterize the wall
temperature and radiation power in cylindrical micro-combustors, revealing the remarkable
impact of the expansion ratio (before and after the backward facing step) on emitter
performance.

1.4 Converge 3.0 Software

Converge 3.0 is a highly utilized simulation software designed specifically to facilitate

the modeling and analysis of micro combustors. This powerful software provides engineers
and researchers with a comprehensive platform to simulate and examine the intricate
combustion processes occurring within micro combustors. By leveraging Converge 3.0, they
can optimize fuel-air ratios, evaluate performance metrics, scrutinize emissions, and enhance
overall combustion efficiency. Converge 3.0 empowers users to explore various parameters,
such as fuel-air ratios, turbulence, and heat transfer, to optimize combustion performance. It
aids in the understanding of combustion dynamics, flame propagation, and pollutant formation,
thus facilitating the development of innovative combustion strategies. In summary, Converge
3.0 serves as an indispensable tool, providing the necessary platform for exploration,
innovation, and optimization in the field of micro combustors.

10
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Performance Studies
The following literature review examines previous research publications on the design
and numerical analysis of micro-combustors. This literature review also demonstrates how to
boost combustion efficiency by adjusting several elements, such as the fuel-air equivalent ratio
and surface-to-volume ratio, as well as how to optimize design dimensions, the type of material
to use, and the type of fuel to use for best combustion.

Wei Zuo et. al., 2020 [1] This research serves as a valuable reference in the pursuit of
optimizing the combustion efficiency of a micro-cylindrical combustor fueled by hydrogen.
Considering the significance of attaining higher combustion efficiency in micro-cylindrical
combustor applications, this study investigates the multi-factor impact mechanism on
combustion efficiency. Six factors, namely hydrogen/air equivalence ratio, inlet velocity, inlet
temperature, wall thermal conductivity, wall emissivity, and convective heat transfer
coefficient of the outer wall, are carefully determined across five levels each.

Jiaqiang E et. al., 2017 [2] This study focuses on the development of a micro-
cylindrical combustor featuring a gradual reduction in wall thickness. Extensive investigations
and comparisons are conducted between these micro-cylindrical combustors and those with a
step configuration under diverse conditions. Findings indicate that micro-cylindrical
combustors with gradually reduced wall thickness exhibit higher and more uniform wall
temperature distributions across various H2/air equivalence ratios, H2 mass flow rates, and
inlet/outlet diameter ratios compared to those with a step. As the H2/air equivalence ratio
decreases from 1.0 to 0.9, the mean outer wall temperature of the micro-cylindrical combustor
with gradually reduced wall thickness experiences an increase of 5K and 7K, respectively.

Yosuke Suenaga et. al., October 2011 [3] This study aims to develop an ultra-micro
combustor incorporating two coaxial cylindrical flames: a rich premixed flame and a diffusion
flame. The burnt gas was analyzed to determine O2 and CO concentrations, as well as
temperature. Combustion intensity and heat loss rate were assessed. Thermodynamic analysis
of fuel combustion ensured structural integrity and safety prior to constructing the combustion
chamber. By adjusting the equivalence ratio and airflow, the chamber temperature (T) could
surpass the adiabatic flame temperature corresponding to φall.

11
 Yang Wenming et. al., November 2004 [4] This study unveils a prototype micro-
thermos photovoltaic (micro-TPV) power generator comprising a micro-cylindrical SiC
combustor, a nine-layer dielectric filter, and a GaSb photovoltaic cell array. Various micro-
cylindrical SiC combustors were fabricated, displaying distinct wall thicknesses. Intriguingly,
reducing the wall thickness yielded a remarkable surge in both maximum electrical power
output and short-circuit current, while keeping the inner diameter constant. At a hydrogen flow
rate of 4.20 g/h and an H2/air ratio of 0.9, the micro-TPV system attained maximum electrical
power outputs of 0.92 W, 0.78 W, and 0.57 W for 0.4 mm, 0.6 mm, and 0.8 mm wall
thicknesses, respectively. Notably, the micro-TPV power generator with a 0.4 mm wall
thickness exhibited superior performance.

Jiaqiang E et. al., July 2016 [5] In pursuit of improved combustion efficiency and
enhanced heat transfer from the outer wall, a pioneering micro cylindrical combustor design
was created, featuring a suction pipe, mixing pipe, diffuser pipe, and shrinkage pipe, combined
with a cavity and backward-facing step. Through numerical simulations at atmospheric
pressure, the study scrutinized non-premixed hydrogen/air reacting flow within three micro
combustors. Extensive investigations into combustion characteristics and operational
performance underscored the cavity and backward-facing step's efficacy in fostering heat
recirculation and flame stability. Additionally, optimizing the combustion chamber length
within prescribed limits resulted in notable advancements in combustion efficiency and outer
wall heat transfer.

W.M. Yang et. al., February 2009 [6] This study employed numerical simulations,
solving 2D governing equations, to investigate CH4-air premixed combustion in micro-
combustors. The impact of combustor size, geometry, inlet velocity profile, and slip-wall
boundary condition on flame temperature was analyzed. Results revealed that a larger
combustor (d = 2 mm) yields higher flame temperature, provided the flow velocity remains
below a specific threshold. Comparing geometric configurations, a 2D planar channel (H = 1
mm) exhibited higher flame temperature than a cylindrical tube with d = 2 mm (equal
hydrodynamic diameter) within the velocity range studied. Notably, when H = 0.65d, the flame
temperatures in the cylindrical tube and 2D planar channel were observed to be similar.

Wei Zuo et. al., February 2021 [7] To enhance thermal efficiency of micro-cylindrical
combustors for micro-thermo photovoltaic (micro-TPV) applications, a novel design
incorporating a cavity is proposed. Through comprehensive numerical investigations using

12
ANSYS Fluent 16.0 with a 9-species-19-reactions mechanism, micro-cylindrical combustors
with and without cavity are examined under various inlet velocities, hydrogen/air equivalence
ratios, and solid wall materials. The results highlight the significantly superior thermal
performance of micro-cylindrical combustors with a cavity compared to those without.
Consequently, the micro-cylindrical combustor with a cavity demonstrates greater potential for
micro-TPV system applications.

Shiguang Wu et. al., November 2020 [8] The micro-combustor serves as a crucial
component in micro-thermo photovoltaic power generation systems, with the system's energy
conversion efficiency heavily reliant on the outer wall temperature and the exergy efficiency
of the micro-combustor. To enhance these parameters, a novel design incorporating a pre-
heater conductor plate was developed. The study investigated the influence of the pre-heater
plate width, the divergent and convergent angles, and the number of conductor plates on the
micro-combustor's thermal performance. Remarkably, inserting a pre-heater conductor plate
featuring a 0.5 mm-wide pre-heater plate and three 0.5 mm thick conductor plates resulted in a
substantial improvement of 173 K in mean outer wall temperature and a 22.9% enhancement
in exergy efficiency.

Haojie Liu et. al., October 2015 [9] To achieve high power density and performance
efficiency, ensuring a uniform and elevated wall temperature distribution within the micro-
combustor is vital in micro-thermo photovoltaic (TPV) systems. This study introduces a novel
approach to determine the appropriate inlet pressure. Utilizing the Field Synergy Principle, the
synergy degree between velocity vector and temperature gradient in the micro-cylindrical
combustor is examined across various inlet pressures. Results demonstrate that an inlet pressure
of 0.08 MPa enhances the synergy degree, leading to a more uniform temperature distribution
along the combustor wall and increased mean wall temperature. Furthermore, a comparison of
combustion efficiency and outlet temperature reveals that the micro-cylindrical combustor with
the highest synergy degree outperforms its counterpart lacking such synergy.

Qingguo Peng et. al., October 2017 [10] This study focuses on the analysis of non-
premixed H2/air combustion in a cylindrical micro combustor. The impact of porous media
and outer wall thickness on combustion characteristics, flame location, thermal performance,
and energy conversion efficiency of thermo photovoltaic (TPV) systems is investigated.
Findings suggest that incorporating porous media or increasing outer wall thickness enhances
heat transfer within the micro combustor, influencing flame stability. Notably, the micro

13
combustor with porous media and an outer wall thickness of b = 0.2 mm exhibits the lowest
flame location. Moreover, the external thermal environment contributes to improved outer wall
temperature profiles and enhanced micro combustor performance.

W.M. Yang et. al., August 2002 [11] Micro-combustors play a crucial role in micro-
power systems utilizing hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels. In the context of micro-thermo
photovoltaic (TPV) power systems, achieving a high and uniformly distributed wall
temperature is paramount. This study presents experimental findings on three types of stainless
cylindrical micro-combustors, comparing those with and without a backward facing step.
Hydrogen was employed as the fuel. Temperature measurements were conducted at the exit
and along the combustor wall. Results indicate that the backward facing step serves as a simple
yet effective means to enhance fuel mixture mixing, prolong residence time, and control flame
position. Furthermore, it widens the operational range of flow rate and H2/air ratio.

Qingguo Peng et. al., November 2017 [12] The micro combustor plays a critical role
in the optimal functioning of the micro thermo photovoltaic (TPV) system. In this study, a
micro combustor design incorporating a front-cavity is proposed, and a comparative analysis
of flame stability and thermal performance is conducted between the micro combustor with
and without the front-cavity. Results indicate that the front-cavity significantly improves flame
stability, increases outer wall temperature, and enhances total energy conversion efficiency for
the micro-TPV system. Notably, the micro combustor with an arc front-cavity (with an inner
diameter ratio of front-cavity to combustion chamber of b = 0.9) is deemed more suitable for
micro-TPV system applications.

Yang Su et al., 2015 [13] This study introduces an innovative oval double-cavity micro
combustor designed specifically for micro-thermo photovoltaic (micro-TPV) systems. A
numerical investigation of the thermal performance of this double-cavity micro combustor was
conducted. Notably, the presence of a second high temperature zone in the downstream cavity
at relatively high inlet velocities resulted in higher and more evenly distributed temperature
along the wall. This feature is advantageous for micro-TPV systems. Furthermore, the double-
cavity micro combustor exhibited a more uniform and elevated outer wall temperature, which
is crucial for micro-TPV applications. The higher outer wall temperature contributes to an
improved spectral distribution, ensuring a greater concentration of emitted photons within the
useful wavelength range.

14
 Jia qiang E et al., 2022[14] The utilization of hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels for
micro combustion presents a promising alternative to conventional batteries. However,
challenges such as flame instability and low combustion efficiency need to be addressed to
enhance the performance of micro combustion systems. This review paper provides a
comprehensive summary of relevant studies, categorizing optimization strategies based on
flame stabilization and combustion efficiency. Inserting porous media into micro combustors
emerged as a highly recommended approach for improving temperature uniformity.
Additionally, a preferred equivalence ratio of 1, with a recommended range of 0.9 to 1.1, was
identified for both catalytic and non-catalytic combustion, further enhancing overall
combustion performance.

Jun Li et al., 2016 [15] Micro-combustion offers significant potential for efficient
portable power generation. Heat recirculation plays a crucial role in influencing the combustion
process within micro-combustors. This study employs computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to
investigate the fundamental flame characteristics of premixed H2-air combustion in a planar
porous micro-combustor. By examining the impact of flow conditions and porous medium
properties, the study explores the effects on wall temperature, species concentration, flame
temperature, flame location, and flame speed. The presence of a porous medium enhances heat
transfer from burned gases to the unburned mixture, facilitating more effective heat
recirculation through both the solid matrix and combustor walls.

Leigh T. Powell et. al., June 2016 [16] The drive for miniaturized energy production
for portable electronics has led to the exploration of micro-combustors, which generate energy
as hot gases. Optimizing micro-combustor design requires careful consideration of geometry,
fuel choice, and materials. Computational simulations evaluated five geometries, three fuels,
and three materials, varying inlet velocity, equivalence ratio, and wall heat transfer coefficient.
The optimal configuration was a converging micro-combustor made of aluminum oxide, using
premixed ethane and air at an equivalence ratio of 0.9, inlet velocity of 0.5 m/s, and a wall heat
transfer coefficient of 5 W/m2-K, resulting in the highest combustor efficiency.

D. B. Kulshreshtha et. al., December 2016 [17] Micro gas turbines rely on micro
combustion chambers for efficient power generation. Hydrogen, with its higher flammability
limits and faster reaction time, is an ideal fuel choice. Analytical and numerical analyses are
employed for micro combustion chamber design, considering varying reactant inlet
temperatures from lean (Equivalence ratio = 0.1) to fuel-rich (Equivalence ratio = 1.2)

15
conditions. The optimized parameters derived from the analytical study guide the micro
combustor design. Across three different chemical reaction mechanisms, flame temperatures
were evaluated at different equivalence ratios, showing an initial increase followed by a
decrease beyond the stoichiometric condition.

Jiaqiang E et. al., May 2021 [18] Efforts to improve combustion stability and
efficiency in micro combustors persist. This study establishes a non-premixed combustion
model for hydrogen/air in a dimensionless micro combustor with a sudden expansion and
contraction structure. Exploring micro combustor diameter, inlet velocity, and wall materials,
the research aims to enhance non-premixed combustion performance. Findings highlight the
importance of suitable diameter and velocity for stable combustion. Field synergy analysis of
temperature gradient and velocity vector fields leads to a proposed method for enhanced
combustion. Calculations demonstrate the effectiveness of reducing hydrogen inlet velocity in
stabilizing non-premixed combustion in micro combustors.

2.2 Inference

The literature review provides a comprehensive overview of research on the design and
numerical analysis of micro-combustors, with a focus on enhancing combustion efficiency.
The studies highlight the significance of optimizing various parameters to achieve improved
performance. Factors such as fuel-air equivalence ratio, surface-to-volume ratio, design
dimensions, materials, and fuel type are explored.

Several key findings emerge from the literature. Gradually reducing wall thickness in
micro-cylindrical combustors leads to higher and more uniform wall temperature distributions.
The incorporation of cavities and backward-facing steps proves effective in promoting heat
recirculation, enhancing combustion efficiency, and improving outer wall heat transfer.

The literature review underscores the importance of achieving a high and uniformly
distributed wall temperature in micro-combustors, particularly in applications such as micro-
thermo photovoltaic systems and portable power generation. The studies emphasize the
benefits of heat recirculation, flame stabilization, and temperature uniformity in optimizing
combustion efficiency and thermal performance. These findings provide valuable insights for
researchers and engineers seeking to enhance the design and performance of micro-
combustors.

16
 CHAPTER 3

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

3.3 Problem Statement

Micro-combustors face specific challenges in their implementation and regulation,

primarily due to their small size. One critical problem is effectively confining the combustion
process within a restricted space, which is vulnerable to internal conditions. Sustaining self-
sustaining micro-combustion proves difficult due to significant heat loss through the combustor
walls, hindering flame sustainability. Inadequate fuel and oxidizer mixing, as well as
incomplete combustion, further pose hurdles. The downsizing of combustors exacerbates
connections between the flame, flame-wall interface, and combustor structure, leading to
increased flame quenching. Resolving these issues is crucial for enhancing the efficiency and
performance of micro-combustion systems.

3.2 Research Objectives

The following are the main objectives of the proposed work:

• To design and model the micro-combustor.

• To validate the numerical results with the experimental results.
• To optimize the Fuel-Air Equivalent Ratio (Ø) and find the combustion efficiency of
the micro-combustor.
• To achieve stable and efficient combustion in micro-combustors, while minimizing
emissions and maintaining a safe operating environment.

17
 CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY

Literature Survey

Research Gap

Modelling of micro-combustor using Solidworks

Optimize the operating parameters of micro-combustor: Converge 3.0

Validate the numerical results with the experimental results

Results & Discussions

Conclusion

Fig 4.1 Methodology

18
4.1 Flow of work
This study begins with a comprehensive literature survey to understand the existing
research and identify the gaps in the design and optimization of micro-combustors. The
problem is then defined, and the objective is set to develop an efficient and reliable micro-
combustor. Using SolidWorks, a detailed design and modeling of the micro-combustor are
carried out, considering factors such as geometry, materials, and operating conditions.

After the design phase, a case setup for combustion is established to simulate the actual
operating conditions of the micro-combustor. The location of the combustion source within the
device is carefully chosen, considering heat distribution, flow dynamics, and safety
considerations. To ensure the accuracy of the design and its predicted outcomes, experimental
validation is performed. The results obtained from the SolidWorks model are compared with
the experimental data to verify and refine the model accordingly.

Furthermore, various parameters, including the equivalence ratio, are systematically

optimized to enhance the performance of the micro-combustor. The effects of these parameter
variations on combustion efficiency are assessed, allowing for the identification of the optimal
operating conditions. The obtained results, along with their significance, are presented and
thoroughly discussed. The discussions encompass the improvements achieved through the
optimized design and parameter settings, as well as any limitations or potential areas for further
improvement.

4.2 Design of Micro-combustor using SolidWorks

The combustor is composed of an inlet, outlet, and combustion region. The micro
combustor’s bigger diameter is 3 mm and length of that portion is 18 mm, while smaller
diameter is of 2 mm, and a length of that portion is 2 mm. The combustion chamber capacity
is 133.52 mm3.

19
 Fig 4.2 2D and 3D view of cylindrical micro-combustor

Dimensions Values (mm)

L1 18
L2 2
D1 2
D2 3
D3 4

Table 4.1 Dimensions of the micro-cylindrical combustor

4.3 Simulation using Converge Software

• Importing Geometry:

To begin the simulation, the micro-combustor geometry is exported from SolidWorks

in a compatible format such as STL or STEP. Next, the geometry is imported into the Converge
3.0 software for further analysis and setup.

• Named Selection:

To facilitate the setup of boundary conditions and apply specific settings, named
selections are defined for distinct regions within the micro-combustor geometry, such as the
top wall, cylinder, and bottom wall. These named selections help streamline the simulation
process and ensure accurate results.

• CASE SETUP:
• Application Type:

20
 In the case setup, the application type is specified as "Combustion" to indicate that the
simulation focuses on combustion phenomena within the micro-combustor.

• Materials:

In the case setup, the gas simulation is defined by selecting appropriate gas properties
for the mixture. Global transport parameters, such as viscosity and thermal conductivity, are
set accordingly. A suitable reaction mechanism is chosen, and the species involved in the
combustion process are specified.

Simulation Parameters:

In the simulation parameters, the run parameters, simulation time parameters, and
solver parameters are configured to define the simulation duration, time step, convergence
criteria, and other solver-specific settings for transient simulations. These parameters govern
the overall simulation behavior.

• Boundary Conditions:

In the boundary conditions, the boundary types are specified for each region (top wall,
cylinder, bottom wall). The wall motion type and surface movement are selected accordingly.
The initial temperature and pressure values are defined. Parameters such as absolute roughness,
roughness constant, heat model, turbulent kinetic energy boundary condition, turbulent
dissipation boundary condition, near-wall treatment, and electric potential boundary conditions
are set to accurately represent the physical behavior at the boundaries of the micro-combustor.

Boundary Type Wall

Wall Motion Type Stationary
Surface Movement Fixed
Initial Temperature (K) 303
Initial Pressure (bar) 3
Absolute Roughness 0.0
Roughness Constant 0.5
Heat Model Global
Turbulent Kinetic Energy (m²/s²) 1.0
Turbulent Dissipation Energy (m²/s³) 100

Table 4.2 Boundary conditions

21
 • Initial Conditions and Events:

In the initial conditions, specific values for initial temperature and pressure are assigned
to the micro-combustor. Turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation energy values are
also specified to capture the turbulence characteristics. Additionally, the mass fraction of
oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen is set based on the chosen equivalence ratio to accurately
represent the fuel-air mixture.

4.4 Physical Models:

For combustion modeling, the G-equation model is chosen to accurately represent

flame propagation. The RANS_K_EPS_RNG model is selected for turbulence modeling to
capture turbulent flow characteristics. The source/sink modeling is configured by specifying
the source units, maximum temperature, source shape and size, ignition mode, start and end
time, and source time step multiplier to accurately simulate the ignition and combustion process
in the micro-combustor.

• Source:

Parameter Value

Source Units Energy

Maximum Temperature (K) 4000
Shape Sphere
Size/Sphere radius (m) 0.0005
Mode Sequential
Start time 0.0
End time 0.0005
Source Time Step Multiplier 1.0
Table 4.3 Source table

• G-Equation Modelling:

The G-equation model is widely used for simulating combustion in computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) simulations. It is a level-set-based approach that tracks the location of the
flame front in the combustion process. The G-equation represents the flame as a discontinuity
surface separating the reactants from the products. By solving the G-equation, the flame
propagation and interaction with the surrounding flow field can be accurately captured. It

22
provides valuable insights into flame behavior, ignition, and flame stabilization mechanisms.
The G-equation model in Converge 3.0 enables accurate and efficient combustion simulations
in micro-combustors, allowing researchers to study the effect of equivalence ratio on
combustion performance.

• Guider Modelling:

The Guider model is a combustion model available in Converge 3.0, which provides an
efficient and accurate representation of the combustion process. It is specifically designed for
applications involving premixed and partially premixed flames. The Guider model employs a
flamelet-based approach to describe the reaction progress and flame structure. It utilizes a look-
up table containing precomputed flamelet solutions to capture the combustion characteristics,
such as flame speed, flame shape, and species distribution. The Guider model is particularly
suitable for simulating turbulent combustion with a low computational cost, making it ideal for
investigating the impact of equivalence ratio on combustion behavior in micro-combustors.

• RANS_K_EPS_RNG Turbulence Modelling:

The RANS_K_EPS_RNG turbulence model implemented in Converge 3.0 is based on

the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations. It combines the K-epsilon turbulence
model with the RNG (Renormalization Group) theory for improved accuracy and stability in
predicting turbulent flows. The K-epsilon model calculates the turbulent kinetic energy (K) and
its dissipation rate (epsilon) to characterize the turbulent flow field. The RNG modification
further refines the turbulence model by incorporating additional correction terms based on the
underlying flow physics. This turbulence model is well-suited for simulating turbulent flows
and provides reliable predictions of turbulence quantities, such as eddy viscosity and turbulent
intensity. The RANS_K_EPS_RNG model is essential for accurately capturing the turbulent
combustion behavior and its interaction with the flame in micro-combustors.

The combination of G-equation combustion modeling, Guider model, and

RANS_K_EPS_RNG turbulence modeling in Converge 3.0 offers a robust framework for
investigating the effect of equivalence ratio on combustion performance in micro-combustors.
These models provide a comprehensive understanding of the flame propagation, reaction
kinetics, and turbulence interactions, enabling researchers to optimize micro-combustor
designs and enhance combustion efficiency in various applications.

23
 • Grid Control:

In the grid control step, the base grid is set up to define the initial mesh for the
simulation. Adaptive mesh refinement criteria are specified to dynamically refine or coarsen
the grid based on specific flow features or criteria during the simulation. This helps ensure
accuracy and efficiency in capturing important flow phenomena.

• Output/Post Processing:

In the output/post-processing stage, the desired post variables are selected to monitor
and visualize specific quantities of interest during the simulation. The output file settings are
configured to specify the format, frequency, and location for saving the simulation results for
further analysis and visualization.

24
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Effects of hydrogen/air equivalence ratio on Pressure-time curve

The pressure time curve can provide information about the pressure fluctuations and
the stability of the combustion process, which could indicate problems in the micro-combustor
design. In a micro-combustor, the pressure drop plays a crucial role in determining the
performance and efficiency of the system. These curves can be used for validation, calibration,
optimization, and sensitivity analysis of numerical models, which can ultimately lead to the
development of efficient and reliable micro-combustors for various applications. Fig. 5.1
shows the pressure distribution of micro-cylindrical combustors under various hydrogen/air
equivalence ratios. It is also found that the pressure distribution of micro-cylindrical combustor
firstly increased with increasing the distance from the inlet, and then it reaches the maximum
and begins to decrease with continually increasing the distance from the inlet.

Fig 5.1 Pressure-time curve for different equivalence ratio

The pressure-time curve indicates not much fluctuation, indicating that the combustion
inside the cylinder is steady. The H2/air equivalence ratio plays a crucial role in the combustion
process. When the ratio is increased from 0.1 to 1, it signifies a shift towards a fuel-rich

25
mixture. This higher fuel concentration leads to a more rapid and efficient combustion, causing
the pressure-time curve to shift to the left, indicating quicker combustion reactions. The
increased fuel availability at higher equivalence ratios promotes a more favorable environment
for ignition and combustion, resulting in an accelerated burning rate.

Fig 5.2 Maximum Pressure-time curve for different equivalence ratio

5.2 Effects of hydrogen/air equivalence ratio on Temperature-time curve

The temperature time curve can provide insights into the temperature distribution and
the thermal behavior of the micro-combustor. It can help in identifying any hotspots or areas
where the temperature exceeds the permissible limit, which could lead to material degradation
or failure of the micro-combustor. These curves can be used for validation, calibration,
optimization, and sensitivity analysis of numerical models, which can ultimately lead to the
development of efficient and reliable micro-combustors for various applications. Fig 5.3 shows
the outer wall temperature distribution of micro-cylindrical combustors under various
hydrogen/air equivalence ratios. It is also found that the outer wall temperature of micro-
cylindrical combustor firstly increased with increasing the distance from the inlet, and then it
reaches the maximum and begins to decrease with continually increasing the distance from the
inlet.

26
 Fig 5.3 Mean Temperature-time curve for different equivalence ratio

The temperature time curve can provide insights into the temperature distribution of the
micro-combustor. It can help in identifying any hotspots where the temperature exceeds the
permissible limit. The pressure-time curve indicates not much fluctuation, indicating that the
combustion inside the cylinder is steady. When the H2/air equivalence ratio is raised from 0.1
to 1, the temperature-time curve shifts to the left, indicating that combustion occurs more
quickly at higher equivalence ratios. A higher equivalence ratio signifies a richer fuel mixture,
which leads to a more intense and rapid combustion process. This increased fuel availability
results in higher peak temperatures and a faster rise in temperature over time, causing the
temperature-time curve to shift upwards and to the left, indicating more rapid and efficient heat
generation.

27
5.3 Validation of the results

Fig. 5.4 Validation between numerical and experimental data

In this work, the aim is to assess the accuracy of their numerically investigated results
by comparing them with experimental data. From previous papers experimental mean
temperature values are known specifically for equivalence ratios ranging from 0.6 to 1.0.
Through the process of validation, the researchers have found that the observed outcomes from
their numerical simulations closely match the experimental results for different equivalence
ratios. This high level of agreement between the numerical and experimental results suggests
that the numerical method used in the study is reliable and accurate.

Based on these findings, it can be concluded that the numerical method employed in
this study is suitable for evaluating the behavior and characteristics of the system across various
equivalence ratios. The fact that the numerical results closely match the experimental data for
a range of equivalence ratios indicates that the method can be confidently extended to other
values within that range. It implies that numerical simulations can effectively capture the
behavior of the system for different conditions of equivalence ratios.

28
5.4 Pressure and Temperature Contours
The simulation results are discussed for the cylindrical micro-combustor in this section.

Fig 5.5 Pressure (Pa) and Temperature (K) Contours: For Equivalence ratio- 0.2

Fig 5.6 Pressure (Pa) and Temperature (K) Contours: For Equivalence ratio- 0.4

29
Fig 5.7 Pressure (Pa) and Temperature (K) Contours: For Equivalence ratio- 0.6

Fig 5.8 Pressure (Pa) and Temperature (K) Contours: For Equivalence ratio- 0.8

30
 Fig 5.9 Pressure (Pa) and Temperature (K) Contours: For Equivalence ratio- 1.0

The analysis of pressure and temperature contours in the micro combustor, spanning
equivalence ratios from 0.1 to 1, revealed distinct trends and patterns. Lower equivalence ratios
exhibited a gradual pressure increase towards the combustion region, accompanied by
relatively low temperatures. However, as the equivalence ratio increased, both pressure and
temperature experienced significant enhancements near the flame zone. Notably, an
equivalence ratio of 1.0 showcased higher temperature values and longer flame lengths. The
maximum pressure recorded was around 14-15 bar, while the maximum temperature reached
approximately 4000 K for this equivalence ratio. These insights emphasize the importance of
optimizing micro combustor performance for various equivalence ratios, with a clear indication
of inadequate combustion at lower equivalence ratios evident from the contours.

5.5 Combustion Efficiency curve of micro-combustor for equivalence ratio

0.1 to 1
According to the fig. 5.10, for equivalence ratios of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3, the combustion
region is considered lean. This means that the amount of fuel in the mixture is insufficient for
complete combustion to occur. In a lean mixture, there is an excess of air relative to the amount
of fuel available. Consequently, the combustion process is hindered, and the efficiency of
combustion is low.

However, as the equivalence ratio increases beyond 0.3 (specifically from 0.4), the
combustion region becomes fuel rich. This indicates that there is an increased amount of fuel

31
relative to the available air. In a fuel-rich mixture, there is more than enough fuel to react with
the available oxygen. As a result, the combustion process occurs more effectively and
efficiently, leading to an improvement in combustion efficiency.

The figure 5.10 also demonstrates that as the equivalence ratio increases from 0.1 to
1.0, combustion efficiency progressively improves. When the equivalence ratio reaches 1.0, it
indicates a stoichiometric mixture, where the exact amount of air is available to completely
react with the fuel. At this point, the combustion efficiency is maximized because the fuel and
air are in the ideal ratio for complete combustion.

Combustion efficiency is given by:

. .
𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∗𝑞𝐻2,𝑖𝑛 −𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗𝑞𝐻2,𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = . ∗𝑞 … (1)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐻2,𝑖𝑛

COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY V/S EQUIVALENCE RATIO

120

100
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY (%)

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

EQUIVALENCE RATIO

Fig 5.10 Variation in Combustion Efficiency of micro-combustor with equivalence ratio

32
 5.6 Combustion Characteristics:
5.6.1 Ignition delay
The fig. 5.11 illustrates the behavior of ignition delay timing for different equivalence
ratios in a combustion system. In this case, the focus is on the equivalence ratios of 0.1 to 1.0.
For the first three equivalence ratios (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3), combustion does not occur efficiently
within the combustion region due to the lean mixture. As a result, the ignition delay timing,
which refers to the time taken for combustion to start after the initiation of the ignition source,
is on a higher side for the first two equivalence ratios.

However, when the equivalence ratio reaches 0.3, the ignition delay timing significantly
decreases. This decrease can be attributed to slightly better combustion. In this case, the lean
mixture takes less time to reach the necessary conditions for combustion, such as the pressure
increase of 0.02 MPa or temperature rise of 200K at any specific time. The improper
combustion results in delayed ignition, thus leading to an extended ignition delay timing for
the equivalence ratio of 0.3.

As the equivalence ratio continues to increase beyond 0.3, the ignition delay timing
starts to decrease again. This behavior occurs because as the mixture becomes richer (excess
fuel compared to the stoichiometric ratio), combustion becomes more efficient. Consequently,
the ignition delay timing decreases with an increase in the equivalence ratio beyond 0.3.

IGNITION DELAY TIMING V/S EQUIVALENCE RATIO

0.0004

0.00035
IGNITION DELAY TIMING (SEC)

0.0003

0.00025

0.0002

0.00015

0.0001

0.00005

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-0.00005
EQUIVALENCE RATIO

Fig. 5.11 Variation in ignition delay relative to the equivalence ratio.

33
5.6.2 Combustion Duration
In this fig. 5.12, it is observed that for equivalence ratios of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3, the
combustion process is not occurring efficiently within the combustion region. This is primarily
due to the lean mixture, where the fuel-to-air ratio is relatively low. As a result, the combustion
duration, which represents the time required for the entire combustion process from start to
finish, is higher for the first three equivalence ratios.

The combustion duration is influenced by various factors, including the availability of

reactants, the mixing of fuel and oxidizer, and the overall chemical kinetics of the combustion
process. In lean mixtures, the fuel concentration is insufficient compared to the amount of air
available for combustion. Consequently, the combustion process takes longer to complete as
the reactants need more time to adequately mix and react with one another.

As the equivalence ratio increases beyond 0.3, the fuel concentration begins to approach
a stoichiometric ratio, where the ideal balance between fuel and air is achieved for complete
combustion. At this point, the combustion duration starts to decrease because the conditions
become more favorable for efficient combustion.

COMBUSTION DURATION V/S EQUIVALENCE RATIO

0.06

0.05
COMBUSTION DURATION (SEC)

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

EQUIVALENCE RATIO

Fig. 5.12 Variation in combustion duration relative to the equivalence ratio

34
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE STUDIES
6.1 Conclusion
In conclusion, the study of the pressure-time and temperature-time curves in a micro-
cylindrical combustor under various hydrogen/air equivalence ratios provides valuable insights
into the combustion process and the behavior of the system. The pressure-time curve indicates
a stable combustion process with minimal fluctuations, while an increase in the equivalence
ratio leads to faster combustion. The temperature-time curve reveals the temperature
distribution and identifies potential hotspots, aiding in the prevention of material degradation
and failure.

The experimental outcomes closely align with the numerical investigations, validating
the reliability of the employed numerical method. The findings highlight that equivalence ratios
below 0.3 yield a lean combustion region, leading to inefficiency and low combustion
efficiency. As the equivalence ratio exceeds 0.3, the combustion region transitions to a fuel-
rich state, enhancing combustion efficiency. Increasing equivalence ratios progressively
improve combustion efficiency, peaking at a stoichiometric ratio of 1.0. Ignition delay timing
is influenced by the mixture's lean or rich nature, exhibiting a significant increase at an
equivalence ratio of 0.3 and subsequent decrease with increasing richness. Combustion
duration is longer for lean mixtures but diminishes beyond 0.3 due to improved conditions for
efficient combustion. The numerical method's close agreement with experiments confirms its
suitability for assessing behavior across different equivalence ratios, aiding the development
of efficient micro-combustors.

In summary, the study reveals that increasing the equivalence ratio from 0.1 to 1.0
enhances combustion efficiency, with maximum efficiency achieved at stoichiometry. Higher
equivalence ratios lead to decreased ignition delay timing, indicating more efficient
combustion. Lean mixtures exhibit longer combustion durations due to insufficient fuel
concentration, while richer mixtures result in shorter durations as the conditions become more
favorable for efficient combustion. These findings emphasize the importance of maintaining
an appropriate fuel-to-air ratio for optimizing combustion performance in micro-combustors.

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6.2 Scope for Future Studies
The field of micro-combustors presents significant challenges, particularly regarding
flame stability and long-lasting combustion to ensure high combustion efficiency. However,
the future holds promising opportunities for advancements in this area. Innovations in
combustor design can address the non-uniform temperature distribution, allowing for both high
and uniform wall temperatures necessary for efficient electricity generation. Furthermore,
overcoming fabrication difficulties, especially at the lower limit of the micro scale, will enable
the production of more reliable and efficient micro-combustor systems. These challenges can
be addressed through multidisciplinary approaches that integrate expertise from fields such as
combustion science, materials engineering, micro-fabrication, and control systems. Achieving
these advancements will pave the way for cleaner and more sustainable energy solutions,
benefiting various industries and enabling the realization of a more technologically advanced
and environmentally conscious future.

The future scope for low temperature meso-scale combustion in advanced engines is
highly promising, particularly for the development of small, efficient, and lean burn engines
required for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and other applications. Further advancements
in scale-down engines, including micro-gas turbines, spark ignition and compression ignition
reciprocating engines, and free-piston engines, are encouraged.

The future scope in the combination of combustors/reactors with energy conversion

devices is highly promising, particularly for micro-power generation, fuel reforming, and
biomass synthesis at extreme combustion conditions. This approach has gained significant
attention due to its potential for achieving higher efficiency. Recently, a catalytic combustor
integrated with commercial thermoelectric devices demonstrated a total conversion efficiency
of 3.0%, surpassing typical battery efficiencies. Such developments hold great promise for
various applications, including portable energy sources, decentralized power generation, and
renewable energy systems.

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