1.

SOURCES AND TYPES OF SOLID WASTES

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Due to rapid increase in the production and consumption processes, societies generate as well as reject
solid materials regularly from various sectors– agricultural, commercial, domestic, industrial and institutional.
The considerable volume of wastes thus generated and rejected is called solid wastes. In other words, solid
wastes are the wastes arising from human and animal activities that are normally solid and are discarded as
useless or unwanted. This inevitably places an enormous strain on natural resources and seriously undermines
efficient and sustainable development.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
Classify solid wastes;
Explain the functional elements of SWM
Solid waste disposal acts
1.3 Solid Waste
Solid waste refers to non-soluble material such as agricultural refuse, industrial waste, mining
residues, demolition waste, municipal garbage or even sewage sludge. Most of these kind of wastes cannot be
recycled or rehabilitated for further use.
1.4 Solid Waste Management
Solid waste management is the entire process involved in the recycling process. Solid waste
management starts with the trucks picking up recyclables, delivering them to the recycling.
Solid waste management (SWM) is associated with the control of waste generation, its storage,
collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal in a manner that is in accordance with the best
principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, publically attitude and other
environmental considerations.

Put differently, the SWM processes differ depending on factors such as economic status (e.g., the ratio
of wealth created by the production of primary products to that derived from manufactured goods, per capital
income, etc.), degree of industrialisation, social development (e.g., education, literacy, healthcare,
etc.) and quality of life of a location. In addition, regional, seasonal and economic differences influence the
SWM processes.
1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTES
Solid wastes are the organic and inorganic waste materials such as product packaging, grass clippings,
furniture, clothing, bottles, kitchen refuse, paper, appliances, paint cans, batteries, etc., produced in a society,
which do not generally carry any value to the first user(s). Solid wastes, thus, encompass both a heterogeneous
mass of wastes from the urban community as well as a more homogeneous accumulation of agricultural,
industrial and mineral wastes. While wastes have little or no value in one setting or to the one who wants to
dispose them, the discharged wastes may gain significant value in another setting. Knowledge of the sources
and types of solid wastes as well as the information on composition and the rate at which wastes are generated/
disposed is, therefore, essential for the design and operation of the functional elements associated with the
management of solid wastes.

1.5.1 Source-based classification

(i) Residential: This refers to wastes from dwellings, apartments, etc., and consists of leftover food,
vegetable peels, plastic, clothes, ashes, etc.
 (ii) Commercial: This refers to wastes consisting of leftover food, glasses, metals, ashes, etc., nerated
from stores, restaurants, markets, hotels, motels, auto-repair shops, medical facilities, etc.

(iii) Institutional: This mainly consists of paper, plastic, glasses, etc., generated from educational,
administrative and public buildings such as schools, colleges, offices, prisons, etc.
(iv) Municipal: This includes dust, leafy matter, building debris, treatment plant residual sludge, etc.,
generated from various municipal activities like construction and demolition, street cleaning, landscaping, etc.

(v) Industrial: This mainly consists of process wastes, ashes, demolition and construction wastes,
hazardous wastes, etc., due to industrial activities.
(vi) Agricultural: This mainly consists of spoiled food grains and vegetables, agricultural remains, litter,
etc., generated from fields, orchards, vineyards, farms, etc.
(vii) Open areas: this includes wastes from areas such as Streets, alleys, parks, vacant lots, playgrounds,
beaches, highways, recreational areas, etc.
1.5.2 Type-based classification
Classification of wastes based on types, i.e., physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of wastes, is as
follows.
(i) Garbage: This refers to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from the handling, sale, storage,
preparation, cooking and serving of food. Garbage comprising these wastes contains putrescible (rotting)
organic matter, which produces an obnoxious odour and attracts rats and other vermin. It, therefore,
requires special attention in storage, handling and disposal.
(ii) Ashes and residues: These are substances remaining from the burning of wood, coal, charcoal,
coke and other combustible materials for cooking and

heating in houses, institutions and small industrial establishments. When produced in large quantities, as in
power-generation plants and factories, these are classified as industrial wastes. Ashes consist of fine
powdery residue, cinders and clinker often mixed with small pieces of metal and glass. Since ashes and
residues are almost entirely inorganic, they are valuable in landfills.

(iii) Combustible and non-combustible wastes: These consist of wastes generated from households,
institutions, commercial activities, etc., excluding food wastes and other highly putrescible material.
Typically, while combustible material consists of paper, cardboard, textile, rubber, garden trimmings, etc.,
non-combustible material consists of such items as glass, crockery, tin and aluminium cans, ferrous and
non-ferrous material and dirt.
(iv) Bulky wastes: These include large household appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines,
furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tyres, wood, trees and branches. Since these household wastes cannot be
accommodated in normal storage containers, they require a special collection mechanism.

(v) Street wastes: These refer to wastes that are collected from streets, walkways, alleys, parks and
vacant plots, and include paper, cardboard, plastics, dirt, leaves and other vegetable matter. Littering in
public places is indeed a widespread and acute problem in many countries including India, and a solid
waste management system must address this menace appropriately.
(vi) Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes: Biodegradable wastes mainly refer to
substances consisting of organic matter such as leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper, textile,
wood, etc., generated from various household and industrial activities. Because of the action of micro-
organisms, these wastes are degraded from complex to simpler compounds. Non-biodegradable wastes
consist of inorganic and recyclable materials such as plastic, glass, cans, metals, etc.
(vii) Dead animals: With regard to municipal wastes, dead animals are those that die naturally or are
accidentally killed on the road. Note that this category does not include carcasses and animal parts from
slaughter-houses, which are regarded as industrial wastes. Dead animals are divided into two groups – large
and small. Among the large animals are horses, cows, goats, sheep, pigs, etc., and among the small ones are
dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, etc. The reason for this differentiation is that large animals require special
equipment for lifting and handling when they are removed. If not collected promptly, dead animals pose a
threat to public health since they attract flies and other vermin as they decay. Their presence in public places
is particularly offensive from the aesthetic point of view as well.
(viii) Abandoned vehicles: This category includes automobiles, trucks and trailers that are abandoned
on streets and other public places. However, abandoned vehicles have significant scrap value for their metal,
and their value to collectors is highly variable.
(ix) Construction and demolition wastes: These are wastes generated as a result of construction,
refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses, commercial buildings and other structures. They consist
mainly of earth, stones, concrete, bricks, lumber, roofing and plumbing materials, heating systems and
electrical wires and parts of the general municipal waste stream.
(x) Farm Wastes: These wastes result from diverse agricultural activities such as planting, harvesting,
production of milk, rearing of animals for slaughter and the operation of feedlots. In many areas, the disposal
of animal waste has become a critical problem, especially from feedlots, poultry farms and dairies.
(xi) Hazardous wastes: Hazardous wastes are those defined as wastes of industrial, institutional or
consumer origin that are potentially dangerous either immediately or over a period of time to human beings
and the environment. This is due to their physical, chemical and biological or radioactive characteristics like
ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity. Note that in some cases, the active agents may be liquid or
gaseous hazardous wastes. These are, nevertheless, classified as solid wastes as they are confined in solid
containers. Typical examples of hazardous wastes are empty containers of solvents, paints and pesticides,
which are frequently mixed with municipal wastes and become part of the urban waste stream. Certain
hazardous wastes may cause explosions in incinerators and fires at landfill sites. Others such as pathological
wastes from hospitals and radioactive wastes also require special handling. Effective management
practices should ensure that hazardous wastes are stored, collected, transported and disposed of separately,
preferably after suitable treatment to render them harmless.
(xii) Sewage wastes: The solid by-products of sewage treatment are classified as sewage wastes.
They are mostly organic and derived from the treatment of organic sludge separated from both raw and
treated sewages. The inorganic fraction of raw sewage such as grit and eggshells is separated at the
preliminary stage of treatment, as it may entrain putrescible organic matter with pathogens and must be
buried without delay. The bulk of treated, dewatered sludge is useful as a soil conditioner but is invariably
uneconomical. Solid sludge, therefore, enters the stream of municipal wastes, unless special arrangements
are made for its disposal.

1.6 SWM system

A SWM system refers to a combination of various functional elements associated with the
management of solid wastes. The system, when put in place, facilitates the collection and disposal of solid
wastes in the community at minimal costs, while preserving public health and ensuring little or minimal
adverse impact on the environment. The functional elements that constitute the system are:
(i) Waste generation: Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at every
stage as raw materials are converted into goods for consumption. For example, wastes are generated from
households, commercial areas, industries, institutions, street cleaning and other municipal services. The
most important aspect of this part of the SWM system is the identification of waste.
(ii) Waste storage: Storage is a key functional element because collection of wastes never takes
place at the source or at the time of their generation. The heterogeneous wastes generated in residential
areas must be removed within 8 days due to shortage of storage space and presence of biodegradable
material. Onsite storage is of primary importance due to aesthetic consideration, public health and
economics involved. Some of the options for storage are plastic containers, conventional dustbins (of
households), used oil drums, large storage bins (for institutions and commercial areas or servicing depots),
etc.
(iii) Waste collection: This includes gathering of wastes and hauling them to the location, where
the collection vehicle is emptied, which may be a transfer station (i.e., intermediate station where wastes
from smaller vehicles are transferred to larger ones and also segregated), a processing plant or a disposal
site. Collection depends on the number of containers, frequency of collection, types of collection services
and routes. Typically, collection is provided under various management arrangements, ranging from
municipal services to franchised services, and under various forms of contracts.
(iv) Transfer and transport: This functional element involves: The transfer of wastes from smaller
collection vehicles, where necessary to overcome the problem of narrow access lanes, to larger ones at
transfer stations.The subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to disposal sites. The
factors that contribute to the designing of a transfer station include the type of transfer operation, capacity,
equipment, accessories and environmental requirements.
(v) Processing: Processing is required to alter the physical and chemical characteristics of
wastes for energy and resource recovery and recycling. The important processing techniques include
compaction, thermal volume reduction, manual separation of waste components, incineration and
composting.
(vi) Recovery and recycling: This includes various techniques, equipment and facilities used to
improve both the efficiency of disposal system and recovery of usable material and energy. Recovery
involves the separation of valuable resources from the mixed solid wastes, delivered at transfer stations or
processing plants. It also involves size reduction and density separation by air classifier, magnetic device
for iron and screens for glass. The selection of any recovery process is a function of economics, i.e., costs
of separation versus the recovered-material products. Certain recovered materials like glass, plastics,
paper, etc., can be recycled as they have economic value.
(vii) Waste disposal: Disposal is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, be they residential wastes,
semi-solid wastes from municipal and industrial treatment plants, incinerator residues, composts or other
substances that have no further use to the society. Thus, land use planning becomes a primary determinant
in the selection, design and operation of landfill operations. A modern sanitary landfill is a method of
disposing solid waste without creating a nuisance and hazard to public health. Generally, engineering
principles are followed to confine the wastes to the smallest possible area, reduce them to the lowest
particle volume by compaction at the site and cover them after each day’s operation to reduce exposure to
vermin. One of the most important functional elements of SWM, therefore, relates to the final use of the
reclaimed land.

Typical SWM System: Functional Elements

 1.7 Factors affecting SWM system

(i) Quantities and characteristics of wastes: The quantities of wastes generated generally depend
on the income level of a family, as higher income category tends to generate larger quantity of wastes,
compared to low-income category. The quantity ranges from about 0.25 to about 2.3 kg per person per
day, indicating a strong correlation between waste production and per capita income. One of the measures
of waste composition (and characteristics) is density, which ranges from 150 kg/m3 to 600 kg/m3.
Proportion of paper and packaging materials in the waste largely account for the differences. When this
proportion is high, the density is low and vice versa. The wastes of high density reflect a relatively high
proportion of organic matter and moisture and lower levels of recycling.

(ii) Climate and seasonal variations: There are regions in extreme north (> 70 N Latitude) and
south (> 60 S Latitude), where temperatures are very low for much of the year. In cold climates, drifting
snow and frozen ground interfere with landfill operations, and therefore, trenches must be dug in summer
and cover material stockpiled for winter use. Tropical climates, on the other hand, are subject to sharp
seasonal variations from wet to dry season, which cause significant changes in the moisture content of
solid waste, varying from less than 50% in dry season to greater than 65% in wet months. Collection and
disposal of wastes in the wet months are often problematic.

High temperatures and humidity cause solid wastes to decompose far more rapidly than they
do in colder climates. The frequency of waste collection in high temperature and humid climates should,
therefore, be higher than that in cold climates. In sub-tropical or desert climate, there is no significant
variation in moisture content of wastes (due to low rainfall) and low production of leachate from sanitary
landfill. High winds and wind blown sand and dust, however, cause special problems at landfill sites.
While temperature inversions can cause airborne pollutants to be trapped near ground level, landfill sites
can affect groundwater by altering the thermal properties of the soil.
(iii) Physical characteristics of an urban area: In urban areas (i.e., towns and cities), where the
layout of streets and houses is such that accessby vehicles is possible and door-to-door collection of solid
wastes is the accepted norm either by large compaction vehicle or smaller vehicle. The picture is,
however, quite different in the inner and older city areas where narrow lanes make service by vehicles
difficult and often impossible. Added to this is the problem of urban sprawl in the outskirts (of the cities)
where population is growing at an alarming rate. Access ways are narrow, unpaved and tortuous, and
therefore, not accessible to collection vehicles. Problems of solid waste storage and collection are most
acute in such areas.
(iv) Financial and foreign exchange constraints: Solid waste management accounts for sizeable
proportions of the budgets of municipal corporations. This is allocated for capital resources, which go
towards the purchase of equipments, vehicles, and fuel and labour costs. Typically, 10% to 40% of the
revenues of municipalities are allocated to solid waste management. In regions where wage rates are low,
the aim is to optimise vehicle productivity. The unfavourable financial situation of some countries hinders
purchase of equipment and vehicles, and this situation is further worsened by the acute shortage of foreign
exchange. This means that the balance between the degree of mechanisation and the size of the labour
force becomes a critical issue in arriving at the most cost-effective solution.
(v) Cultural constraints: In some regions, long-standing traditions preclude the intrusion of
waste collection on the precincts of households, and therefore, influence the collection system. In others,
where the tradition of caste persists, recruits to the labour force for street cleaning and handling of waste
must be drawn from certain sections of the population, while others will not consent to placing storage
bins in their immediate vicinity. Social norms of a community more often than not over-ride what many
may consider rational solutions. Waste management should, therefore, be sensitive to such local patterns
of living and consider these factors in planning, design and operation.
(vi) Management and technical resources: Solid waste management, to be successful, requires
a wide spectrum of workforce in keeping with the demands of the system.
1.8 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Density:
It is expressed as mass per unit volume (kg/m³). This parameter is
required for designing a solid waste management program. A reduction in
volume by 75% is achieved through normal compaction equipment, so
that an initial density of
100kg/m³ may readily be increased to 400 kg/m³. Significant changes in the
density occur as waste moves from sources to disposal site, as a
result of scavenging, handling, wetting, and drying by the weather
and vibration during transport. Density is critical in the design of
sanitary landfill as well as for storage, collection and transport of
wastes. Efficient operation of landfill requires compaction of wastes to
optimum density.
Moisture Content
Values greater than 40% are also not common. Moisture
increases the weight of the solid wastes and therefore the cost of
collection and transport increases. Consequently waste should be
insulated from rain or other extraneous water source. Moisture content
is critical determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by
incineration. During incineration energy must be supplied for
evaporation of water and raising the temperature of vapour.

1.5 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Information of chemical characteristics is important in evaluating
alternative processing and recovery options. Typically waste is
considered as combination of combustible and noncombustible
components. If solid waste is to be used as a fuel or for any other use
we should know its chemical components.
Lipids
These are included in the class of fats, oils and grease. The
principal sources of lipids in the garbage are cooking oil and fats. Lipids
have high heating values about 38,000 Kj/Kg (kilojoules/kilograms),
which makes the waste with high lipid content suitable for energy
recovery. Since lipids become liquids at temperature slightly above
ambient they add to the liquid content during waste decomposition. They
are biodegradable, but they have low solubility in water and hence the
rate of biodegradation is slow.
Carbohydrates
These are primarily originated from the food sources rich in
starch and celluloses. These readily biodegrade into carbon dioxide, water
and methane. Decomposition of carbohydrates attracts the flies and
rats and hence should not be left exposed for long duration
Proteins
These are the compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen
and organic acid with amino groups. They are primarily found in food and garden
wastes, but their partial decomposition result in the production of amines, which
impart unpleasant odors.

Natural Fibers
These are the natural products contain cellulose and lignins
that are relatively resistant to biodegradation. These are found in paper
products, food and yard wastes. Paper is almost
100% cellulose, cotton over 95% and wood products over 40-50%. These
are highly combustible products most suitable for incineration. The
calorific value of oven dried paper products are in the range 12000-18000
kj/kg.
Synthetic Organic Materials
In the recent years plastics have become a significant
components of solid waste, accounting for 1-10%. They are highly resistant
to the biodegradation; hence their presence in the waste is objectionable.
Currently much attention is given to reduce this component at disposal
sites. Plastics have a high heating value, about
32000 kj/kg, which makes them very suitable for incineration. However,
among the plastics Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) when burnt produces dioxin
and acid gas. The trace gases produced during the burning of plastic are
proved to be carcinogenic.
 2. ONSITE STORAGE & PROCESSING

2.1 Hauled and Stationary containers

The design of an efficient waste collection system requires careful consideration of the
type, size and location of containers at the point of generation for storage of wastes until they
are collected. While single-family households generally use small containers, residential
units, commercial units, institutions and industries require large containers. Smaller
containers are usually handled manually whereas the larger, heavier ones require mechanical
handling. The containers may fall under either of the following two categories:
(i) Stationary containers: These are used for contents to be transferred to collection
vehicles at the site of storage.
(ii) Hauled containers: These are used for contents to be directly transferred to a processing
plant, transfer station or disposal site for emptying before being returned to the storage
site.
The desirable characteristics of a well-designed container are low cost, size, weight, shape,
resistance to corrosion, water tightness, strength and durability (Phelps, et al., 1995). For
example, a container for manual handling by one person should not weigh more than 20 kg,
lest it may lead to occupational health hazards such as muscular strain, etc. Containers that
weigh more than 20 kg, when full, require two or more crew members to manually load
and unload the wastes, and which result in low collection efficiency.
Containers should not have rough or sharp edges, and preferably have a handle and a
wheel to facilitate mobility. They should be covered to prevent rainwater from entering
(which increases the weight and rate of decomposition of organic materials) into the solid
wastes. The container body must be strong enough to resist and discourage stray animals
and scavengers from ripping it as well as withstand rough handling by the collection
crew and mechanical loading equipment.
Containers should be provided with a lifting bar, compatible with the hoisting
mechanism of the vehicle. The material used should be light, recyclable, easily moulded and
the surface must be smooth and resistant to corrosion. On the one hand, steel and ferrous
containers are heavy and subject to corrosion; the rust peels off exposing sharp edges,
which could be hazardous to the collection crew. On the other, wooden containers
(e.g., bamboo, rattan and wooden baskets) readily absorb and retain moisture and their
surfaces are generally rough, irregular and difficult to clean.
2.2 Waste processing technique
The processing of wastes helps in achieving the best possible benefit from every functional
element of the solid waste management (SWM) system and, therefore, requires proper
selection of techniques and equipment for every element. Accordingly, the wastes that are
considered suitable for further use need to be paid special attention in terms of processing, in
order that we could derive maximum economical value from them.
(i) Improving efficiency of SWM system: Various processing techniques are available to
improve the efficiency of SWM system. For example, before waste papers are reused, they are
usually baled to reduce transporting and storage volume requirements. In some cases, wastes
are baled to reduce the haul costs at disposal site, where solid wastes are compacted to use the
available land effectively. If solid wastes are to be transported hydraulically and
pneumatically, some form of shredding is also required. Shredding is also used to improve the
efficiency of the disposal site.
(ii) Recovering material for reuse: Usually, materials having a market, when present in
wastes in sufficient quantity to justify their separation are most amenable to recovery and
recycling. Materials that can be recovered from solid wastes include paper, cardboard,
plastic, glass, ferrous metal, aluminium and other residual metals.
(iii) Recovering conversion products and energy: Combustible organic materials can be
converted to intermediate products and ultimately to usable energy. This can be done either
through incineration, pyrolysis, composting or bio-digestion. Initially, the combustible organic
matter is separated from the other solid waste components. Once separated, further processing
like shredding and drying is necessary before the waste material can be used for power
generation.
2.3 Waste evaluation options in India
The problem of municipal solid waste management has acquired alarming dimensions in
India especially over the last decade, before which waste management was hardly considered
an issue of concern as the waste could be easily disposed of in an environmentally safe manner.
The physical and chemical characteristics of Indian city refuse, nonetheless, show that
about 80% of it is compostable and ideal for biogas generation due to adequate nutrients
(NPK), moisture content of 50-55% and a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 25-40:1. Therefore, the
development of appropriate technologies for utilisation of wastes is essential to minimise
adverse health and environmental consequences.
Against this backdrop, let us discuss below the quantum of wastes generated in India, their
composition, disposal methods, recycling aspects, and health and environment impacts:
(i) Waste quantum: The per capita waste generation rate is about 500 g/day. This along
with increased population has contributed to higher total waste generation quantum.
(ii) Waste composition: Studies reveal that the percentage of the organic matter has
remained almost static at 41% in the past 3 decades, but the recyclables have
increased from 9.56% to 17.18%.
Garbage in Indian cities is estimated to contain about 45-75% biodegradable waste (as
against 25% of US city-garbage) with 50-55% moisture; 35-45% being fruits, vegetable and
food biomass; and 8-15% non organic materials like plastic, metal, glass, stones, etc. Refuse
from Indian cities also contains high organic and low combustible matter, if the studies carried
out in six cities are of any indication.
(iii) Waste disposal methods: Waste disposal is the final stage of the waste management
cycle. About 90% of the municipal waste collected by the civic authorities in India is dumped in
low-lying areas outside the city/town limits, which have no provision of leachate collection and
treatment, and landfill gas collection and use.
(iv) Recycling: This involves collection of recyclables from various sources, which ultimately
reach recycling units. It is estimated that about 40-80% of plastic waste gets recycled in India,
as compared to 10-15% in the developed nations of the world. However, due to lack of suitable
government policies, incentives, subsidies, regulations, standards, etc., related to recycling, this
industry is still far behind its western counterparts in terms of technology and quality of
manufactured goods. Nevertheless, recycling in India is a highly organised and profit-making
venture, though informal in nature.
(v) Health impacts: Due to the absence of standards and norms for handling municipal
wastes, municipal workers suffer occupational health hazards of waste handling. At the
dumpsites in the city of Mumbai, for example, 95 workers were examined and it was found that
about 80% of them had eye problems, 73% respiratory ailments, 51% gastro intestinal ailments
and 27% skin lesions. Also, municipal workers and rag pickers who operate informally for long
hours rummaging through waste also suffer from similar occupational health diseases ranging
from respiratory illnesses (from ingesting particulates and bio-aerosols), infections (direct
contact with contaminated material), puncture wounds (leading to tetanus, hepatitis and HIV
infection) to headaches and nausea, etc. Studies among the 180 rag pickers at open dumps of
Kolkata city reveal that average quarterly incidence of diarrhoea was 85%, fever 72% and
cough and cold 63%.
(vi) Environmental impacts: In addition to occupational health, injury issues and
environmental health also need to be mentioned in the context of waste management.
Contaminated leachate and surface run-off from land disposal facilities affects ground and
surface water quality. Volatile organic compounds and dioxins in air-emissions are attributed to
increasing cancer incidence and psychological stress for those living near incinerators or land
disposal facilities. Drain clogging due to uncollected wastes leading to stagnant waters and
 subsequent mosquito vector breeding is a few of the environmental health issues, which affect
the waste workers as well as the public.
2.4 Vehicle storage method
2.4.1 Collection vehicles
Almost all collections are based on collector and collection crew, which move through
the collection service area with a vehicle for collecting the waste material. The collection
vehicle selected must be appropriate to the terrain, type and density of waste generation points,
the way it travels and type and kind of material (UNEP, 1996). It also depends upon strength,
stature and capability of the crew that will work with it.
collection vehicle may be small and simple (e.g., two-wheeled cart pulled by an
individual) or large, complex and energy intensive (e.g., rear loading compactor truck).
The most commonly used collection vehicle is the dump truck fitted with a hydraulic lifting
mechanism. A description of some vehicle types follows:
(i) Small-scale collection and muscle -powered vehicles: These are common vehicles
used for waste collection in many countries and are generally used in rural hilly areas. As
Figure 3.3 illustrates, these can be small rickshaws, carts or wagons pulled by people or
animals, and are less expensive, easier to build and maintain compared to other vehicles:

Small-scale Collection Vehicles: An Illustration

They are suitable for densely populated areas with narrow lanes, and squatter settlements, where
there is relatively low volume of waste generated. Some drawbacks of these collection vehicles
include limited travel range of the vehicles and weather exposure that affect humans and animals.
(ii) Non-compactor trucks: Non-compactor trucks are efficient and cost effective in
small cities and in areas where wastes tend to be very dense and have little potential for
compaction.

Non-compactor Trucks

When these trucks are used for waste collection, they need a dumping system to easily discharge
the waste. It is generally required to cover the trucks in order to prevent residue flying off or
3
rain soaking the wastes. Trucks with capacities of 10 – 12 m are effective, if the distance

between the disposal site and the collection area is less than 15 km. If the distance is longer, a
potential transfer station closer than 10 km from the collection area is required. Non-compact
trucks are generally used, when labour cost is high. Controlling and operating cost is a deciding
factor, when collection routes are long and relatively sparsely populated.
2.4.2 Compactor truck:
3
Compaction vehicles are more common these days, generally having capacities of 12 – 15 m
due to limitations imposed by narrow roads. Although the capacity of a compaction vehicle,
illustrated in Figure 3.4, is similar to that of a dump truck, the weight of solid wastes collected
per trip is 2 to 2.5 times larger since the wastes are hydraulically compacted:
 Figure 3.5
Compactor Truck

The success of waste management depends on the level of segregation at source.

A compactor truck allows waste containers to be emptied into the vehicle from the rear, front or
sides and inhibits vectors (of disease) from reaching the waste during collection and transport. It
works poorly when waste stream is very dense, wet, collected materials are gritty or abrasive, or
when the roads are dusty. The advantages of the compactor collection vehicle include the
following:

 Containers are uniform, large, covered and relatively visually inoffensive;


 Waste is set out in containers so that the crew can pick them up quick ly;

  Health risk to the collectors and odour on the streets are minimized, waste is

relatively inaccessible to the waste pickers.

2.5 Factors affects the waste collection

(i) Finalising and implementing the system management plan:

For proper implementation of collection and transfer system, it is necessary to have
clear organisational structures and management plans. The organisational structure should be
simple, with a minimum of administrative and management layers between collection
crews and top management. All workers in the department should clearly understand the
department’s mission and their roles. Through training, incentives and reinforcement by
management, workers should be encouraged to be customer-oriented and team contributors.
Feedback mechanisms must be introduced to help the crew review their performance and help
managers monitoring the performance of crews, equipment, etc. It is also important to
periodically review the management plans and structures, as implementation of
collection services continues.

(ii) Purchasing and managing equipment: For purchasing equipment, most municipalities
issue bid specifications. Detailed specifications include exact requirements for equipment sizes
and capacities, power ratings, etc. Performance specifications often request that equipment be
equivalent to certain available models and meet standards for capacity, speed, etc.
Municipalities may either perform equipment maintenance themselves; contract with a local
garage, or in some cases, contract with the vehicle vendor at the time of purchase. As part of the
preventive maintenance programme, the collection crew should check the vehicle chassis, tyres
and body daily and rep ort any problems to maintenance managers. In addition, each
vehicle should have an individual maintenance record that includes the following items:
 Preventive maintenance schedule;

 Current list of specific engine;

 A description of repairs and a list containing information on the repair date,
mechanic, cost, type an d manufacturer of repair parts
 The length of time the truck was out of service, for each maintenance event.

(iii) Hiring and training personnel: As in all organisations, good personnel management is
essential to an efficient, high-quality waste collection system. Authorities responsible for SWM
should, therefore, strive to hire and keep well-qualified personnel. The recruitment programme
should assess applicants’ abilities to perform the types of physical labour required for the
collection, equipment and methods used. To retain employees, management should provide a
safe working environment that emphasises career advancement, participatory problem
solving and worker incentives. Worker incentives should be developed to recognise
and reward outstanding performance by employees. Ways to accomplish motivation include
merit-based compensation, awards programme and a work structure. Feedback on
employee performance should be regular and frequent.
Safety is especially important because waste collection employees
encounter many hazards during each workday. As a result of poor safety records, insurance
costs for many collection services are high. To minimise injuries, haulers should have an
ongoing safety programme. This programme should outline safety procedures and ensure that
all personnel are properly trained on safety issues. Haulers should develop an employee-training
programme that helps employees improve and broaden the range of their job-related skills.
Education should address such subjects as driving skills, first aid, safe lifting methods,
identification of household hazardous wastes, avoidance of substance abuse and stress
management.
(iv) Providing public information: Maintaining good communication with the public is
important to a well-run collection system. Residents can greatly influence the performance
of the collection system by co-operating in separation requirements, and by keeping
undesirable materials from entering the collected waste stream. Commonly used
methods of communicating information include brochures, articles in community
newsletters, newspaper articles, announcements, and advertisements on radio and television,
information attachments to utility bills (either printed or given separately) and school
handouts. Communication materials should be used to help residents understand the
community waste management challenges and the progress in meeting them. Residents
should also be kept informed about issues such as the availability and costs of landfill capacity
so that they develop an understanding of the issues and a desire to help meet their waste
management needs.

(v) Monitoring system cost and performance: Collection and transfer facilities
should develop and maintain an effective system for cost and performance reporting. Each
collection crew should complete a daily report containing the following information:

 Total quantity hauled.


 Total distance and travel times to and from the disposal site.

 Amounts delivered to ea ch disposal, transfer, or processing facility. Waiting time
at sites.

 Number of loads hauled.

 Vehicle or operational problems needing attention.

Collected data should be used to forecast workloads, truck costs, identify changes in the
generation of wastes and recyclables; trace the origin of problematic was materials and
evaluates crew performance. Just as the goals of a collection programme set its overall
directions, a monitoring system provides the short-term feedback necessary to identify the
corrections needed to achieve those goals.
 3. COLLECTION AND TRANSFER

3.1 COLLECTION COMPONENTS

(i) Collection points: These affect such collection system components as crew size and storage,
which ultimately control the cost of collection. Note that the collection points depend on locality and
may be residential, commercial or industrial.

(ii) Collection frequency: Climatic conditions and requirements of a locality as well as containers and
costs determine the collection frequency. In hot and humid climates, for example, solid wastes must be
collected at least twice a week, as the decomposing solid wastes produce bad odour and leachate. And,
as residential wastes usually contain food wastes and other putrescible (rotting) material, frequent
collection is desirable for health and aesthetic reasons. Besides climates, the quality of solid waste
containers on site also determines the collection frequency. For instance, while sealed or closed
containers allow collection frequency up to three days, open and unsealed containers may require daily
collection. Collection efficiency largely depends on the demography of the area (such as income groups,
community, etc.), where collection takes place. Cost, e.g., optimal collection frequency reduces the cost
as it involves fewer trucks, employees and reduction in total route distance; storage space, e.g., less
frequent collection may require more storage space in the locality; sanitation, e.g., frequent collection
reduces concerns about health, safety and nuisance associated with stored refuse.

(iii) Storage containers: Proper container selection can save collection energy, increase the speed of
collection and reduce crew size. Most importantly, containers should be functional for the amount
and type of materials and collection vehicles used. Containers should also be durable, easy to
handle, and economical, as well as resistant to corrosion, weather and animals. In residential
areas, where refuse is collected manually, standardised metal or plastic containers are typically
required for waste storage. When mechanised collection systems are used, containers are
specifically designed to fit the truck-mounted loading mechanisms efficiency, i.e., the
containers should help maximise the overall collection efficiency.
Convenience, i.e., the containers must be easily manageable both for residents and
collection crew.
Compatibility, i.e., the containers must be compatible with collection equipment.
Public health and safety, i.e., the containers should be securely covered and stored.

Ownership, i.e., the municipal ownership must guarantee compatibility with collection
equipment.
(iv) Collection crew (see also Subsection 3.3.1): The optimum crew size for a community depends on
labour and equipment costs, collection methods and route characteristics. The size of the collection
crew also depends on the size and type of collection vehicle used, space between the houses, waste
generation rate and collection frequency. For example, increase in waste generation rate and
 quantity of wastes collected per stop due to less frequent collection result in a bigger crew size.
Note also that the collection vehicle could be a motorised vehicle, a pushcart or a trailer towed by a
suitable prime mover (tractor, etc.). It is possible to adjust the ratio of collectors to collection
vehicles such that the crew idle time is minimised. However, it is not easy to implement this
measure, as it may result in an overlap in the crew collection and truck idle time. An effective
collection crew size and proper workforce management can influence the productivity of the
collection system. The crew size, in essence, can have a great effect on overall collection costs.
However, with increase in collection costs, the trend in recent years is towards:
 Decrease in the frequency of collection;
  Increase in the dependence on residents to sort waste materials;
  This trend has, in fact, contributed to smaller crews in municipalities.
(v) Collection route: The collection programme must consider the route that is efficient for
collection. An efficient routing of collection vehicles helps decrease costs by reducing the labour
expended for collection. Proper planning of collection route also helps conserve energy and
minimise working hours and vehicle fuel consumption. It is necessary therefore to develop
detailed route configurations and collection schedules for the selected collection system. The size
of each route, however, depends on the amount of waste collected per stop, distance between
stops, loading time and traffic conditions. Barriers, such as railroad, embankments, rivers
and roads with heavy traffic, can be considered to divide route territories. Routing
(network) analyses and planning can:
increase the likelihood of all streets being serviced equally and consistently;
help supervisors locate or track crews quickly;
provide optimal routes that can be tested against driver judgement and experience.
(vi) Transfer station: A transfer station is an intermediate station between final disposal option and
collection point in order to increase the efficiency of the system, as collection vehicles and crew
remain closer to routes. If the disposal site is far from the collection area, it is justifiable to have a
transfer station, where smaller collection vehicles transfer their loads to larger vehicles, which then
haul the waste long distances. In some instances, the transfer station serves as a pre- processing
point, where wastes are dewatered, scooped or compressed. A centralised sorting and recovery of
recyclable materials are also carried out at transfer stations (EPA, 1989). The unit cost of hauling
solid wastes from a collection area to a transfer station and then to a disposal site decreases, as the
size of the collection vehicles increases.

3.2 STORAGE: CONTAINERS/COLLECTION VEHICLES

3.2.1 Containers/storage bins

The design of an efficient waste collection system requires careful consideration of the type, size
and location of containers at the point of generation for storage of wastes until they are collected. While
single-family households generally use small containers, residential units, commercial units, institution
and industries require large containers. Smaller containers are usually handled manually whereas the
 larger, heavier ones require mechanical handling. The containers may fall under either of the following
two categories:
(i) Stationary containers: These are used for contents to be transferred to collection vehicles at the site of
storage.
(ii) Hauled containers: These are used for contents to be directly transferred to a processing plant,
transfer station or disposal site for emptying before being returned to the storage site.
The desirable characteristics of a well-designed container are low cost, size, weight, shape,
resistance to corrosion, water tightness, strength and durability (Phelps, et al., 1995). For example, a
container for manual handling by one person should not weigh more than 20 kg, lest it may lead to
occupational health hazards such as muscular strain, etc. Containers that weigh more than 20 kg, when
full, require two or more crew members to manually load and unload the wastes, and which result in low
collection efficiency.
Containers should not have rough or sharp edges, and preferably have a handle and a wheel to facilitate
mobility. They should be covered to prevent rainwater from entering (which increases the eight and rate
of decomposition of organic materials) into the solid wastes. The container body must be strong enough
to resist and discourage stray animals and scavengers from ripping it as well as withstand rough handling
by the collection crew and mechanical loading equipment. Containers should be provided with a lifting
bar, compatible with the hoisting mechanism of the vehicle. The material used should be light, recyclable,
easily moulded and the surface must be smooth and resistant to corrosion. On the one hand, steel and
ferrous containers are heavy and subject to corrosion; the rust peels off exposing sharp edges, which
could be hazardous to the collection crew.
 Communal containers

TYPICAL COMMUNAL CONTAINER

The use of communal containers is largely dependent on local culture, tradition and attitudes
towards waste. Communal containers may be fixed on the ground (stationary) or movable (hauled).
Movable containers are provided with hoists and tails compatible with lifting mechanism of collection
3
vehicles and such containers have capacities of 1 – 4 m . The waste management authority must

monitor, maintain and upgrade the communal containers. Note that in residential and commercial
areas in India, the communal containers are often made of concrete.
In areas with very high waste generation rates, i.e., rates exceeding two truckloads daily,
such as wet markets, large commercial centres and large business establishments, roll-on-roll or
3
hoisted communal containers with capacities of 12 – 20 m and a strong superstructure with
wheels are used.

Normally, the collection vehicle keeps an empty container as a replacement before it hauls
the filled container. When a truck is used as a collection vehicle, the use of communal containers may be
appropriate.
This means that the farthest distance the householder will have to walk is 50 meters. However, in
narrow streets with low traffic, where the house owner can readily cross the street, a longer distance is
advisable. If the collection vehic le has to stop frequently, say, at every 50 m or so, fuel consumption
increases, and this must be avoided.
Disadvantages
The major disadvantage of communal containers is the potential lack of maintenance and upgrading. The
residuals and scattered solid wastes emit foul odours, which discourage residents from using the containers
properly. In addition, if fixed containers are built below the vehicle level, the collection crew may be held
responsible for sweeping and loading the solid wastes into transfer containers before being loaded into the
collection vehicle. Sweeping and cleaning the communal containers of residuals obviously impinge on the
time of the crew members and take a longer time than if the wastes are placed in smaller containers. As
fixed communal containers have higher rates of failure, their use is not advisable.
To overcome the problem of maintaining communal containers, individual residents should maintain
their own containers and locate them in designated areas. The communal area must have water and drains
to facilitate the cleaning of the containers. This practice has the advantage of reducing the number of
collection stops and at the same time maintaining the householder’s
responsibility for cleaning them. The residents must also be properly educated on the importance of good
housekeeping as the containers in the communal area are subject to vandalism. In the main, if communal
containers are to be successful, the design of the containers, loading and unloading areas, and collection
vehicle accessories should be co-ordinated.
3.3 COLLECTION OPERATION

3.3.1Movement of collection crew

In cultures such as India, Bangladesh, etc., solid waste collection is assigned to the lowest social
group. More often, the collection crew member accepts the job as a temporary position or stopgap
arrangement, while looking for other jobs that are considered more respectable.

Apart from this cultural problem, the attitude of some SWM authorities affects collection
operation. For example, some authorities still think that the collection of solid waste is mechanical, and
therefore, the collection crew does not need any training to acquire special skills. As a result, when a
new waste collector starts working, he or she is sent to the field without firm instruction concerning his
or her duties, responsibilities and required skills. For an effective collection operation, the collection
team must properly be trained. The collection crew and the driver of the collection vehicle must, for
example, work as a team, and this is important to maintain the team morale and a sense of social
responsibility among these workers.
The difference may be one or two minutes per collection stop, but it matters with the number of
stops the crew will take in a working shift. Multiplying the minutes by the total number of crew
working and labour cost depicts the amount of labour hours lost in terms of monetary value.
Generally, familiarity of the crew with the collection area improves efficiency. For example, the
driver becomes familiar with the traffic jams, potholes and other obstructions that he or she must avoid.
The crew is aware of the location of the containers and the vehicle stops. It is, therefore, important to
assign each crew specific areas of responsibility. Working together also establishes an understanding of
the strong and weak points of the team members and efficient work sequences. The collection
operation must also observe a strict time schedule. Testing of new routes, new gadgets and vehicles is
best carried out first in the laboratory and later in a pilot area. Testing of a new sequence using the
whole service area could result in disorder and breakdown of the solid waste collection system. Studies
show that it takes two hours to recover for every hour of a failed system.
3.3.2 Collection vehicle routing

Efficient routing and re-routing of solid waste collection vehicles can help decrease costs by
reducing the labour expended for collection. Routing procedures usually consist of the following two
separate components:
(i) Macro-routing: Macro-routing, also referred to as route-balancing, consists of dividing the
total collection area into routes, sized in such a way as to represent a day’s collection for each
crew. The size of each route depends on the amount of waste collected per stop, distance
between stops, loading time and traffic conditions. Barriers, such as railroad embankments,
rivers and roads with heavy competing traffic, can be used to divide route territories. As much as
possible, the size and shape of route areas should be balanced within the limits imposed by such
barriers.
(ii) Micro-routing: Using the results of the macro-routing analysis, micro- routing can define the
specific path that each crew and collection vehicle will take each collection day. Results of
micro-routing analyses can then be used to readjust macro-routing decisions. Micro-routing
analyses should also include input and review from experienced collection drivers.

Collection Vehicle Route

3.4 TRANSFER STATION

Transfer station

The transfer of waste is frequently accompanied by removal, separation or handling of waste.

In areas, where wastes are not already dense, they may be compacted at a transfer station.
The technical limitations of smaller collection vehicles and the low hauling cost of solid
waste, using larger vehicles, make a transfer station viable. Also, the use of transfer station
proves reasonable, when there is a need for vehicles servicing a collection route to travel shorter
distances, unload and return quickly to their primary task of collecting the waste.
Limitations in hauling solid wastes are the main factors to be considered, while evaluating the
use of transfer stations. These include the additional capital costs of purchasing trailers, building
transfer stations and the extra time, labour and energy required for transferring wastes from
collection truck to transfer trailer.
3.4.1 Types
Depending on the size, transfer stations can be either of the following two types:
(i) Small to medium transfer stations: These are direct-discharge stations
that provide no intermediate waste storage area. The capacities are generally small (less than
100 tonnes/day) and medium (100 to 500 tonnes/day). Depending on weather, site aesthetics and
environmental concerns, transfer operations of this size may be located either indoor or outdoor.
More complex small transfer stations are usually attended during hours of operation and may
include some simple waste and materials processing facilities. For example, it includes a
recyclable material separation and processing centre. The required overall station capacity (i.e., the
number and size of containers) depends on the size and population density of the area served and
the frequency of collection.
(ii) Large transfer stations: These are designed for heavy commercial use by private and
municipal collection vehicles. The typical operational procedure for a larger station is as
follows:
when collection vehicles arrive at the site, they are checked in for billing, weighed and directed
to the appropriate dumping area;
collection vehicles travel to the dumping area and empty the wastes into a waiting trailer, a pit
or a platform;
after unloading, the collection vehicle leaves the site, and there is no need to weigh the
departing vehicle, if its weight (empty) is known;
Transfer vehicles are weighed either during or after loading. If weighed during loading,
trailers can be more consistently loaded to just under maximum legal weights and this
maximises payloads and minimises weight violations.