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Fundamentals of Modern Optics
Fundamentals of Modern Optics
docx 1
Table of content
0. Introduction ............................................................................................... 4
1. Ray optics - geometrical optics (covered by lecture Introduction to Optical
Modeling) .............................................................................................. 15
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 15
1.2 Postulates ........................................................................................................... 15
1.3 Simple rules for propagation of light ................................................................... 16
1.4 Simple optical components ................................................................................. 16
1.5 Ray tracing in inhomogeneous media (graded-index - GRIN optics) .................. 20
1.5.1 Ray equation ............................................................................................ 20
1.5.2 The eikonal equation ................................................................................ 22
1.6 Matrix optics........................................................................................................ 23
1.6.1 The ray-transfer-matrix ............................................................................. 23
1.6.2 Matrices of optical elements ..................................................................... 23
1.6.3 Cascaded elements.................................................................................. 24
2. Optical fields in dispersive and isotropic media ....................................... 25
2.1 Maxwell’s equations ........................................................................................ 25
2.1.1 Adaption to optics ..................................................................................... 25
2.1.2 Temporal dependence of the fields .......................................................... 29
2.1.3 Maxwell’s equations in Fourier domain .................................................... 30
2.1.4 From Maxwell’s equations to the wave equation ...................................... 30
2.1.5 Decoupling of the vectorial wave equation ............................................... 32
2.2 Optical properties of matter................................................................................. 33
2.2.1 Basics....................................................................................................... 33
2.2.2 Dielectric polarization and susceptibility ................................................... 36
2.2.3 Conductive current and conductivity......................................................... 38
2.2.4 The generalized complex dielectric function............................................. 39
2.2.5 Material models in time domain ................................................................ 43
2.3 The Poynting vector and energy balance ........................................................... 45
2.3.1 Time averaged Poynting vector ................................................................ 45
2.3.2 Time averaged energy balance ................................................................ 46
2.4 Normal modes in homogeneous isotropic media ................................................ 49
2.4.1 Transverse waves .................................................................................... 50
2.4.2 Longitudinal waves ................................................................................... 51
2.4.3 Plane wave solutions in different frequency regimes ............................... 52
2.4.4 Time averaged Poynting vector of plane waves ....................................... 58
2.5 The Kramers-Kronig relation ............................................................................... 59
2.6 Beams and pulses - analogy of diffraction and dispersion .................................. 62
2.7 Diffraction of monochromatic beams in homogeneous isotropic media .............. 64
2.7.1 Arbitrarily narrow beams (general case)................................................... 65
2.7.2 Fresnel- (paraxial) approximation ............................................................. 72
2.7.3 The paraxial wave equation ..................................................................... 76
2.8 Propagation of Gaussian beams......................................................................... 78
2.8.1 Propagation in paraxial approximation ..................................................... 79
2.8.2 Propagation of Gauss beams with q-parameter formalism....................... 84
2.8.3 Gaussian optics ........................................................................................ 84
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 2
This script originates from the lecture series “Theoretische Optik” given by Falk Lederer at
the FSU Jena for many years between 1990 and 2012. Later the script was adapted by
Stefan Skupin and Thomas Pertsch for the international education program of the Abbe
School of Photonics.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 4
0. Introduction
• 'optique' (Greek) lore of light 'what is light'?
• Is light a wave or a particle (photon)?
A) What is light?
• electromagnetic wave propagating with the speed of c= 3 × 108 m / s
• wave = evolution of
− amplitude and phase complex description
− polarization vectorial field description
− coherence statistical description
B) Origin of light
• atomic system determines properties of light (e.g. statistics, frequency,
line width)
• optical system Y other properties of light (e.g. intensity, duration, …)
• invention of laser in 1958 very important development
• laser artificial light source with new and unmatched properties (e.g.
coherent, directed, focused, monochromatic)
• applications of laser: fiber-communication, DVD, surgery, microscopy,
material processing, ...
E) Optical telecommunication
• transmitting data (Terabit/s in one fiber) over transatlantic distances
I) Relativistic optics
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 13
J) Schematic of optics
quantum optics
electromagnetic optics
wave optics
geometrical optics
• geometrical optics
⋅ λ << size of objects → daily experience
⋅ optical instruments, optical imaging
⋅ intensity, direction, coherence, phase, polarization, photons
G: Intensität, Richtung, Kohärenz, Phase, Polarisation, Photon
• wave optics
⋅ λ ≈ size of objects → interference, diffraction, dispersion, coherence
⋅ laser, holography, resolution, pulse propagation
⋅ intensity, direction, coherence, phase, polarization, photons
• electromagnetic optics
⋅ reflection, transmission, guided waves, resonators
⋅ laser, integrated optics, photonic crystals, Bragg mirrors ...
⋅ intensity, direction, coherence, phase, polarization, photons
• quantum optics
⋅ small number of photons, fluctuations, light-matter interaction
⋅ intensity, direction, coherence, phase, polarization, photons
• in this lecture
⋅ electromagnetic optics and wave optics
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 14
K) Literature
• Fundamental
1. Saleh, Teich, 'Fundamenals of Photonics', Wiley (1992)
in German: "Grundlagen der Photonik" Wiley (2008)
2. Hecht, 'Optic', Addison-Wesley (2001)
in German: "Optik", Oldenbourg (2005)
3. Mansuripur, 'Classical Optics and its Applications', Cambridge (2002)
4. Menzel, 'Photonics', Springer (2000)
5. Lipson, Lipson, Tannhäuser, 'Optik'; Springer (1997)
6. Born, Wolf, 'Principles of Optics', Pergamon
7. Sommerfeld, 'Optik'
• Advanced
1. W. Silvast, 'Laser Fundamentals',
2. Agrawal, 'Fiber-Optic Communication Systems', Wiley
3. Band, 'Light and Matter', Wiley, 2006
4. Karthe, Müller, 'Integrierte Optik', Teubner
5. Diels, Rudolph, 'Ultrashort Laser Pulse Phenomena', Academic
6. Yariv, 'Optical Electronics in modern Communications', Oxford
7. Snyder, Love, 'Optical Waveguide Theory', Chapman&Hall
8. Römer, 'Theoretical Optics', Wiley,2005.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 15
1.1 Introduction
− Ray optics or geometrical optics is the simplest theory for doing optics.
− In this theory, propagation of light in various optical media can be
described by simple geometrical rules.
− Ray optics is based on a very rough approximation ( λ → 0 , no wave
phenomena), but we can explain almost all daily life experiences
involving light (shadows, mirrors, etc.).
− In particular, we can describe optical imaging with ray optics approach.
− In isotropic media, the direction of rays corresponds to the direction of
energy flow.
What is covered in this chapter?
− It gives fundamental postulates of the theory.
− It derives simple rules for propagation of light (rays).
− It introduces simple optical components.
− It introduces light propagation in inhomogeneous media (graded-index
(GRIN) optics).
− It introduces paraxial matrix optics.
1.2 Postulates
A) Light propagates as rays. Those rays are emitted by light-sources and
are observable by optical detectors.
B) The optical medium is characterized by a function n(r), the so-called
refractive index (n(r) ≥ 1 - meta-materials n(r) <0)
c
n= cn – speed of light in the medium
cn
C) optical path length ∼ delay
i) homogeneous media
nl
ii) inhomogeneous media
B
∫ n(r)ds
A
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 16
D) Fermat’s principle
B
d ∫ n(r )ds =
0
A
Rays of light choose the optical path with the shortest delay.
1 1 2
+ ≈ (imaging formula)
z1 z2 (− R)
paraxial imaging: imaging formula and magnification
m = -z2 /z1 (proof given in exercises)
B) Planar interface
Snell’s law: n1 sin=
θ1 n2 sin θ2
n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ ≈ (imaging formula)
z1 z2 R
n1 z2
m= − (magnification)
n2 z1
(Proof: exercise)
− if paraxiality is violated aberration
− rays coming from one point of the object do not intersect in one point
of the image (caustic)
D) Spherical thin lens (paraxial)
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 20
− two spherical interfaces (R1, R2, ∆) apply (*) two times and assume
y=const (∆ small)
y 1 1 1
θ2 ≈ θ1 − ( n 1) −
with focal length: =−
f f R1 R2
1 1 1 z2
+ ≈ (imaging formula) m= − (magnification)
z1 z2 f z1
(compare to spherical mirror)
computation:
B
L = ∫ n r ( s ) ds
A
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 21
dn grad n ⋅ dr
=
( dr + d dr ) ( dr )
2 2
dds
= −
( dr ) + 2dr ⋅ d dr + ( d dr ) − ( dr )
2 2 2
=
dr d dr
≈ ds 1 + 2
⋅ − ds
ds ds
dr d dr
≈ ds 1 + ⋅ − ds
ds ds
dr d dr
= ds ⋅
ds ds
B
dr d dr
=dL ∫ grad n ⋅ dr + n ds ⋅
A
ds
ds
B
integration by parts and A,B fix
d dr
= ∫ grad n − ds n ds ⋅ drds
A
dz 1 + ( dx dz ) + ( dy dz )
2 2
x(z) , y(z) and ds =
− solve for x(z) , y(z)
− paraxial rays (ds ≈ dz )
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 22
d dx dn
n ( x , y , z ) ≈
dz dz dx
d dy dn
n ( x, y , z ) ≈
dz dz dy
B) homogeneous media
− straight lines
C) graded-index layer n(y) - paraxial, SELFOC
dy
paraxial 1 and dz ≈ ds
dz
1
y ) n02 (1 − α 2 y 2 ) ⇒ n( y ) ≈ n0 1 − α 2 y 2 for a 1
n 2 (=
2
d dy d dy d2y d2y 1 dn( y )
n ( y ) ≈ n ( y ) ≈ n ( y ) ⇒ =
ds ds dz dz dz 2 dz 2 n ( y ) dy
θ0
y=
( z ) y0 cos αz + sin αz
α
d2y
for n(y)-n0<<1: 2
= −α 2 y
dz
dy
θ( z ) = = − y0α sin αz + θ0 cos αz
dz
in paraxial approximation:
y2= Ay1 + Bθ1
y A B y1 A B
= 2 = → M
θ2 C D θ1 C D
θ=
2 Cy1 + Dθ1
A=0: same θ1 same y2 focusing
D=0: same y1 same θ2 collimation
1 d
M=
0 1
B) refraction on planar interface
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 24
1 0
M=
0 n1 n2
C) refraction on spherical interface
1 0
M=
− ( n2 − n1 ) n2 R n1 n2
D) thin lens
1 0
M=
−1 f 1
E) reflection on planar mirror
1 0
M=
0 1
F) reflection on spherical mirror (compare to lens)
1 0
M=
2 R 1
∂B(r, t )
rot E(r, t ) =− div D(r, t ) =
rext (r, t )
∂t
∂D(r, t )
rot H (r, t ) =
jmakr (r, t ) + div B(r, t ) =
0
∂t
− electric field (G: elektrisches Feld) E(r, t ) [V/m]
− magnetic flux density B(r, t ) [Vs/m2] or [tesla]
or magnetic induction
(G: magnetische Flussdichte oder magnetische Induktion)
− electric flux density D(r, t ) [As/m2]
or electric displacement field
(G: elektrische Flussdichte oder dielektrische Verschiebung)
− magnetic field (G: magnetisches Feld) H (r, t ) [A/m]
− external charge density ρext (ρ, t ) [As/m3]
− macroscopic current density jmakr (r, t ) [A/m2]
Auxiliary fields
The "cost" of the introduction of macroscopic Maxwell's equations is the
occurrence of two additional fields, the dielectric flux density D(r, t ) and the
magnetic field H (r, t ) . These two fields are related to the electric field E(r, t )
and magnetic flux density B(r, t ) by two other new fields.
D(r, t ) =
ε0E(r, t ) + P (r, t )
1
H (r, t )
= [B(r, t ) − M(r, t )]
µ0
− dielectric polarization
(G: dielektrische Polarisation) P( r , t ) [As/m2],
− magnetic polarization M (r , t ) [Vs/m2]
or magnetization
(G: Magnetisierung)
− electric constant ε0 ≈ 8.854 × 10−12 As/Vm
or vacuum permittivity
(G: Vakuumpermittivität)
− magnetic constant µ 0 = 4π × 10−7 Vs/Am
or vacuum permeability
(G: Vakuumpermeabilität)
electric constant and magnetic constant are connected by the speed of
light in vacuum c as
1
ε0 = 2
µ 0c
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 27
Thus, a time derivative in real space transforms into a simple product with
−iω in Fourier space.
∂
rule: FT
→ − iω
∂t
Now we can write Maxwell’s equations in Fourier domain:
rot E(r, ω) =iωµ 0 H (r, ω) ε0 div E(r, ω) =− div P(r, ω)
rot H (r, ω=
) j (r, ω) − iωP(r, ω) − iωε0E(r, ω) div H (r, ω=
) 0
Once we have solved the wave equation, we know the electric field. From
that we can easily compute the magnetic field:
∂H(r, t ) 1
= − rot E(r, t )
∂t µ0
Remarks:
− An analog procedure is possible also for the magnetic field H , i.e., we
can derive a wave equation for the magnetic field as well.
− Normally, the wave equation for the electric field E is more
convenient, because the material model defines P(E) .
− However, for inhomogeneous media H can sometimes be the better
choice for the numerical solution of the partial differential equation
since it forms a hermitian operator.
− analog procedure possible for H instead of E
− generally, wave equation for E is more convenient, because P(E)
given
− for inhomogeneous media H can sometimes be better choice
− magnetic field:
i
H (r, ω) =− rot E(r, ω)
ωµ 0
− transferring the results from the Fourier domain to the time domain
⋅ for stationary fields: take solution and multiply by e-iωt .
⋅ for non-stationary fields and linear media inverse Fourier
transformation
∞
E(r=
,t) ∫ E(r, ω)exp(−iωt )d ω
−∞
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 32
c
These two wave equations are independent as long as the material response,
which is expressed by j and P , does not couple the respective field
components by some anisotropic response.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 33
Properties
− propagation of perpendicularly polarized fields E⊥ and E can be
treated separately
− propagation of E⊥ is described by scalar equation
− similarly the other field components can be described by a scalar
equation for H ⊥
− alternative notations:
⊥ s TE (transversal electric)
p TM (transversal magnetic)
2.2.1 Basics
We are looking for P( E) and j( E) . In general, this leads to a many body
problem in solid state theory which is rather complex. However, in many
cases phenomenological models are sufficient to describe the necessary
phenomena. As already pointed out above, we use the simplest approach,
the so-called Drude-Lorentz model for free or bound charge carriers
(electrons).
− assume an ensemble of non-coupling, driven, and damped harmonic
oscillators
− free charge carriers: metals and excited semiconductors (intraband)
− bound charge carriers: dielectric media and semiconductors
(interband)
− The Drude-Lorentz model creates a link between cause (electric field)
and effect (induced polarization or current). Because the resulting
relations P( E) and j( E) are linear (no E2 etc.), we can use linear
response theory.
grad ε(r, ω)
→ div E(r, ω) =− E(r, ω).
ε(r, ω)
ω2 grad ε(r, ω)
∆ E(r, ω) + 2 ε ( r, ω) E(r, ω) =−grad E(r, ω)
c ε(r, ω)
− All field components couple.
D) linear, homogeneous, anisotropic, dispersive media → χij (ω)
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 36
Before we start writing down the actual material model equations, let us
summarize what we want to do:
We will look at the contributions from bound electrons / lattice vibrations and
free electrons separately. Later we will join the results in a generalized
material model which holds for many common optical materials..
fj
P(r, ω) =ε0 ∑ 2 E(r, ω) =ε0χ ( ω) E(r, ω)
j (
0j ω − ω2
) − ig ω
j
fj
χ ( ω) =∑ 2
j ( ω0 j − ω ) − ig j ω
2
− χ ( ω) is the complex, frequency dependent susceptibility
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 38
ε0 ω2p
j (r, ω) = E(r, ω) =σ ( ω) E(r, ω).
g − iω
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 39
Some special cases for materials in the infrared and visible spectral
range:
f
ε(ω)= ε∞ +
( ω02 − ω2 ) − igω
The contribution from electronic transitions shows almost no frequency
dependence (dispersion) in this frequency range far away from the electronic
resonances. hence it can be expressed together with the vacuum contribution
as a constant ε∞ .
Let us study the real and the imaginary part of the resulting ε(ω) separately:
ε∞ vacuum and electronic transitions
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 41
ε′( ω) =ε∞ +
f (ω
2
0 − ω2 )
,
(ω2
0 −ω 2 2
) +g ω2 2
gf ω
ε′′( ω) = . Lorentz curve
(ω 2
0 −ω 2 2
) +g ω 2 2
properties:
− resonance frequency: ω0
− width of resonance peak: g
f
− static dielectric constant in the limit ω → 0 : ε0 =ε∞ +
ω02
− so called longitudinal frequency ωL : ε′(ω = ωL ) = 0
− ε′′( ω) ≠ 0 : absorption and dispersion appear always together
− near resonance we find ε′( ω) < 0 (damping, i.e. decay of field, without
absorption if ε '' ≈ 0 )
− frequency range with normal dispersion: ∂ε′(ω) / ∂ω > 0
− frequency range with anomalous dispersion: ∂ε′(ω) / ∂ω < 0
Simplified example: sharp resonance for undamped oscillator g → 0
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 42
ε0
→ ωL =ω0 .
ε∞
f j ω02 j
ε′(ω) − 1 = ∑ ,
j (ω 2
0j − ω2 )
Metals show a large negative real part of the dielectric function ε′(ω) which
gives rise to decay of the fields. Eventually this results in reflection of light at
metallic surfaces.
Now we switch the order of integration, and identify the response function R
(red terms):
∞ 1 ∞
P(r, t ) = e0 ∫ χ(ω)exp (−iω(t − t ′) ) d ω E(r, t ′)dt ′
−∞ 2p ∫ −∞
((((((((((
R ( t −t ′ )
∞
= e0 ∫ R(t − t ′)E(r, t ′)dt ′
−∞
For a “delta” excitation in the electric field we find the response or Greens
function as the polarization:
E(r, t ′′) =e δ(t ′′ − t0 ) P (r, t ) =
ε0 R (t − t0 )ε Green's function
Examples
A) instantaneous media (unphysical simplification)
− For instantaneous (or non-dispersive) media, which cannot not really
exist in nature, we would find:
R (t ) = χδ(t ) → P ( r, t ) = ε0χE ( r, t ) (unphysical!)
B) dielectrics
1 ∞ 1 ∞ f
∫ −∞ ( ) ( i ) exp ( −iωt ) d ω,
2 ∫ −∞ ω02 − ω2 − ig ω
RP=
(t ) χ ω exp − ω t =d ω
2pp
ωp2
exp ( − gt ) t ≥ 0
R(t ) = g
0 t < 0
t
1
E(r, t )exp ( −iω0t ) + c.c. =Er (r, t )
2
For such pulses, the momentary Poynting vector reads:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 46
1 ∗ (r, t ) sin ( 2ω t ) .
∗ (r, t ) × H
+ ℑ E 0
2
((((( (((((((
fast
We find that the momentary Poynting vector has some slow contributions
which change over time scales of the pulse envelope Tp, and some fast
contributions cos ( 2ω0t ) , sin ( 2ω0t ) changing over time scales of the optical
cycle T0. Now, a measurement of the Poynting vector over a time interval Tm
leads to a time average of S(r, t ) .
1 t +Tm /2
S(r, t ) =
Tm ∫ t −Tm /2
S(r, t ')dt '
The fast oscillating terms ~ cos 2ω0t and ~ sin 2ω0t cancel by the integration
since the pulse envelope does not change much over one optical cycle.
Hence we get only a contribution from the slow term.
1 1 t +Tm /2
(r, t ') × H
∗ (r, t ') dt '
S(r, t ) =
2 Tm ∫ ℜ E
t −Tm /2
Let us now have a look at the special (but important) case of stationary
(monochromatic) fields. Then, the pulse envelope does not depend on time at
all (infinitely long pulses).
= (r, t ') E=
E (r ), (r, t ') H (r )
H
1
S(r, t ) = ℜ E(r ) × H ∗ (r ) .
2
This is the definition for the optical intensity I = S(r, t ) . We see that an
intensity measurement destroys information on the phase.
I = S(r, t ) measurement destroys phase information
equation for the energy balance of the electromagnetic field. The Poynting
theorem can be derived directly from Maxwell’s equations. We multiply the
two curl equations by H r resp. Er (note that we use real fields):
∂
H r ⋅ rotEr + µ 0 H r ⋅ Hr =
0
∂t
∂ ∂
Er ⋅ rotH r − ε0Er ⋅ E= r Er ⋅ ( jr + Pr )
∂t ∂t
Next, we subtract the two equations and get
∂ ∂ ∂
H r ⋅ rotEr − Er ⋅ rotH r + ε0Er ⋅ Er + µ 0 H r ⋅ H r =
−Er ⋅ ( jr + Pr ).
∂t ∂t ∂t
This equation can be simplified by using the following vector identity:
H r ⋅ rotEr − Er ⋅ rotH
= r div ( Er × H r )
Finally, with the substitution Er ⋅ ∂Er ∂t = 1
2 ∂E2r ∂t we find Poynting's theorem
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 2 ∂
ε0 Er + µ 0 H r + div ( Er × H r ) =−Er ⋅ jr + Pr (*)
2 ∂t 2 ∂t ∂t
This equation has the general form of a balance equation. Here it represents
the energy balance. Apart from the appearance of the divergence of the
Poynting vector (energy flux), we can identify the vacuum energy density
u = 12 ε0Er 2 + 12 µ 0 H r 2 . The right-hand-side of the Poynting's theorem contains
the so-called source terms.
1 1
where u = ε0Er 2 + µ 0 H r 2 vacuum energy density
2 2
In the case of stationary fields and isotropic media (simple but important)
1
Er (r, t )
= E(r )exp ( −iω0t ) + c.c.
2
1
H r (r, t )
= H (r )exp ( −iω0t ) + c.c.
2
Time averaging of the left hand side of Poynting’s theorem (*) yields:
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1
ε0 Er (r, t ) + µ 0 H r2 (r, t ) + div [ Er (r, t ) × H r (r, t )=
2 ∂t 2 ∂t
]
2
{
div ℜ E(r ) × H ∗ (r ) }
= div S(r, t ) .
Note that the time derivative removes stationary terms in Er2 (r, t ) and H r2 (r, t ) .
Time averaging of the right hand side of Poynting’s theorem yields (source
terms):
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 48
∂
− jr (r, t ) + Pr (r, t ) Er (r, t )
∂t
1
− σ(ω0 )E(r )e − iω0t − iω0e0c(ω0 )E(r )e − iω0t c.c. E(r)e − iω0t + c.c.
=
4
1 σ ( ω0 )
=− −iω0e0 c ( ω0 ) + i E(r) exp ( −iω0t ) + c.c. E(r) exp ( −iω0t ) + c.c.
4 ω0e0
1
= iω0e0 e ( ω0 ) − 1 E(r)E(r)∗ + c.c.
4
Again, all fast oscillating terms exp ( ±2iω0t ) cancel due to the time average.
Finally, splitting ε ( ω0 ) into real and imaginary part yields
1 1
= iω0ε0 ε′ ( ω0 ) − 1 + iε′′ ( ω0 ) E(r)E(r)∗ + c.c. = − ω0ε0ε′′ ( ω0 ) E(r )E∗ (r ).
4 2
Hence, the divergence of the time averaged Poynting vector is related to the
imaginary part of the generalized dielectric function:
1
div S = − ω0ε0ε′′ ( ω0 ) E(r )E (r ).
∗
2
This shows that a nonzero imaginary part of epsilon ( ε′′ ( ω) ≠ 0 ) causes a
drain of energy flux. In particular, we always have ε′′ ( ω) > 0 , otherwise there
would be gain of energy. In particular near resonances we have ε′′ ( ω) ≠ 0 and
therefore absorption.
Further insight into the meaning of div S gives the so-called divergence
theorem. If the energy of the electro-magnetic field is flowing through some
volume, and we wish to know how much energy flows out of a certain region
within that volume, then we need to add up the sources inside the region and
subtract the sinks. The energy flux is represented by the (time averaged)
Poynting vector, and the Poynting vector's divergence at a given point
describes the strength of the source or sink there. So, integrating the
Poynting vector's divergence over the interior of the region equals the integral
of the Poynting vector over the region's boundary.
∫ div
V
S=
dV ∫A
S ⋅ ndA
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 49
2 ω2
−k + c 2 ε(ω) E(ω) =0 and k ⋅ E(ω) =0.
which leads to the following dispersion relation
2 2 2 ω2
2 2
k = k = k + k + k = 2 ε(ω)
x y z
c
We see that the so-called wave-number k (ω= ) ωc ε(ω) is a function of the
frequency. We can conclude that transverse plane waves are solutions to
Maxwell's equations in homogeneous, isotropic media, only if the dispersion
relation k ( ω) is fulfilled.
In general, k = k ′ + ik ′′ is complex. Alternatively if k ′ k ′′ , it is sometimes
useful to introduce the complex refractive index n̂ :
ω ω ω
k (ω=
) ε(ω=
) nˆ (ω=
) [ n(ω) + ik(ω)]
c c c
However, instead of assuming that nˆ (ω) and ε(ω) are just the same, one
should clearly distinguish between the two. While ε(ω) is a property of the
medium, nˆ (ω) is a property of a particular type of the electromagnetic field in
the medium, i.e. a property of the infinitely extended monochromatic plane
wave.
E(r, ω) = E(ω)exp ( ikr )
Hence, the coincidence of the complex refractive index nˆ (ω) with ε(ω)
holds only for homogeneous media since nˆ (ω) cannot not be a local property
while ε(ω) could.
With the knowledge of the electric field we can compute the magnetic field if
desired:
i 1
H (r, ω) =− rot E(r, ω) = k × E(ω) exp ( ikr )
ωµ 0 ωµ 0
1
→ H (r, ω)= H (ω)exp ( ikr ) , ωith H (ω)= k × E(ω)
ωµ 0
Now we decompose the electric field into transversal and longitudinal compo-
nents with respect to the wave vector:
E(r, ω) = E(ω)exp ( ikr ) = E⊥ (ω)exp ( ikr ) + E (ω)exp ( ikr )
Since the cross product of k with the longitudinal field E (ω) is trivially zero
the remaining wave equation is:
k 2E⊥ = 0
Hence the transversal field E⊥ must vanish and the only remaining field
component is the longitudinal field E (ω) :
E(r, ωL ) = E (ωL )exp ( ikr )
ω ω 2π
k (ω)= n(ω)= = n(ω)
c cn λ
• Because k'' = 0 these waves are homogeneous, i.e. planes of constant
phase are parallel to the planes of constant amplitude. This is trivial,
because the amplitude is constant.
Example 1: single resonance in dielectric material
− for lattice vibrations (phonons)
ω
− We can invert the dispersion relation k (ω=
) ε(ω) ω(k ) :
c
ω2p
ε(ω) =ε′(ω) =1 −
ω2
ω
− We again invert the dispersion relation k (ω=
) ε(ω) → ω(k ) :
c
{ }
E(r, ω) = E(ω) exp i k' ( ω) r exp ( −k''(ω)r )
• The planes defined by the equation k''(ω)r = const. are the so-called planes
of constant amplitude, those defined by k'(ω)r = const. are the planes of
constant phase. Because of k' ⊥ k'' these planes are perpendicular to each
other.
• The factor exp ( −k''(ω)r ) leads to exponential growth of evanescent waves
in homogeneous space. Therefore, evanescent waves can't be physically
justified normal modes of homogeneous space and can only exist in
inhomogeneous space, where the exponential growth is suppressed, e.g.
at interfaces.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 55
As in the previous case A), the imaginary term has to vanish and k '⋅ k'' =
0.
Again this can be achieved by two possibilities.
B.1) k' = 0
ω2
k'' = 2 ε′(ω) E(r, ω) − exp ( −k''r ) strong damping
2
c
ω2
k'' = 2 ε′(ω) + k'2 .
2
c
As above, these evanescent waves exist only at interfaces (like for
ε(ω) =ε′(ω) > 0 ). The interesting point is that here we find evanescent waves
for all values of k'2 . In particular, case B.1) ( k' = 0 ) is included. Hence, we
can conclude that for ε(ω) =ε′(ω) < 0 we find only evanescent waves!
c c c
Since k' and k'' are almost parallel:
ω ω
κ' = n(ω), κ'' = κ(ω)
c c
The dispersion relation in terms of the complex refractive index gives
ω2 ω2
k = k = 2 ε( ω)= 2 [ n( ω) + ik ( ω)]
2 2 2
c c
Here we have
ε(ω) =ε′(ω) + iε′′(ω) =n 2 (ω) − κ 2 (ω) + 2in(ω) κ(ω),
ε′(ω=) n 2 (ω) − κ 2 (ω)
and therefore
ε′′(ω=
) 2n(ω) κ(ω)
ε′
sgn ( ε′) 1 + ( ε′′ / ε′) + 1 ,
2 2
n= ( ω)
2
ε′
sgn ( ε′) 1 + ( ε′′ / ε′) − 1 .
2 2
κ= ( ω)
2
Two important limiting cases of quasi-homogeneous plane waves:
C.2) ε′ < 0, ε′′ > 0, ε′′ << ε′ , (metals and dielectric media in so-called
Reststrahl domain)
1 ε′′( ω)
n( ω) ≈ , κ( ω) ≈ ε′( ω) ,
2 ε′( ω)
In this regime damping dominates ( n(ω) κ(ω) ) and we find a very small
refractive index. Interestingly, propagation (nonzero n) is only possible due to
absorption (see time averaged Poynting vector below).
There are the following frequency ranges, which give rise to the typical
properties of normal modes:
a) Frequency far below or far above resonance where ε′(ω) > 0 , ε′′(ω) ≈ 0
Typical normal modes:
− undamped homogeneous waves
− evanescent waves
b) Frequency above resonance where ε′(ω) < 0 , ε′′(ω) ≈ 0
Typical normal modes:
− evanescent waves
c) Frequency close to and below resonance where ε′(ω) > 0 , ε′′(ω) > 0
Typical normal modes:
− weakly damped quasi-homogeneous waves
d) Frequency close to and above resonance where ε′(ω) > 0 , ε′′(ω) > 0
Typical normal modes:
− strongly damped quasi-homogeneous waves
Optical systems work mainly in regime a) since here you find light propa-
gating undamped over long distances through space. Furthermore one
sometimes exploits also regime b) when one would like to have reflection of
light at surfaces (e.g. at a metallic mirror).
1 κ′ 1 e ω 2
exp [ −2κ ′′r ] E = n 0 eκ' exp −2 κ ( eκ" r ) E
2
S(r, t ) =
2 ωµ 0 2 µ0 c
with e k' being the unit vector along k ′ and e k'' being the unit vector along k ′′ .
In Fourier space, the Heaviside distribution consists of the Dirac delta distri-
bution
∞
1 i 1
−∞ −∞
( ω)
θ= P + δ ( ω)
∞
2π ω 2
= ∫ d ω θ ( ω − ω) y ( ω)
−∞
1
∞
i y ( ω) y ( ω)
χ ( ω)
= P ∫ dω + (∗)
2π −∞ ω−ω 2
In order to derive the Kramers-Kronig relation we can use a small trick (this
trick saves us using complex integration in the derivation). Because of the
Heaviside function, we can choose the function y ( τ ) for t < 0 arbitrarily
without altering the susceptibility! In particular, we can choose:
a) y ( −τ=
) y ( τ) even function
b) y ( −τ ) = − y ( τ ) odd function
a) y ( −τ=
) y ( τ)
In this case y ( −τ=
) y ( τ ) is a real valued and even function. We can exploit
this property and show that
∞ ∞
1 1
y ( ω) = ∫ y ( ) ei=
d ττ ωτ
∫ y ( ) e −iωτ = y ∗ ( ω) is real as well
d ττ
2π −∞ 2π −∞
1
∞
i y ( ω) y ( ω)
χ ( ω) =− P ∫ d ω
∗
+
2π −∞ ω−ω 2
Here P ∫ is a so called principal value integral (G: Hauptwertintegral).
Now we have expressions for χ ( ω) , χ* ( ω) and can compute real and
imaginary part of the susceptibility:
1
∞
i y ( ω) y ( ω) 1 ∞ i y ( ω) y ( ω)
χ ( ω) + χ ( ω=
) *
P ∫ dω + − P ∫ dω + = y ( ω)
2π −∞ ω−ω 2 2π −∞ ω−ω 2
1
∞
i y ( ω)
χ ( ω) − χ ( ω=
) = P ∫ d ω
∗
π −∞ ω−ω
Plugging the last two equations together we find the first Kramers-Kronig
relation:
1 ℜ χ ( ω)
∞
ℑχ ( ω) − P ∫ d ω
= 1. K-K relation
π −∞ ω−ω
Knowledge of the real part of the susceptibility (dispersion) allows us to
compute the imaginary part (absorption).
b) y ( −τ ) = − y ( τ )
The second K-K relation can be found by a similar procedure when we
assume that y ( −τ ) = − y ( τ ) is a real odd function. We can show that in this
case
∞ ∞
1 1
y ( ω) = ∫ d ττ
y ( ) eiωτ =
− ∫ y ( ) e −iωτ = − y ∗ ( ω) is purely imaginary
d ττ
2π −∞ 2π −∞
π −∞ ω−ω
and finally obtain
1
∞
ℑ χ ( ω)
→ ℜχ
= ( ω) P ∫ d ω 2. K-K relation
π −∞ ω−ω
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 62
The second Kramers-Kronig relation allows us to compute the real part of the
susceptibility (dispersion) when we know its imaginary part (absorption).
2 ∞ [ ε′(ω) − 1]
ε′′(ω) =− ω P ∫ d ω.
π 0 ω2 − ω2
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5
∞
E(r, t ) = ∫ E(k )exp i ( kr − ω t ) d 3k
−∞
ω1
ω2 ω3
...
∞
=E(r, t ) ∫ E(ω)exp i ( k ⋅ r − ω t ) d ω.
−∞
ω2
∆u (r, ω) + 2 ε ( ω) u (r, ω) =0,
c scalar Helmholtz equation
∆u (r, ω) + k 2 ( ω) u (r, ω) = 0.
In the last step we inserted the dispersion relation (wave number k (ω) ). In the
following we often even omit the argument of the fixed frequency ω .
depending on γ (α=
, β) k 2 (ω) − α 2 − β2 .
We can identify two types of solutions:
A) Homogeneous waves
γ 2 ≥ 0, α 2 + β2 ≤ k 2 , i.e., k real homogeneous waves
B) Evanescent waves
γ 2 < 0, α2 + β2 > k 2 , i.e., k complex, because γ =kz imaginary. Then,
we have k = k ′ + ik ′′ , with k ′ = αe x + βe y and k ′′ = γe z .
k' ⊥ k'' evanescent waves
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 67
We see immediately that in the half-space z > 0 the solution ∼ exp ( −iγz )
grows exponentially. Because this does not make sense, this component of
the solution must vanish U 2 (α, β) =0 . In fact, we will see later that U 2 (α, β)
corresponds to backward running waves, i.e., light propagating in the
opposite direction. We therefore find the solution:
) U1 (α, β)exp [iγ (α, β) z ]
U (α, β; z=
Furthermore the following boundary condition holds
U1 (α, β)U (α, β;0)
= U 0 (α, β)
which determines uniquely the entire solution for z ≠ 0 as
U (α, β; z )= U (α, β;0)exp [iγ (α, β) z ]
U 0 (α, β)exp [iγ (α, β) z ]
In spatial space, we can find the optical field for z > 0 by inverse Fourier
transform:
∞
u (r )
= ∫∫ U (α, β; z )exp i ( αx + βy ) d αd β.
−∞
∞
u (r )
= ∫∫ U 0 (α, β)exp iγ ( α, β ) z exp i ( αx + βy ) d αd β.
−∞
For homogeneous waves (real γ ) the red term above causes a certain phase
shift for the respective plane wave during propagation. Hence, we can
formulate the following result:
Diffraction is due to different phase shifts of the different normal modes when
these modes are traveling in propagation direction. The individual phase
shifts are determined according to different spatial frequencies α, β of the
normal modes.
2
1 ∞
=U 0 ( α, β) ∫∫ u0 ( x, y ) exp −i ( αx + βy ) dxdy ,
2p −∞
amplitude phase
Obviously, H (α, β
=; z ) exp iγ ( α, β ) z acts differently on homogeneous and
evanescent waves:
exp i k 2 − α 2 − β2 z
Each homogeneous wave keeps its amplitude.
exp − α 2 + β2 − k 2 z < 1
This means that their contribution gets damped with increasing
propagation distance z .
Each evanescent wave keeps its phase.
Now the question is: When do we get evanescent waves? Obviously, the
answer lies in the boundary condition: Whenever u0 ( x, y ) yields an angular
spectrum U 0 (α, β) ≠ 0 for α2 + β2 > k 2 we get evanescent waves.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 70
Example: Slit
Let us consider the following one-dimensional initial condition which corres-
ponds to an aperture of a slit:
u0(x)
a
1 for x ≤
u0 ( x ) = 2.
0 otherwise x
-a/2 a/2
a
sin a
2= sinc a a
0 (a ) FT [u0 ( x ) ]
U=
a 2
a
2
U0(α)
Conclusion
In homogeneous media, only information about structural details having
length scales of ∆x , ∆y > λ / n are transmitted over macroscopic distances.
Homogeneous media act like a low-pass filter for light.
u ( x, y, z ) = exp [iCz ] u0 ( x, y )
Since in general γ (α, β) ≠ const the excitation u0 ( x, y ) must have a shape such
that its Fourier transform has only components where the transfer function is
of equivalent value
U 0 (α, β) ≠ 0 only for γ ( α,=
β) k 2 − α2 − =
β2 C
It is straightforward to see that the excited spatial frequencies must lie on a
circular ring in the ( α, β ) plane.
α 2 + β2 = ρ02
For constant spectral amplitude on this ring the Fourier back-transform yields
(see exercises):
u0 ( x, y=
) J 0 (rr )
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 72
2 2 2 α 2 + β2 α 2 + β2
γ (α, β)= k − α − β ≈ k 1 − = k −
2k 2 2k
The resulting expression for the transfer function in Fresnel approximation
reads:
α 2 + β2
= exp ( iγ (α, β) z ) ≈ exp ( ikz ) exp −i
H z=
H F (α, β; z )
2k
Amplitude Phase
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 73
We can see that this H F (α, β; z ) is always real valued. Hence it does not
account for the physics of evanescent waves. However, we must remember
that the derivation of H F (α, β; z ) as an approximation of H (α, β; z ) required the
assumption that the spatial frequency spectrum is narrow (paraxial waves).
Thus, already at the beginning we had excluded the excitation of evanescent
waves to justify the paraxial approximation.
The assumption of a narrow frequency spectrum corresponds to the require-
ment that all structural details ∆x , ∆y of the field distribution in the excitation
plane (at z = 0 ) must be much larger than the wavelength:
∆x , ∆y > 10λ / n λ / n
This requirement applies also to the phase of the excitation. Hence it is not
sufficient that only the structural details of the intensity have a large scale.
The underlying phase of the excitation field must fulfill this condition as well.
This includes the condition that the phase of the beam should not have a
strong inclination to the principal propagation direction.
2
1 ∞
hF ( x, y; z )
= ∫∫ H F (α, β; z )exp i ( αx + βy ) d αd β
2p −∞
2
1 ∞ α 2 + β2
exp ( ikz ) ∫∫ −∞ exp −i z exp i ( αx + βy ) d αd β.
2p 2k
This Fourier integral can be solved and we find:
ik k 2 ik ( x 2 + y 2 )
2
exp ( ikz ) −
hF ( x, y; z ) = exp i ( x + y ) =
− exp ikz 1 + 2
,
2 z
pp 2 z 2 z 2 z
1 ∞
=h ( x, y; z ) 2 ∫∫ −∞
H (α, β; z ) exp i ( αx + βy ) d αd β
(2p)
Transfer functions for homogeneous space
H (α, β
= ) z exp i k 2 − α 2 − β2 z exact solution
; z ) exp iγ ( α, β=
α 2 + β2
H F (α, β; z ) =exp [ikz ] exp i z Fresnel approximation
2k
ω
with k = k (ω) = k0 n(ω) = n(ω)
c
A) One-dimensional beams
− translational invariance in y-direction: β =0
− and linear polarization in y-direction: Eˆ y = U , Eˆ x = 0
scalar approximation is exact since divergence condition is strictly
fulfilled
B) Two-dimensional beams
− Finite beam which is localized in the x,y-plane: α, β ≠ 0
− and linear polarization, w.l.o.g. in y-direction: Eˆ x = 0 , Eˆ y = U
∂ 1 ∂2 ∂2 ∞
i v( x, y, z ) − 2 + 2 ∫∫ V (α, β; z )exp i ( αx + βy ) d αd β
=
∂z 2k ∂x ∂y −∞
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 77
∂ 1
i v( x, y, z ) + ∆ (2)v( x, y, z ) =
0 paraxial wave equation
∂z 2k
The slowly varying envelope v( x, y, z ) (Fourier transform of the slowly varying
spectrum) relates to the scalar field as uF ( x, y, z ) = v( x, y, z )exp ( ikz ) .
( ) with k = k
u ( x, y, z ) = v( x, y, z ) exp ikz
∂ 1 (2) k 2 (r, ω) − k 2
i v ( x, y , z ) + ∆ v ( x, y , z ) + v ( x, y , z ) =
0
∂z 2k 2 k
This is the paraxial wave equation for inhomogeneous media having a weak
index contrast.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 78
The general form of a Gaussian beam at one plane ( z = const ) is elliptic, with
curved phase
x2 y 2
u0 ( x, y= ) A0 exp − 2 + 2 exp [iϕ( x, y ) ] .
) v0 ( x, y=
wx wy
2 2
Here, we will restrict ourselves to rotational symmetry ( w= x w=
y w02 ) and
(initially) 'flat' phase ϕ( x, y ) =
0 . Later we will see that this corresponds to the
focus of a Gaussian beam. The Gaussian beam in such a focal plane with flat
phase is characterized by amplitude A and width w0 , which is defined as
u0 ( x 2 + y 2= w02 )= A0 exp ( −1)= A0 / e .
In practice, the so-called 'full width at half maximum' (FWHM) of the intensity
is often used instead of w0 . The FWHM of the intensity is connected to w0 of
the field by
2 æ w2 ö÷ 1
(
u0 x + y2 2
) = exp ççç- FWHM ÷
çè 2w 2 ÷÷ø 2
0
2
wFWHM 2
- 2
= - ln 2 wFWHM = 2ln 2w 02 » 1.386w 02
2w 0
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 79
Some books use the “diffraction length” , a measure for the “focus
depth” of the Gaussian beam. E.g.:
From our computation above we know that the Gaussian beam evolves like:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 81
Discussion
The amplitude evolves along z like:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 82
The Gouy phase is not important for many applications because it is ‘flat’.
However, in resonators and in the context of nonlinear optics it can play an
important role (i.e., harmonic generation in focused geometries).
The wave fronts (planes of constant phase) of a Gaussian beam are given by
ˆ = A B .
M C D
B) propagation through multiple elements:
ˆ =M
M ˆ M ˆ ..M ˆ = A B .
N N −1 1 C D
C) matrix connects distances to the optical axis y and inclination angles Θ
before and after the element
y2 ˆ y1
Θ = M Θ .
2 1
ˆ =M
with the matrix M ˆ M ˆ ..M ˆ = A B .
N N −1 1 C D
This works for all ABCD matrices given in chapter 1.6 for ray optics!!!
Here: we will check two important examples:
i) propagation in free space by z = d :
propagation (by definition of q -parameter) q=
( d ) q(0) + d
ˆ = 1 d =
M A1 1,=
B1 d ,=
C1 0,=
D1 1
0 1
A1q0 + B1 q0 + d
q=
1 = = q0 + d
C1q0 + D1 0 +1
ii) thin lens with focal length f
What does a thin lens do to a Gaussian beam exp ( −( x 2 + y 2 ) / w02 ) in
paraxial approximation?
− no change of the width
k ( x2 + y 2 )
− but change of phase curvature R f : × exp i
2 Rf
How can we see that?
Trick:
πw2f
We start from the focus which is produced by the lens with z=
0 z=
f
λn
and w f is the focal width. Hence the q-parameter is
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 87
1 λ
= i n2
q0 πw f
The radius of curvature evolves as:
z f 2
R( z ) =+
z 1 ≈ z for z z f
z
We can invert the propagation from the focal position to the lens at the
distance of the focal length f and obtain R f = − f
ˆ 1 0
f <0 f >0 M thin lens =
−1 f 1
A1q0 + B1 q0
=q1 =
C1q0 + D1 − q0 f + 1
1 − q0 f + 1 1 iλ πw02
= = + n2 for −i
q0 =
q1 q0 − f πw0 λn
Be careful: Gaussian optics describes the evolution of the beam's width and
phase curvature only!
Changes of amplitude and reflection are not included!
Examples:
A) R ( z1 ), R( z2 ) > 0 ; R1 > 0, R2 < 0 ; z1 > 0, z2 > 0
−d ( R1 + d )( R2 + d )( R1 + R2 + d ) > 0
−d ( R1 + d )( R2 + d )( R1 + R2 + d ) = dg1 g 2 R1R2
(1 − g1 g 2 ) R1R2
d
g1 g 2 (1 − g1 g 2 )( R1R2 ) > 0.
2
=
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 90
which is equivalent to
This final form of the stability condition can be visualized: The range of
stability of a resonator lies between coordinate axes and hyperbolas:
k x2 + y 2
exp i exp ( ikz ) exp [i(l + m + 1)ϕ( z ) ].
2 R( z )
x2
Gl (x=
) H l (x)exp −
2
The functions Gl are given by the so-called Hermite polynomials:
H l (ξ) ( H 0 = 1, H1 = 2ξ and H l +1 =2ξH l − 2lH l −1 ).
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 93
spectral width:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 94
ωs << ω0 → ω − ω0 = ω << ω0
In this situation it can be helpful to replace the complicated frequency
dependence (dispersion relation) of the wave vector k (ω) or the wave
number k (ω) by a Taylor expansion at the central frequency ω = ω0 .
B) Group velocity vg
∂k 1
=
∂ω ω0 vg
group velocity is the velocity of the center of the pulse (see below)
ω 1 ∂k 1 ∂n
k (=
ω) n(ω) → = = n(ω0 ) + ω0
c vg ∂ω ω0 c ∂ω ω0
c c n(ω0 )
=vg = = vPH
∂n ng (ω0 ) ng (ω0 )
n(ω0 ) + ω0
∂ω ω0
∂n
ng (ω0 )= n(ω0 ) + ω0 group index
∂ω ω0
normal dispersion: ∂n / ∂ω > 0 ng > n, vg < vPH
anomalous dispersion: ∂n / ∂ω < 0 ng < n, vg > vPH
∂ 2k
= Dω
∂ω2 ω0
∂ 1 1 ∂vg
D= = − 2
∂ω vg vg ∂ω
∂vg
→ D >0 <0
∂ω
∂v
→ D<0 g >0
∂ω
Alternatively in telecommunication one often uses
∂ 1 2π
=Dλ = − 2 cDω
∂λ vg λ
Let us now discuss the propagation of pulsed beams. We start with the scalar
Helmholtz equation, with the full dispersion (no Taylor expansion yet):
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 96
ω2
∆ u (r, ω) + 2 ε(ω) u (r, ω) = 0
c
In contrast to monochromatic beam propagation, we now have for each
frequency ω one Fourier component of the optical field:
ω2
dispersion relation: k 2 (ω=
) ε(ω)
c2
Hence, we need to consider the propagation of the Fourier spectrum (Fourier
transform in space and time):
) U 0 (α, β, ω)exp iγ ( α, β, ω) z
U (α, β, ω; z=
with γ ( α=
, β, ω) k 2 (ω) − α 2 − β2
The initial spectrum at z = 0 is U 0 ( α, β, ω)
1 ∞
u0 ( x, y, t )exp −i ( αx + βy − ω t ) dxdydt
( 2p ) ∫∫∫ −∞
=U 0 (α, β, ω) 3
1
H FP (α, β, ω; z ) ≈ exp [ik0 z ] exp i ( ω − ω0 ) z ×
vg
D α 2 + β2
× exp i ( ω − ω0 ) z exp −i
2
z
2 2 k0
ω 1 1 1 2
( )
2
= exp [ik0 z ] exp i z + D ω − α + β 2
v 2 k0
g 2
with ω = ω − ω0
Based on the last line of the above equation we can introduce a new variant
of the propagation function, where the frequency argument is replaced by the
frequency difference ω from the center frequency ω0
H FP (α, β, ω; z ) ≈ exp [ik0 z ] H FP (α, β, ω; z )
The new transfer function H FP (α, β, ω; z ) is the propagation function for the
slowly varying envelope v( x, y, z , t ) :
∞
u ( x, y, z , t ) exp [ik0 z ] ∫∫∫ U 0 (α, β, ω) H FP (α, β, ω; z ) ×
=
−∞
× exp i ( αx + βy − ω t ) d αd βd ω
∞
x, y, z , t ) exp i ( k0 z − ω0t ) ∫∫∫ U 0 (α, β, ω) H FP (α, β, ω; z ) ×
u (=
−∞
( )
× exp i αx + βy − ω t d αd βd ω
u(t) v(t)
t
|u(ω)| |u(ω)|
ω0 ω ω
( )
∞
v( x=
, y, z , t ) ∫∫∫ U 0 (α, β, ω) H FP (α, β, ω; z )exp i αx + βy − ω t d αd βd ω
−∞
In order to complete the formalism, we also need to define the initial spectrum
of the slowly varying envelope
u0 ( x, y, t ) v0 ( x, y, t )exp ( −iω0t )
=
1 ∞
v0 ( x, y, t )exp −i ( αx + βy − ωt ) dxdydt
( 2p ) ∫∫∫ −∞
V0 (α, β, ω)
= 3
( )
∞
v( x,=
y, z , t ) ∫∫∫ V (α, β, ω) H FP (α, β, ω; z ) exp i αx + β y − ω t d αd β d ω
−∞ 0
( )
V (α, β, ω) H FP (α, β, ω; z ) exp i αx + βy − ω ( t − z vg ) d αd βd ω
∞
v( x,=
y, z , t ) ∫∫∫ −∞ 0
The last line above involves the propagation function H FP (α, β, ω; z ) , which is
the propagation function for the slowly varying envelope in the co-moving
frame of the pulse:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 99
z
t= t−
vg
This frame is called co-moving because H FP (α, β, ω; z ) is now purely quadratic
in ω , i.e., the pulse does not “move” anymore. In contrast, the linear ω -
dependence in Fourier space had given a shift in the time domain. Thus, the
slowly varying envelope in the co-moving frame evolves as:
∞ z 2 α 2 + β2
v ( x, =
y, z , τ) ∫∫∫ −∞V0 (α, β, ω)exp i 2 Dω − k0 ×
{ }
× exp i αx + βy − ω τ d αd βd ω
Then we take the spatial derivative of the transfer function along the propaga-
tion direction z
∂V (α, β, ω; z ) 1 2 α 2 + β2
i = − Dω − V (α, β, ω; z )
∂z 2 k0
As before in the case of monochromatic beams, we use Fourier back-trans-
formation to get the differential equation in the time-position domain
∂v ( x, y, z , τ) D ∂ 2 1 (2)
i − v
( x , y , z , τ) + Dτv ( x, y, z , ) =0
∂z 2 ∂τ2 2 k0
This is the scalar paraxial equation for propagation of so-called pulsed
beams.
V0
e
t2 τ2
u0 (t ) A0 exp − 2 exp ( −iω0t ) =
= v0 (τ) A0 exp − 2
T0 T0
k 2 1 T02
z0 describes Gaussian pulse z0 = w0 z0 = − 0
2 2 D
Hence anomalious GVD is equivalent to 'normal' diffraction.
Dispersion length: LD = 2 z0
A2 ( z )T ( z ) = const.
'Phase curvature' is not fitting to the description of pulses introduction of
new parameter Chirp
Remember: The phase of a Gaussian beam Φ (x, y, z ) has the following
shape:
∂2 ∂2 k
2 + 2 Φ ( x, y , z ) =
∂x ∂y R( z )
For monochromatic fields the temporal dynamics of the phase is:
∂Φ ( τ)
Φ ( τ) = −ωτ → − = ω
∂τ
arbitrary time dependence of phase
∂Φ (τ) ∂ 2Φ (τ) ∂ω(τ)
− =ω(τ) and − = ≠ 0 chirp
∂τ ∂τ2 ∂τ
The chirp of a pulse describes the variation of the temporal frequency of the
electric field in the pulse.
parabolic approximation 'chirp' constant dimensionless chirp
parameter (often just chirp)
T02 ∂ 2 Φ ( τ)
C= −
2 ∂τ2
integration leads to:
∂Φ (τ) ττ2
− =ω(τ) =ω0 + 2C 2 , − Φ (τ) =ω0 τ + C 2
∂τ T0 T0
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 103
Complete field:
T0 t2 t2
u ( z , t) A0
= exp − 2
exp −iC ( z ) 2
exp [iϕ( z ) ] exp i ( k0 z − ω0t )
T ( z) T ( z ) T0
C0 – initial chirp
spectral width:
1 2D T02
= C ( z ) − i 2 (*)
q ( z ) T02 T ( z)
Important: T0 is the pulse width at z = 0 , which is not necessarily in the 'focus'
or waist.
hence at z = 0 :
1 2D
= [C0 − i] with C0 = C (0)
q(0) T02
Idea:
1 2D 1
a) q=
( z ) q (0) + z and= [ C0 − i] insert into
q(0) T02 q( z )
1 2D T02
b)
= C ( z ) − i .
q ( z ) T02 T 2 ( z )
set a) and b) equal T ( z ) , C ( z )
generally: 2 equations for C0 , T0 , z, C ( z ), T ( z ) 3 values predetermined
here: z = d
1) Determination of q parameter at input
T02 ( C0 + i)
q(0) =
2 D (1 + C02 )
2) Evolution of q parameter
T02 ( C0 + i) 1
q( d )= q(0) + d= + d= 2 Dd (1 + C02 ) + C0T02 + iT02
2 D (1 + C0 )
2
2 D (1 + C0 )
2
1 2D T02
= C (d ) − i 2
q (d ) T02 T (d )
T02T 2 ( d )
q( d ) 4
C ( d )T 2 ( d ) + iT02
2 D C ( d )T ( d ) + T0
2 4
1 T02T 2 ( d )
b) imaginary part = 2
( 0 ) C (d )T 4 (d ) + T04
1 + C 2
(
a) real part must be zero 2 Dd 1 + C02 + C0T02 =
0 )
1 T02C0 1 C0
d=
− =
− s g n ( D ) LD
2 D (1 + C02 ) 2 ( 0)
1 + C 2
2 T02
b) T ( d ) =
(1 + C02 )
Resulting properties
1) A pulse can be compressed when the product of initial chirp and
dispersion is negative → C0 D < 0.
2) The possible compression increases with initial chirp.
Physical interpretation
If e.g. C0 < 0 and D > 0 → ∂vg / ∂ω < 0 → 'red' is faster than 'blue'
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 107
1) First the 'red tail' of the pulse catches up with the 'blue front' until
(waist), i.e. the pulse is compressed. At this propagation distance the
pulse has no remaining chirp.
2) Then and red is in front. Subsequently the 'red front' is faster
than the 'blue tail', i.e. the pulse gets wider.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 108
3. Diffraction theory
3.1 Interaction with plane masks
In this chapter we will use our knowledge on beam propagation to analyze
diffraction effects. In particular, we will treat the interaction of light with thin
and plane masks/apertures. Therefore we would like to understand how a
given transversally localized field distribution propagates in a half-space.
There are different approximations commonly used to describe light propa-
gation behind an amplitude mask:
A) If we use geometrical optics we get a simple shadow.
B) We can use scalar diffraction theory with approximated interaction, i.e., a
so-called aperture is described by a complex transfer function
t ( x, y ) with t ( x, y ) = 0 for x , y > a (aperture)
or
∞
u ( x, y , z =
) ∫ ∫ h ( x − x′, y − y′, z − z ) u ( x′, y′, z
−∞
A + A )dx′dy′
1
with h = FT −1 [ H ]
( 2π )
2
In the following we will use the notation zB= z − z A . According to our choice of
the propagation function H , resp. h , we can compute this propagation either
exactly or in a paraxial approximation (Fresnel). In the following, we will see
that a further approximation for very large zB is possible, the so-called
Fraunhofer approximation.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 109
and therefore
1 ∂ 1
h ( x, y , z ) = − exp ( ikr ) with r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
2p ∂z r
The resulting expression in position space for the propagation of mono-
chromatic beams is also called 'Rayleigh-formula':
∞
u ( x, y, z )= ∫ ∫ h ( x − x′, y − y′, z ) u ( x′, y′, z
−∞
B + A )dx′dy′
i k
hF ( x, y, zB ) =
−
λ zB
exp ( ikzB ) exp i ( x 2 + y 2 )
2 zB
i ∞ k 2
exp ( ikzB ) ∫∫ u+ ( x′, y′)exp i ( x − x′ ) + ( y − y′ ) dx′dy′
2
=
−
λ zB −∞
2 zB
a k 2
u+ ( x′, y′)exp i ( x − x′ ) + ( y − y′ ) dx′dy′
2
∫∫ −a
2 zB
a k
= ∫∫ u+ ( x′, y′)exp i x 2 − 2 xx′ + x′2 + y 2 − 2 yy′ + y′2 dx′dy′
−a
2 zB
a k kx k
∫∫ u+ ( x′, y′)exp i x 2 + y 2 exp −i [ x′ + y′] exp i x′2 + y′2 dx′dy′
−a
2 zB zB 2 zB
So far, nothing happened, we just sorted the factors differently. But here
comes the trick:
Because of the integration range, we have x′, y′ < a and therefore
k ka 2
→ x′ + y′ <
2 2
2πN F
=
2 zB zB
k
→for N F N 0.1 → exp i x′2 + y′2 ≈ 1
2 zB
This means that we can neglect the quadratic phase term in x′, y′ and we get
for the field far from the object, the so-called far field:
i k
uFR ( x, y, zB ) =
− exp ( ikzB ) exp i ( x2 + y 2 )
λ zB 2 zB
∞ kx ky
×∫∫ u+ ( x′, y′)exp −i x′ + y′ dx′dy′
−∞
zB zB
−i
= ( B) +
λ zB zB zB 2 zB
This is the far-field in paraxial Fraunhofer approximation. Surprisingly, the
intensity distribution of the far field in position space is just given by the
Fourier transform of the field distribution at the aperture
2
1 x y
I FR ( x, y, zB ) U + (k , k ; z A )
( λ zB )
2
zB zB
Interpretation
For a plane in the far field at z = zB in each point x, y only one angular
frequency= ( α kx /=zB ; β ky / zB ) with spectral amplitude U + (kx / zB , ky / zB )
contributes to the field distribution. This is in contrast to the previously
considered cases, where all angular frequencies contributed to the response
in a single position point.
In summary, we have shown that in (paraxial) Fraunhofer approximation the
propagated field, or diffraction pattern, is very simple to calculate. We just
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 112
need to Fourier transform the field at the aperture. In order to apply this
approximation we have to check that:
A) α 2 + β2 << k 2 smallest features ∆x, ∆y >> λ narrow angular
spectrum (paraxiality)
N= a2
<< 1 largest feature a determines zB >> aλ far field
2
B) F λ zB
( 2p )
2
zB
uFR non−paraxiaλ ( x, y, zB ) = −i
λ x 2 + y 2 + zB 2 x 2 + y 2 + zB 2
×U+ (
2
kx
2
x + y + zB 2
,
2
ky
x + y + zB 2 2 (
; z A )exp ik x 2 + y 2 + zB 2 )
3.3 Fraunhofer diffraction at plane masks (paraxial)
Let us now plug things together and investigate examples of diffraction
patterns induced by plane masks in (paraxial) Fraunhofer approximation.
For inclined incidence of the excitation the field behind the mask is given by:
u+ ( x= )t ( x, y ) A exp i ( k x x + k y y + k z z A ) t ( x, y )
, y, z A ) u− ( x, y, z A=
Form the previous chapter we know that the diffraction pattern in the far field
in paraxial Fraunhofer approximation is given as:
2
2 1 x y
I ( x, y, zB )
u ( x , y , zB ) U + (k , k )
( λ zB )
2
zB zB
Airy disk
with
x x N −1 x
T k − TS k ∑ exp −ik nb
zB zB n = 0 zB
We see that the Fourier transform TS of the elementary slit tS appears.
The second factor has its origin in the periodic arrangement. With some
math we can identify this second expression as a geometrical series and
perform the summation by using the following formula for the definition of
the sinc-funtion:
N −1
sin ( N δ2 )
∑
n =0
exp ( −iδn ) =
sin ( δ2 )
Thus we finally write:
x (
x sin N k2 zxB b
T k TS k
)
zB zB sin 2 zB b
k x
( )
For the particular case of a simple grating of slit apertures with ts ( x) = 1
we have
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 116
x x
T1 k = sinc k a
zB zB
and therefore
2
(
x sin N k2 zxB b
2
I sinc k a
)
zB sin 2 zB b
2 k x
( )
max
(
sin 2 N k2 zx b
B
)
k xP λz
b = nπ xp = n B
sin 2 z b
2 k x
B
( )
2 zB b
These observations are consistent with the general property of the Fourier-
transform: small scales in position space give rise to a broad angular
spectrum and vice versa.
And therefore the response function for a thin lens is given as (see chapter
2.8.3):
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 120
k
tL ( x, y ) =
exp −i ( x2 + y 2 )
2f
By Fourier transforming the response function we find consequently the
transfer function in the Fourier domain as
λf f
TL ( α, β ) = −i exp i ( α 2 + β2 )
( 2p )
2
2k
, β; f ) TL ( α, β ) ∗ U − (α, β; f )
U + (α=
λf ∞ f 2
−i ( i ) i ( ) ( ) ⋅
2
( 2p )
2
exp kf ∫∫ −∞
exp
2 k
α − α′ + β − β′
i
⋅ exp − ( α′2 + β′2 ) f U 0 (α′, β′)d α′d β′
2k
λf ∞ f 2
U (α, β;2 f ) = −i exp ( 2ikf ) ∫∫ exp i ( α − α′ ) + ( β − β′ ) ⋅
2
( 2p ) 2k
2 −∞
i i
⋅ exp − ( α′2 + β′2 ) f exp − ( α 2 + β2 ) f U 0 (α′, β′)d α′d β′
2k 2k
i i
Quadratic terms − ( α′2 + β′2 ) f and − ( α 2 + β2 ) f in the exponent
2k 2k
f
cancel with quadratic terms from i ( α − α′ ) + ( β − β′ ) and only the mixed
2 2
2k
terms remain.
λf ∞ f
U (α, β;2 f ) = −i exp ( 2ikf ) ∫∫ U 0 (α′, β′)exp −i ( αα′ + ββ′ ) d α′d β′
( 2p )
2 −∞
k
λf f f
=−i exp ( 2ikf ) u − α , − β
( 2p )
2 0
k k
We see that the spectrum in the image plane is given by the optical field in
the object plane.
E) Fourier back transform in image plane
y,2 f ) FT −1 [U (α, β;2 f ) ]
u ( x, =
∞
λf f f
= −i exp ( 2ikf ) ∫ ∫ u0 − α, − β exp i ( αx + βy ) d αd β
( 2p )
2
−∞ k k
we get:
The image in the second focal plane is the Fourier transform of the optical
field in the object plane. This is simmilar to the far field in Fraunhofer
approximation, but for . This finding allows us to perform an optical
Fourier transform over shorter distances.
And in the Fourier plane it is possible to manipulate the spectrum.
The filtering (manipulation) happens in the second focal plane (Fourier plane
after 2f) by applying a transmission mask p ( x, y ) . In order to retrieve the
filtered image we use a second lens:
We know that the image in the Fourier plane is the FT of the optical field in
the object plane.
k k
u ( x, y,2 f ) = AU 0 x, y
f f
We have to compute the imaging with the second lens after the manipulation
of the spectrum in the Fourier plane.
Our final goal is the transmission function H A (α, β;4 f ) of the complete ima-
ging system:
∞
u ( − x, − y , 4 f )
= ∫ ∫ H ( α, β;4 f )U
−∞
A 0 (α, β) exp i ( αx + βy ) d αd β
Note: We will see in the following calculation that the second lens does a
Fourier transform exp i ( αx + βy ) . In order to obtain a proper back
transform we have to pass to mirrored coordinates x → − x, y → − y .
The transmission mask p ( x, y ) contains all constrains of the system (e.g. a
limited aperture) and optical filtering (which we can design).
∞
k
u ( x, y,4 f ) ~ ∫ ∫ u+ ( x′, y′,2 f )exp −i ( xx′ + yy′ ) dx′dy′
−∞ f
∞
k k k
~ ∫ ∫U 0 x′, y′ p ( x′, y′)exp −i ( xx′ + yy′ ) dx′dy′
−∞ f f f
Here we do not care about the amplitudes and just write ~:
To get the anticipated form we need to perform a coordinate transformation:
k k
=
α ′, β
x= y′
f f
Then we can write:
∞
f f
u ( x, y,4 f ) ~ ∫ ∫ U 0 ( α, β ) p ( α, β)exp −i ( αx + βy ) d αd β
−∞
k k
By passing to mirrored coordinates x → − x, y → − y we get
∞
f f
u (− x, − y,4 f ) ~ ∫ ∫ p ( α, β)U 0 ( α, β ) exp i ( αx + βy ) d αd β
−∞
k k
Hence we can identify the transmission function of the system
f f
H A ( α, β;4 f ) ~ p ( α, β)
k k
Summary
• Fourier amplitudes get multiplied by transmission mask
• transmission mask transfer function
• coordinates of image mirrored coordinates of object
In position space we can formulate propagation through a 4f-system by using
the response function hA ( x, y )
∞
u (− x, − y,4
= f) ∫ ∫h
−∞
A ( x − x′, y − y′)u0 ( x′, y′)dx′dy′
f f
From above we have H A ( α, β;4 f ) ~ p ( α, β)
k k
∞
f f
hA ( x, y ) ~ ∫ ∫ p ( α, β)exp {i[ αx + βy ]} d αd β
−∞
k k
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 125
→ mirrored original
Spatial filtering. The transparencies in the object and Fourier planes have
complex amplitude transmittances and . A plane wave
traveling in the direction is modulated by the object transparency,
Fourier transformed by the first lens, multiplied by the transmittance of the
mask in the Fourier plane and inverse Fourier transformed by the second
lens. As a result, the complex amplitude in the image plane is a
filtered version of the original field in the object plane. The system
has a transfer function .
Transmission function:
A more precise definition of the optical resolution can be derived the following
way:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 127
∞
k k
u (− x, − y,4 f ) ~ ∫ ∫ P ( x′ − x ) , ( y′ − y ) u0 ( x′, y′)dx′dy′
−∞
f f
J1 2kDf ( x′ − x ) + ( y′ − y )
2 2
∞
~∫∫ u0 ( x′, y′)dx′dy,′
( x′ − x ) + ( y′ − y )
kD 2 2
−∞
2f
One point of the object x0 , y0 gives an Airy disk (pixel) in the image:
2
kD 2
( ) ( )
2
J
1 2 f x0 − x + y0 − y
−
2kDf ( x0 − x ) + ( y0 − y )
2 2
We can define the limit of optical resolution:
Two objects in the object plane can be independently resolved in the image
plane as long as the intensity maximum of one of the objects is not closer to
the other object than its first intensity minimum:
kD
Drmin = 1.22π
2f
1.22λf
Hence we find: Drmin =
nD
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 128
Examples of object, mask, and filtered image for three spatial filters: (a)
low-pass filter; (b) high-pass filter; (c) vertical pass filter. Black means the
transmittance is zero and white means the transmittance is unity.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 129
Ex
δ = −π / 2 clockwise rotation
Ey
Ex
These pictures are for an observer looking contrary to the propagation
direction.
C) elliptic polarization Ex ≠ Ey ≠ 0, δ ≠ nπ
0<δ<π counterclockwise
π < δ < 2π clockwise
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 131
Examples
Remark
A linearly polarized wave can be written as a superposition of two counter-
rotating circularly polarized waves. Example: Let's observe the temporal
evolution at a fixed position with .
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 132
Now (anisotropic)
3
=Pi (r, ω) e0 ∑ cij (ω) E j (r, ω)
j =1
tensor components
The linear susceptibility tensor has 3x3=9 tensor components. Direct conse-
quences of this relation between polarization P and electric field E are:
− P E : the polarization is not necessarily parallel to the electric field
− The tensor elements χij depend on the structure of crystal. However,
we do not need to know the microscopic structure because of the
different length scales involved (optics: 5 ⋅ 10−7 m ; crystal: 5 ⋅ 10−10 m ),
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 133
but the field is influenced by the symmetries of the crystal (see next
section).
− In complete analogy we find for the D field:
3
Di (r, ω) =ε0 ∑εij (ω) E j (r, ω)
j =1
− ε = (ε )
ij dielectric tensor
3
− σˆ = ( εˆ )
−1
= (σ ) ij inverse dielectric tensor ∑σ ij (ω) D j (r, ω) =ε0 Ei (r, ω)
j =1
The following properties of the dielectric and inverse dielectric tensor are
important:
− σij , εij are real in the transparent region (omit ω ), we have no losses
(see our assumptions above)
− The tensors are symmetric (hermitian), only 6 components are
independent εij =ε ji , σij =σ ji .
− It is known (see any book on linear algebra) that for such tensors a
transformation to principal axes by rotation is possible (matrix is
diagonalizable by orthogonal transformations).
− If we write down this for σij , it means that we are looking for directions
where D E , i.e., our principal axes:
3
ε0 Ei =∑σij D j λDi
j =1
∑σ D
j =1
ij
(α)
j λ ( α ) Di( α ) .
=
Cubic crystals behave like gas, amorphous solids, liquids, and have no
anisotropy.
B) uniaxial
− two crystallographic equivalent directions
− trigonal (quartz, lithium niobate), tetragonal, hexagonal
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 135
C) biaxial
− no crystallographic equivalent directions
− orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic
In the principal coordinate system the defining equation of the index ellipsoid
reads:
This is the reason why the ellipsoid, which represents graphically the epsilon
tensor, is called index ellipsoid.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 136
Summary:
• anisotropic media → tensor instead of scalar
in principal system: ni= εi
• The index ellipsoid is degenerate for special cases:
− isotropic crystal: sphere
− uniaxial crystal: rotational symmetric with respect to z-axis and n1 = n2
c
with ε(ω) > 0 and real as well as k ⋅ E = k ⋅ D = 0 . The normal modes are
elliptically polarized, and the polarization is conserved during propagation.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 137
c
ω2
exp i ( k2 z - ωt ) D2 exp [iϕ2 ( z ) ] exp (-iωt ) with k = 2 ε 2 (ω)
D2 , e 2 D2= 2
2
c
We see that in contrast to isotropic media, normal modes can't be elliptically
polarized, since the polarization direction would change during propagation.
But, for linear polarization in the direction of a principal axis (x or y) only the
phase changes during propagation, thus we found our normal modes:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 138
ω2 2
D (a)
{ }
= D1 exp i ( k ar − ωt ) e1 → k = 2 na = k12 → normal mode a
2
a
c
ω2 2
D ( b)
{ }
= D2 exp i ( k br − ωt ) e 2 → k = 2 nb = k 22 → normal mode b
2
b
c
For light propagation in principle direction we find two perpendicular
linearly polarized normal modes with E D .
Remark on the indices in the index ellipsoid
The indices ni= εi in the index ellipsoid are connected to the indices na and
nb of the normal modes propagating along the principal axis. However please
be careful about the direction correspondence. For example, the two normal
modes propagating along the z direction have phase velocities determined
by the indices n1 = nx and n2 = n y determined by the direction of their electric
field rather than by the direction of their propagation.
and
• The directions of the principal axes of the index ellipse are the polarization
direction of the normal modes and .
• The electric field vectors of the normal modes and follow from
• If the index ellipse is a circle, the direction of this particular k-vector defines
the optical axis of the crystal.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 140
ω2 2
2 iε − k Ei =−ki ∑k j E j
c j
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 141
Remark: for isotropic media the r.h.s. of this equation would vanish ( k ⋅ E = 0 ).
Now, we have the following problem to solve:
ωc2 ε1 − k22 − k32 k1k2 k1k3 E 0
2
1
k2 k1 ω2
c2
ε 2 − k12 − k32 k 2 k3 E2 = 0
k3k1 k3 k 2 ω2
ε − k12 − k22 E3 0
c2 3
The general way to solve this problem is using det [..] = 0 , which gives the
dispersion relation ω = ω(k ) for given ki / k .
However, there is an easy way to show some general properties of the
dispersion relation. We start from the following trick:
ω2 2 ki
2 εi − k Ei =−ki ∑k j E j Ei = − ∑kE
c j ( ω2
ε − k2
c2 i )j
j j
Now we multiply this equation by ki , perform a summation over the index ' i '
and rename i ↔ j on the l.h.s:
ki2
∑k E
j
j j = −∑
i ( ω2
ε − k2 )∑ j
k jE j.
c2 i
ui2 1
∑ 2 = 2 final form of DR
n − εi n
i
Discussion of results
For given εi ( ω) and direction ( u1 , u2 ) we can compute the refractive index
n ( ω, u1 , u2 ) seen by the normal mode. Because u12 + u22 + u32 =
1 , it is sufficient
to fix two components ( u1 , u2 ) of u to determine the direction.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 142
(n 2
− ε1 )( n 2 − ε 2 )( n 2 − ε3 )
( )(
n 2 − ε1 n 2 − ε 2 n=
2
) (n 2
− ε1 )( n 2 − ε 2 )( n 2 − ε3 )
( n − ε )( n
2
1
2
− ε 2 ) ε3 = 0
na2 =
ε1 , nb2 =
ε2
Finally, we can derive some properties of the fields of the normal modes, i.e.
the eigenfunctions.
We start from the eigenvalue equation, which we had derived above
ω2 2
2 εi − k Ei =−ki ∑k j E j .
c j
For cases where the first factor of the l.h.s. is unequal zero (propagation
directions not parallel to the principal axes) we can divide by this term
ki
)∑
Ei = − k jEj .
( 2
ω
ε − k2
c2 i j
The sum does not depend on the index i . Hence the last term of the equation
must be constant
∑k Ej
j j = const.
Knowing that the last term is a constant we can derive a relation of the
individual field components from the first part of the equation
E1 : E2 : E3 = k1 k2 k3
2
: 2
: 2
ω ω ω
ε − k2
2 1
ε − k2
2 2
ε − k2
2 3
c c c
and with Di =ε0εi Ei
D1 : D2 : D3 = ε1k1 ε 2 k2 ε 3 k3
2
: 2
: 2
ω ω ω
ε − k2
2 1
ε − k2
2 2
ε − k2
2 3
c c c
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 143
Please be aware that this relation can only be applied for propagation direc-
tions not parallel to the principal axes.
How are the normal modes polarized?
− The ratio between the field components is real
phase difference 0 → linear polarization
How do we see the orthogonality D(a ) D(b ) = 0 ? (be careful: E(a ) E(b ) ≠ 0 )
ka kb εi2ui2
(a)
D D (b )
~∑
i 2 ω2 2 ω2
ka − c 2 εi kb − c 2 εi
2 2 2
c k a kb 2 εiui εiui
= ka ∑ − kb ∑
2
ω ( kb − k a ) i 2 ω
2 2 2 2
i 2 ω
2
ka − c 2 εi kb − c 2 ε i
Since the two red terms vanish due to the dispersion relation, it follows that
D(a ) D(b ) = 0 . The vanishing of the red terms can be seen when rewriting the
dispersion relation:
2 ω2 ω2 2
ka2,bui2 a ,b c 2 i c 2 εi ui
k − ε +
ω2 εiui2
1= ∑ = ∑ = 1+ 2 ∑
i 2 ω2 i 2 ω2 c i 2 ω2
ka ,b − c 2 εi ka ,b − c 2 εi ka ,b − c 2 εi
biaxial uniaxial
isotrop
Normal surfaces as the graphical representation of the dispersion relation
of normal modes in crystals.
isotrop: sphere
uniaxial: 2 points with in the poles connecting line defines the
optical axis (for , the z-axis is the optical axis)
biaxial: 4 points with connecting lines define two optical axes
How to read the figure:
− fix propagation direction ( ) intersection with surfaces
− distances from origin to intersections with surfaces correspond to
refractive indices of normal modes
− definition of optical axis
Summary: there are two geometrical constructions:
A) index ellipsoid (visualization of dielectric tensor)
− fix propagation direction index ellipse half lengths of principal
axes give (refractive indices of the normal modes)
− optical axis index ellipse is a circle
− for uniaxial crystals the optical axis coincides with one principal axis
B) normal surfaces (visualization of dispersion relation)
− fix propagation direction intersection with surfaces
distances from origin give
− optical axis connects points with
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 145
Conclusion
In anisotropic media and for a given propagation direction we find two normal
modes, which are linearly polarized monochromatic plane waves with two
different phase velocities c na , c nb and two orthogonal polarization directions
D ( a ) , D (b ) .
Hence for a given direction one gets the two refractive indexes .
The geometrical interpretation as normal surfaces is straightforward and can
be done, w.l.o.g., in the , or y, z plane ( ).
The shape of the normal surfaces can be derived in the following way.
We have with
A) ordinary wave
B) extraordinary wave
For the extraordinary wave all denominators are finite, and in particular
implies , hence is polarized in the y-z plane. Then,
implies that is polarized in x-direction.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 147
Aims
• We will study the interaction of monochromatic plane waves with arbitrary
multilayer systems interferometers, dielectric mirrors, …
by superposition of such plane waves we can then describe interaction of
spatio-temporal varying fields with multilayer systems
• We will see a new effect, the “trapping” of light in systems of layers new
types of normal modes in inhomogeneous space “guided” waves
(propagation of confined light beams without diffraction)
Approach
• take Maxwell's transition condition for interfaces
• calculate field in inhomogeneous media matrix method
• solve reflection-transmission problem for interface, layer, and system of
layers,
• apply the method to consider special cases like Fabry-Perot-interferometer,
1D photonic crystals, waveguide…
Background
• orthogonality of normal modes of homogeneous space
no interaction of normal modes in homogeneous space
• inhomogeneity breaks this orthogonality
modes interact and exchange energy
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 149
• however, locally the concept of eigenmodes is still very useful and we will
see that the interaction at the inhomogeneities is limited to a small number
of modes
c
From
i
H (r, ω) =− rot E(r, ω)
ωµ 0
we can conclude that the corresponding magnetic fields are
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 150
0 0 Hx
ETE =
= Ey E ,
H TE 0
=
0 0 H
z
Ex 0 0
ETM 0 ,
= H TM =
= H y H
E 0 0
z
x
medium I y
interface
z
medium II
A) Continuity of fields
TE: E = E y and H z continuous
TM: Ez and H = H y continuous
TE-polarization
We have to solve the wave equation (no y -dependence because of
translational invariance):
∂2 ∂ 2 ω2
2 + 2
+ 2 εf ETE ( x, z ) =
0
∂x ∂z c
We use the ansatz from above:
ETE ( x, z ) = ETE ( x)exp ( ikz z ) and HTE ( x, z ) = HTE ( x)exp ( ikz z )
∂ 2 ω2 2
2 + 2 εf − kz ETE ( x) =0
∂x c
i
with: H TE ( x, z ) = − rotETE ( x, z )
ωµ0
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 152
∂2 ω2
2 + kfx ( kz , ω) E ( x) =
0 with kfx ( kz , ω)= 2 εf ( ω) − kz2
2 2
∂x c
i ∂
H z ( x) = − E ( x)
ωµ0 ∂x
This makes sense since the wave equation for the y-component of the
electric field is a second order differential equation. Hence we need to specify
the field and its first derivative as initial condition at x = 0 to determine a
unique solution.
TM-polarization
analog for transversal components H y = H , Ez :
∂2
2 + k 2
fx ( k z , ω ) H ( x) =
0
∂x
i ∂
Ez ( x) = H ( x)
ωε0εf ∂x
Again, we succeed describing everything in transversal components.
1 i
=C1 F (0) − G (0)
2 α f kfx
1 i
=C2 F (0) + G (0)
2 α f kfx
The final solution of the initial value problem is therefore:
1
=F ( x) cos ( kfx x ) F (0) + sin ( kfx x ) G (0)
α f kfx
G ( x) = −α f kfx sin ( kfx x ) F (0) + cos ( kfx x ) G (0)
By resubstituting we have the electromagnetic field in the layer 0 ≤ x ≤ d .
A) Two layers
F F F
=
G ˆ
m
= 2 ( d )
2 ˆ
m 2 ( d 2 )mˆ 1 ( d )
1
d1 + d2 G d1 G 0
B) N layers
F N
F ˆ F N
=
G d + d +..+ d =D
∏=
i =1
ˆ
G
0 G
0
ˆ
m i (di ) M with M = ∏m
i =1
ˆ i (di )
1 2 N
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 155
ω2
2 i( )
ˆ i have the same form, but different α if , di , k=
All matrices m i
fx ε ω − kz2 .
c
Let us now rewrite the fields in order to solve the reflection transmission
problem:
A) Field in substrate
The fields in the substrate can be expressed based on the complex
amplitudes of the incident FI and reflected field FR as:
=Fs ( x, z ) exp ( ikz z ) FI exp ( iksx x ) + FR exp ( −iksx x )
iαsksx exp ( ikz z ) FI exp ( iksx x ) − FR exp ( −iksx x )
Gs ( x, z ) =
F ˆ ( x) F
G = M G
x 0
C) field in cladding
The fields in the cladding can be expressed based on the complex amplitude
of the transmitted field FT as:
=Fc ( x, z ) exp ( ikz z ) FT exp ikcx ( x − D )
iαc kcx exp ( ikz z ) FT exp ikcx ( x − D )
Gc ( x, z ) =
Note that in the cladding we consider a forward (transmitted) wave only.
On the other hand, we have expressions for the fields at x = 0 and x = D from
our decomposition in incident, reflected and transmitted field from above.
Hence, we can write:
FT M 11 ( D) M 12 ( D) FI + FR
iα k F M ( D) M ( D) iα k F − F .
=
c cx T 21 22 s sx ( I R )
FR =
( αsksx M 22 − αc kcx M 11 ) − i ( M 21 + αsksxαc kcx M 12 ) F
((((((((((
αsksx M 22 + α c kcx M 11 ) + i ( M 21 − αsksx α c kcx M 12 )
(((((((((
I
2α s ksx ( M 11M 22 − M 12 M 21 )
FT = FI
(α s ksx M 22 + α c kcx M 11 ) + i ( M 21 − α s k sx α c kcx M 12 )
2α s ksx
FT = FI
N
These are the general formulas for reflected and transmitted amplitudes.
Please remember that the matrix elements depend on the polarization
direction M ijTE ≠ M ijTM .
Let us now transform back to the physical fields, and write the solution for the
results of the reflection transmission problem for TE and TM polarization:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 158
A) TE-polarization
F = E = Ey , αTE = 1
i) reflected field
ERTE = RTE EITE
with the reflection coefficient
RTE =
( k M − k M ) − i( M + k k M )
sx
TE
22 cx
TE
11
TE
21 sx cx
TE
12
((((((((
k M + k M ) + i( M − k k M )
sx
TE
22 cx
TE
11
(((((((((
TE
21 sx cx
TE
12
N TE
B) TM-polarization
1
F = H = Hy, αTM = .
ε
In the case of TM polarization we have the problem that an analog calculation
to TE would lead to H R,T / H I , i.e., relations between the magnetic field.
TM
However, we want ER,T / EITM . Therefore, we have to convert the H -field to the
E TM -field:
As can be seen in the figure, we can express the amplitude of the ETM field in
terms of the Ex component:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 159
Ex k
TM
= − sin ϕ = − z
E k
k
E TM = − Ex ,
kz
With Maxwell we can link Ex to H y :
1 1 k 1
E= − ( k × H ) Ex = kz H y E TM =
− Hy =
− Hy
ωε0ε ωε0ε ωε0ε cε0 ε
ERTM,T εs H R ,T
result: TM
= , → εs / εc relevant for transmission only
E I εs,c H I
Hence we find the following for TM polarization:
ERTM = RTM EITM
with the reflection coefficient
RTM =
( ε k M − ε k M ) − i( ε ε M + k k M )
c sx
TM
22 s cx
TM
11 s c
TM
21 sx cx
TM
12
ε k M + ε k M ) + i( ε ε M − k k M )
((((((((((
c sx
TM
22 s cx
(((((((((
TM
11 s c
TM
21 sx cx
TM
12
N TM
RTE =
(ksx
TE
M 22 − kcx M 11TE ) − i ( M 21
TE
+ ksx kcx M 12TE )
(ksx M TE
22 + kcx M TE
11 ) + i( M TE
21 − ksx kcx M TE
12 )
2ksx
TTE =
N TE
RTM =
(ε k
c sx
TM
M 22 − εskcx M 11TM ) − i ( εsεc M 21
TM
+ ksx kcx M 12TM )
(ε k
c sx
TM
M 22 + εskcx M 11TM ) + i ( εsεc M 21
TM
− ksx kcx M 12TM )
2 εsεc ksx
TTM = .
N TM
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 160
we find
1 1
S e x = ℜ ( k ∗e x ) E = ℜ ( kx ) E .
2 2
2ωµ 0 2ωµ 0
Since in an absorption free medium the energy flux is conserved, in an
absorption free layer the energy flux is also conserved.
In the substrate
ω2 2
k=
sx ε − k=
2 s z ks2 (ω) − kz2
c
is supposed to be real-valued, because we have our incident wave coming
from there. The total energy flux from the substrate to the layer system is
given as
1
ksx EI − ksx ER
2 2
=S s ex
2ωµ 0
2 2 ℜ ( kcx ) 2
E
=I ER + ET
ksx
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 161
ℜ ( kcx ) TE 2
2
EI = ETE
R + ETM
R
2
+
2
ksx (
ET + ETTM
2
)
2 ℜ ( kcx ) 2 2 2 ℜ ( kcx ) 2 2
= RTE + TTE EITE + RTM + TTM EITM .
ksx ksx
Here, we just substituted the reflected and transmitted field amplitudes by
incident amplitudes times Fresnel coefficients. Now, we decompose the
incident field as follows:
2 ℜ ( kcx ) 2 2 ℜ ( kcx ) 2
=1 RTE + TTE cos 2 δ + RTM + TTM sin 2 δ
ksx ksx
ℜ ( kcx )
=
2 2
1 RTE cos 2 δ + RTM sin 2 δ +( ksx
2
)
2
TTE cos 2 δ + TTM sin 2 δ ( )
The red and blue terms can be identified as 1= ρ + τ
The global reflectivity and transmissivity are therefore given as
2 2
TE cos
ρ = ρδ TM sin
+ ρδ
2 2
TE cos
τ = τδ TM sin
+ τδ
with the reflectivities
2 ℜ ( kcx ) 2
ρTE,TM RTE,TM ,
= =
τTE,TM TTE,TM .
ksx
for the two polarization states TE and TM.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 162
ˆ= m 1 0
M ˆ (d= 0)=
0 1
and it is easy to compute coefficients for reflection and transmission, and
reflectivity and transmissivity. Using the formulas from above we find:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 163
A) TE-polarization
RTE =
( ksx M 22 − kcx M 11 ) − i ( M 21 + ksx kcx M 12 ) , TTE =
2ksx
((((((((
ksx M 22 + kcx M 11 ) + i ( M 21 − ksx kcx M 12 )
(((((((
N TE
=RTE
(=ksx − kcx ) ns cos ϕI − nc2 − ns2 sin 2 ϕI ns cos ϕI − nc cos ϕT
=
( ksx + kcx ) ns cos ϕI + nc − ns2 sin 2 ϕI ns cos ϕI + nc cos ϕT
2
B) TM-Polarisation
RTM =
( εc ksx M 22 − εskcx M 11 ) − i ( εsεc M 21 + ksx kcx M 12 ) TTM =
2 εsεc ksx
.
εc ksx M 22 + εskcx M 11 ) + i ( εsεc M 21 − ksx kcx M 12 )
((((((((( ((((((((((
N TM
ˆ= m 1 0
with: M ˆ (d= 0)=
0 1
=RTM
(=ksx εc − kcx εs ) nsnc2 cos ϕI − ns2 nc2 − ns2 sin 2 ϕI nc cos ϕI − ns cos ϕT
=
( ksxεc + kcxεs ) nsnc2 cos ϕI + ns2 nc2 − ns2 sin 2 ϕI nc cos ϕI + ns cos ϕT
Remark
It may seem that we have a problem for ϕI =0 . For ϕI =0 , TE and TM
polarization should be equivalent, because the fields are always
polarized parallel to the interface. However, formally we have RTE = − RTM ,
TTE = TTM . The “strange” behavior of the coefficient of reflection can be
explained by the following figures:
ω 2 2 ω2
kcx =i ns sin ϕI − nc = iµc = i k z − 2 εc iµaginary
2 2
c c
→ ℜ ( kcx ) =
0 TIR
Obviously, we find the same angle of TIR for TE and TM polarization. The
energy fluxes are given as (here TE, same result for TM):
ksx − iµc 4ksxℜ ( kcx )
2
=ρTE = 1 =τTE = 0.
ksx + iµc
2 2
ksx + kcx
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 165
Remark
For metals in visible range (below the plasma frequency) we have
ω
always TIR, because: ℜ ( εc ) < 0 → kcx= εc − ns2 sin 2 ϕI always
c
imaginary.
In the case of TIR the modulus of the coefficient of reflection is one, but
the coefficient itself is complex nontrivial phase shift for reflected light:
A) TE-polarization
k − iµc Z exp ( ia )
RTE =⋅ (
1 exp iΘ TE = sx )=∗=
ksx + iµc Z exp ( −ia )
=exp ( 2ia )
B) TM-polarization
k e − iµces Z exp ( ia )
RTM =⋅ (
1 exp iΘ TM = sx c ) =∗=
ksx ec + iµces Z exp ( −ia )
=exp ( 2ia )
Θ TM µ c es e s Θ
tan a = tan =− = tan TE ,
2 ksx ec ec 2
In conclusion, we have seen that the phase shifts of the reflected light at TIR
is different for TE and TM polarization, and because ε s > εc
Θ TM > Θ TE ,
As a consequence, incident linearly polarized light gets generally elliptically
polarized after TIR Fresnel prism
Remark
The field in the cladding is evanescent − exp ( ikxc=
x ) exp ( −µc x ) .
The averaged energy flux in the cladding normal to the interface
vanishes.
S x
=
1
2ωµ 0
ℜ kE
2
( ) x
=
1
ℜ ( kx ) E =
2ωµ 0
2
0.
=0
ksx εc = kcx εs
εsεc ( εs − εc ) εc
sin 2 ϕB
= =
εs ( εs2 − εc2 ) ( εs + ε c )
εc εs
cos 2 ϕB = 1 − sin 2 ϕB = 1 − =
( εs + ε c ) ( ε s + ε c )
With the last two lines we can write the final result for the Brewster angle:
εc
tan ϕB = .
εs
The Brewster angle exists only for TM polarization, but for any ns nc .
There is a simple physical interpretation, why there is no reflection at the
interface for the Brewster angle.
sin ϕB nc
tan=
ϕB =
cos ϕB ns
π
ns sin=
ϕB nc cos=
ϕB nc sin − ϕB
2
At the same time the angle of the transmitted light is always
π
ns sin ϕB= nc sin ϕT ϕT= − ϕB ,
2
Hence, at Brewster angle reflected and transmitted wave propagate in per-
pendicular directions. If we interpret the reflected light as an emission from
oscillating dipoles in the cladding, no reflected wave can occur for TM pola-
rization (no radiation in the direction of dipole oscillation).
In summary, we have the following results for reflectivity and transmittivity at
a single interface with ε s > εc .
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 167
angle of incidence
angle of incidence
with
ω ω2 2
α = ns sin ϕI , =
γs n − α2.
2 s
c c
This gives rise to a reflected plane wave as
ER ( x, z ) EI exp i ( αz − γs x ) exp iΘ ( α ) .
=
The reflected plane wave gets a phase shift Θ(α) , which depends on the
angle of incidence (here characterized by the transverse wave number α).
Now we want to treat beams, which we can write as a superposition of plane
waves (Fourier amplitude eI ( α ) ):
∆
x, z ) exp ( iα 0 z ) ∫ d eeI ( α 0 + ee
ER (= ) exp i ( z − γs x ) exp iΘ ( α0 + e ) .
−∆
{ }∫
∆
(0, z ) exp i α 0 z + Θ ( α 0 )
ER= d eeI ( α 0 + e ) exp i ( z + Θ′ ) e
−∆
{ }
(0, z ) exp i Θ ( α 0 ) − α 0Θ′ EI ( z + Θ′ ) .
ER=
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 169
Let us finally compute the shift d = −Θ′ . We know from before that the phase
shift for TIR is given as:
Θ TE µc µ
tan =− =− c
2 ksx γs
a 2 − ωc2 nc2
2
µc
Θ = −2arctan = −2arctan 2
ksx ω
n2 − a2
c2 s
2α −2α α ( ksx2 + µ c2 )
ksx − µc
∂Θ 1 2µ c 2ksx µ c ksx 1 α
Θ′ = =−2 × 2
× =−2 =−2
∂α µ 2
ksx 2
ksx + µ c 2
µ c ksx
1 + 2c
ksx
1 1 aa
Θ′ a =−d =−2 xET tan ϕI0 with x=
ET = and tan ϕI0 = =
0
µc α 02 − ωc2 nc2
2
ksx γ s
{
E ( x, z; ω) exp i kx ( kz , ω) x + kz z Ekx ( x)
= }
with
Ekx ( x + Λ ) = Ekx ( x)
In other words, Ekx ( x) is a periodic function and we are looking for solutions
E ( x, z; ω) which have the same amplitude after one period of the medium, but
{ }
we allow for a different phase exp i kx ( kz , ω) x . Here kx is the (yet)
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 171
unknown Bloch vector. Because in this easy example we deal with a one-
dimensional problem, the Bloch vector is actually a scalar.
In the following, we will find a dispersion relation for the Bloch-waves
ω2
kx ( kz , ω) , in complete analogy to the DR for plane waves kx= 2 ε ( ω) − kz2 in
2
c
homogeneous media. In order to make the difference to the homogeneous
case more obvious, we change the notation for the Bloch vector: k x K .
According to the Bloch-theorem (our ansatz) we have a relation between E
and E ′ when we advance by one period of the multi-layer system (from
period N to period N + 1 ):
E E
E '=
exp ( iK Λ ) ' .
( N +1)Λ E NΛ
On the other hand, we know from our matrix method:
E ˆ E
E' = M E'
( N +1)Λ NΛ
ˆ =m
with M ˆ ( d2 ) m
ˆ ( d1 ) M ij = ∑ kmik(2) mkj(1)
If the Bloch wave is a solution to our problem, we can set the two expressions
equal:
=
and with µ exp (iK Λ ) we have to solve the following eigenvalue problem:
This eigenvalue problem determines the Bloch vector K and will finally give
our dispersion relation.
ˆ − µI} =
As usual, we use the solvability condition det{M 0 to compute the dis-
in µ exp (iK Λ ) . Hence we still need to compute
persion relation expressed=
K afterwards.
2
µ ± exp ( i=
K±Λ )
( M 11 + M 22 ) ± ( M 11 + M 22 )
= − 1.
2 2
{ }
ˆ = 1 , which explains why the off-diagonal elements
Note that we used det M
ˆ =1
of the matrix do not appear in the formula. Moreover, because of det M { }
we have µ +µ − =1 .
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 172
M −µ M 12 E
11 =0
M 21 M 22 − µ E ′ N Λ
From the first row the following condition can be derived:
( M 11 − µ ) E + M 12 E′ = 0
Since the investigated system is linear and invariant for the phase, the
absolute amplitude and phased of the E -component of the eigenvector can
be chosen arbitrarily. Here we take E = 1 and get for the full eigenvector
E 1
E' = ENΛ .
NΛ ( µ − M 11 ) / M 12
If field values of the Bloch mode, i.e. the function Ekx ( x + Λ ) = Ekx ( x ) , inside
the layers are desired, they can be computed by using the matrix formalism
and the above eigenvector ( E , E ′) N Λ .
( M 11 + M 22 ) ≥1
2
with [for our example (ε1 , ε 2 , d1 , d 2 ) ]
k2 x
=M 11 cos ( k1x d1 ) cos ( k2 x d 2 ) − sin ( k1x d1 ) sin ( k2 x d 2 )
k1x
k1x
=M 22 cos ( k1x d1 ) cos ( k2 x d 2 ) − sin ( k1x d1 ) sin ( k2 x d 2 ) .
k2 x
This defines the so-called band gap, i.e. frequencies of excitation for which no
propagating solutions exist.
( M 11 + M 22 ) <1
2
We can compute the explicit dispersion relation:
2
µ exp (=
iK Λ )
( M 11 + M 22 ) ± ( M 11 + M 22 )
= − 1.
2 2
{cos ( K Λ )}
2
= Λ ) cos ( K Λ ) ±
Λ ) cos ( K Λ ) + i sin ( K=
µ exp ( iK= −1
cos { K ( kz , ω) Λ} =
( M 11 + M 22 )
2
In infinite periodic media, only if the Bloch vector K fulfills this DR the Bloch
wave is a solution to Maxwell’s equations. This is in complete analogy to
plane waves in homogeneous media with the DR kx2 = ωc2 ε ( ω) − kz2 .
2
Interpretation
M +M 2
ℑ{ K ( kz , ω) Λ} =− ln ( −1)
n ( 11 22 )
±
( M 11 + M 22 )
− 1 .
2 2
The ± accounts for exponentially damped and growing solution, as we usually
expect in the case of complex wave vectors and evanescent waves.
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 174
Re k Re k
0.4 0.6
Im k Im k
0.5
0.3
0.4
ω/cG
ω/cG
0.2 0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0 0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5
k/G k/G
It is common to use the reduced band structure - Brillouin zone, where the
information for all possible Bloch vectors is mapped onto the Bloch vectors in
the following interval −0.5 ≤ (k / G ) ≤ 0.5 .
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 175
1.2
Re k
0.4 Im k
1
0.3
0.8
ω/cG
ω/cG
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.4
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25
k/G 0.2
n1=1.4, d1=0.5Λ 0
n2=3.4, d2=0.5Λ 0 0.25 0.5
k/G
K
Because of eiK Λ we need only −π ≤ K Λ ≤ π ≤ 0.5 to describe the disper-
G
sion relation.
Inside the band gap, we find damped solutions:
1
1 6 d /d 1 0.7
Transmission
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
ω/cG
7.3.4 Fabry-Perot-resonators
In this chapter we will treat a special multi-layer system, the so-called Fabry-
Perot-resonator. To construct a Fabry-Perot-resonator, one can start from
highly reflecting periodic multi-layer system (Bragg reflector). If one changes
just a single layer somewhere in the middle of the otherwise periodic layer
system, a so-called cavity is formed, and we are interested in the forward and
backward propagating fields of the entire layer system.
While the single layer which is distinguished from the periodic stack forms the
cavity, the other layers function as mirrors, and may be periodic multilayer-
systems or metal films. Fabry-Perot-resonators are very important in optics,
as they appear as:
• Fabry-Perot- interferometer
• laser with plane mirrors Fabry-Perot-Resonator with active medium
inside the cavity
• nonlinear optics high intensities inside the cavity nonlinear optical
effects for low intensity incident light:
− bistability
− modulational instability
− pattern formation, solitons
Here, we want to compute the transmission properties of the resonator for
arbitrary plane mirrors. This task could be achieved employing the matrix
method which we developed in the previous sections. However we will take a
different approach to achieve deeper physical insight into the cavity's beha-
vior.
For simplicity, we will restrict ourselves to TE-polarization. The figure shows
our setup with two mirrors at x = 0 and x = D , characterized by coefficients of
reflection and transmission R0 , T0 , RD , and TD .
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 177
cladding
substrate
RD ET
T0 EI + R0 ET exp ( ikfx D ) = exp ( −ikfx D )
TD TD
1
E=
I
T0TD
{exp ( −ikfx D ) − R0 RD exp (ikfx D )} ET .
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 178
kcx 2
τ= T .
ksx
Here we introduced the phase-shift δ , which the field acquires in one round-
trip in the cavity.
Discussion
Depending on whether the two mirrors have identical properties we
distinguish between symmetric and asymmetric FP-resonators.
a) asymmetric FP-resonator
2 2
k T0 TD
τ = cx
ksx 1 + R0 2 RD 2 − 2 R0 RD cos δ
δδδ
cos δ = cos 2 − sin 2 = 1 − 2sin 2
2 2 2
Plugging everything in we get
τ=
(1 − R ) (1 − R )
0
2
D
2
1 + R0 RD − 2 R0 RD (1 − 2sin 2 δ2 )
2 2
−1
(1 − R0 RD )
2
4 R0 RD 2δ
= + sin .
2
1 − R0 1 − RD
2
( 2
1 − R0 1 − RD
2
)(2
) ( )( )
and with
2 2
ρ0 R0 , ρ=
= D RD
−1
=
1 − ρρ 2
τ
0 D
+
(
4 ρρ 0 D
) δ
sin 2 .
(1 − ρ0 ) (1 − ρD ) (1 − ρ0 ) (1 − ρD ) 2
The Airy-formula (see also Labworks script, where phase shifts ϕ due to the
mirrors are not considered) gives the transmissivity of a symmetric, lossless
Fabry-Perot-resonator. Only for this case we can get the maximum
transmissivity τ =1 for δ / 2 =nπ .
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 180
4 (1 − τm ) 4
ρm =1 − τ
m 2
≈
2
≈ 100 τ = 0.2 ρ m m = 0.8.
ττ
m m
∆ π ρm
F= = F =π
ε 2 1 − ρm
• The line width ε (FWHM) is inversely proportional to the finesse Φ .
• The Airy-formula can be expressed in terms of the finesse
−1
2Φ 2 2δ
τ= 1 + sin .
π 2
Dλ λ λ ε
=
λ
λ nfΦD ΦD D
example: λ = 5 ⋅ 10−7 m , Φ = 30, nf D = 4 ⋅ 10−3 m ∆λ= 2 ⋅ 10−12 m
• The field amplitudes (here forward field) inside the cavity are given as:
−2
ET = TD E+ ( D) Because T − 1 / (1 − ρ) − Φ these intra-cavity fields can be
very high important for nonlinear effects
• Lifetime of photons in cavity: Via the "uncertainty relation":
∆ωTc const. ≈ 1 it is possible to define a lifetime of photons inside the
=
cavity:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 182
1 π
k
D= nΦ Dω
=
c ΦD
c π 1 n ΦD D
Dω
= =Tc = Φ .
nΦ ΦD Dω cπ ε
The question is, how can we trap (or guide) waves within a finite layer
system? A possible hint gives the effect of total internal reflection, where the
transmitted field is:
=ET ( x, z ) ET exp ( ikz z ) exp ( −µc x )
Obviously, in the case of TIR we have no energy flux in the cladding medium.
If TIR is the key mechanism to guide light, can we have TIR on two sides, i.e.
in cladding and substrate? And what about a single interface?
substrate and cladding. The single interface, where the core is absent, will be
considered at a later stage.
According to our discussion the guided waves have the following field
structure:
• plane wave in propagation direction ~ exp(ik z z )
• evanescent waves in substrate and cladding
~ exp[−µ c ( x − D)] cladding
~ exp( µs x) substrate
2ω2
with µs=
,c k − 2 εs,c (ω) > 0
z
c
ω2
1. condition: kz2 > max {εs,c (ω)}
c2
• oscillating solution (standing wave) in the core (layers, fiber core, film)
~ A sin(k fx x) + B cos(k fx x)
ω2
with k=
ix ε (ω) − kz2 > 0
2 i
c
2
2. condition: kz2 < ω2 max {εi (ω)}
c i
Note that this 2. condition is not obvious at this stage. It appears due to
transition conditions at the boundaries to substrate and cladding. The fact that
the fields in the substrate and gladding are of evanescent nature requires that
both fields are exponentially growing towards the interface to the core. The
transition conditions at the interfaces impose continuity of the tangential
components of the fields and their first derivative normal to the surface (This
fact was shown during the derivation of the transmission reflection properties
in a multilayer system). Since the field in the core must continuously connect
the fields and derivatives of the fields in substrate and cladding, it must have
some non-monotonic profile. This condition excludes evanescent field profiles
in the core and leaves only oscillating radiation-type fields as a possible
solution.
In summary, the z -component of the wave vector of guided waves has to
fulfill:
ω ω
max ns ,c < k z < max ni
c i
c
The field structure in substrate and cladding is given as:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 184
R
=
FR
=
( αsksx M 22 − αc kcx M 11 ) − i ( M 21 + αsksxαc kcx M 12 )
FI ( αsksx M 22 + αc kcx M 11 ) + i ( M 21 − αsksxαc kcx M 12 )
The pole is then given as:
→ ( αsksx M 22 + αc kcx M 11 ) + i ( M 21 − αsksx α c kcx M 12 ) 0
Because we have evanescent waves in substrate and cladding the imaginary
valued ksx and kcx can be expressed as real numbers with
ω2 2 ω2 2
ksx iµs =
= i k − 2 εs (ω),
z kcx iµc =
= i k − 2 εc (ω)
z
c c
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 185
c
In addition to the material's dispersion in the layers the dispersion relation of
guided modes depends on the geometry of the waveguide's layer system
kz ( ω, geometry )
In the case of guided waves it is easy to compute the field (mode profile)
inside the layer system:
• take k z from dispersion relation
• in the substrate we have:
∂
F ( x) = F exp( µs x), G ( x) = α
∂x
{F exp ( µ s x )}
Hence, for given F (0) we get G (0) = αµs F (0) ( F (0) → free parameter)
Tunnel effect
2 ω2
k > 2 εFilm
z ↔ E < VBarriere
c
Our condition for guided waves is that on both sides of the interface we have
2 ω2
evanescent waves: kz > 2 εc,s , because
c
2 ω2
µs,c= k − 2 εc,s > 0
z
c
The general dispersion relation we derived before reads
1 αµ
M 11TE,TM + αsµsM 12 TE,TM + M 21TE,TM + s s M 22 TE,TM 0
α cµ c α cµ c
µ c µs
+ 0
=
ε c εs
with µc , µs > 0 εc ⋅ εs < 0,
→ on of the media has to have negative ε (dielectric near resonance or
metal)
Remark
Surface polaritons occur in TM polarization only, similar to the phenomenon
k k
of Brewster-angle (no reflection for cx − sx =0, )
ε c εs
Let us now compute the explicit dispersion relation for surface polaritons.
W.o.l.g. we assume εs (ω) < 0 , and because εs (ω) is near a resonance it will
show a much stronger ω dependence than εc .
( µcε s ) = ( µs εc )
2 2
ω2 2 2 ω2
ε 2s ( ω) kz2 − 2 εc2 =
ε c kz − 2 εs ( ω)
c c
ω εs ( ω) ε c
k z ( ω) =
c ε c + εs ( ω)
ω εs ( ω ) ε c
kz ( ω) =
c εs ( ω ) + ε c
Such film waveguides are the basis of integrated optics. Typical parameters
are:
a few wavelengths
From this matrix we can compute the dispersion relation for guided modes:
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 190
1 αµ
M 11 + αsµs M 12 + M 21 + s s M 22 0
α cµ c α cµ c
αsµs α k αµ
cos ( kfx d ) + sin ( kfx d ) − f fx sin ( kfx d ) + s s cos ( kfx d ) =
0
αf kfx α cµ c α cµ c
αsµs
1+
sin ( kfx d ) α cµ c αf kfx ( αsµs + αcµc )
= tan ( kfx d ) α k =
=
cos ( kfx d ) f fx αµ
− s s αf2 kfx
2
− α cαsµcµs
αcµc αf kfx
kfx µs µc
+
α f α c αs
tan ( kfx d ) = 2
kfx µµ
− c2s
α c αs αf
kfx ( µs + µc )
tan ( kfx d ) = 2
,
kfx − µ c µs
This waveguide dispersion relation is an implicit equation for kz . For given
frequency ω and thickness d we get several solutions with index kzν
ω
Here is an example for fixed frequency ω , the effective index neff = kz /
c
versus the thickness d :
Script "Fundamentals of Modern Optics", FSU Jena, Prof. T. Pertsch, FoMO_Script_2015-02-14s.docx 191
We can see in the figure that for large thickness d we have many modes. If
we decrease d, more and more modes vanish at a certain cut-off thickness.
Definition of cut-off:
a guided mode vanishes cut-off (here w.o.l.g.
The idea of the cut-off is that a mode is not guided anymore. Guiding means
evanescent fields in the substrate and cladding, so cut-off means
no guiding
E ( x,0) ≈ ∑aν Eν ( x) ∫E ( x )
µ
ν
kzν ∞
with : Pν =
2
2ωµ 0 ∫ −∞
Eν ( x ) dx
kzν ∞
aν =
2ωµ 0 Pν ∫ −∞
Ein ( x) Eν ( x)dx,
ω ω ω2
kz < εf kz < ε p k=
px ε − kz2 > 0 .
2 p
c c c
light can couple to the waveguide via optical tunneling: ATR ('attenuated
total reflection')
ii) coupling by grating
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