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BIOLOGY NOTES FOR SENIOR SECONDARY

SCHOOL 0NE DESIGNED FOR REDEEMER’S
INTERNATIONAL SECONDARY SCHOOL.
MARYLAND BY BANKOLE OMORINOLA

TABLE OF CONTENT

 INTRODUCTION
 ACCOUNTS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION.
 HINTS ON MAKING GOOD BIOLOGICAL DRAWING.
 IDENTIFICATION USING SIMPLE KEYS
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE.
 LEVELS OF ORGANISATION IN ORGANISMS.
 COMPLEXITY OF ORGANISATION.
 THE CELL.
 STRUCTURE
 CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS.
 FORMS OF EXISTENCE OF CELLS.
 CELL THEORY
 BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
 TAXONOMY

 DIVERSITY OF LIFE
 THE CELL AND IT’S ENVIRONMENT
 DIFFUSION
 OSMOSIS
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 NUTRITION
 PLANT NUTRITION.
 MINERAL NUTRITION IN PLANTS.
 ANIMAL NUTRITION
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 FOOD TEST
 EFFECT OF AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT.
 PESTS AND DISEASES OF AGRICULTURAL IMPORTANCE.
 FOOD PRODUCTION AND STORAGE
 POLLUTION
 CONSERVATION
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT
 MEASUREMENT OF ECOLOGICAL FACTORS.
 ECOLOGICAL ROLES.
 ECOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
 FOOD WEBS AND CHAINS
 ENERGY FLOW.
 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS.
 ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
 MICROORGANISMS
 VECTORS

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 1. INTRODUCTION
Biology is a branch of science that studies living things. It involves the study of
microscopic and macroscopic organisms. It is simply the study of the living
things and their environment.

It is referred to as a science because it involves inquiries and is governed by

the scientific process.
Usefulness of Science
Science has many good uses. These uses benefit man in the following areas:
1. Medicine: Science helps man greatly in the manufacture of vaccine and
drugs used in the cure of various diseases of man. It also helps man in the
control of environmental pollution
2. Agriculture: Here, Science helps in the development of new breeds of
animals and plants as to have increased food production.
3. Manufacturing Industries: In this area, science helps man to manufacture
many finished products from available raw materials
4. Construction and Engineering: The knowledge of science has helped man to
design and build the following: railways, airports, roads, bridges, ships, sky
scrapers, factories etc. These facilities help to make man comfortable on
earth.
5. Communication: Science has helped man to develop some facilities like
television, telephone, telex, fax machines, mobile television sets etc. These
facilities make communication possible in the world.
6. Transportation: The knowledge of science has helped man to build
transport facilities like cars, buses, trains, aeroplanes, ship rockets etc.
These means of transportation have made movement of goods and people
possible.

7. Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Science has helped

man to develop computers. Computer has helped man to enhance his
activities on earth

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Flowchart of the Scientific Method
Make Observations

Ask questions

Construct hypothesis

Design experiment

Test hypothesis with experiment

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Analyze results of experiment
 Draw conclusions

Hypothesis is
correct Hypothesis is
incorrect

Accept hypothesis

Reject or modify hypothesis

Theory

Law

1.2 Steps of scientific process

1. Make observations.
2. Formulate possible hypothesis
3. Design/ plan an experiment to verify hypothesis.
4. Analyze results and draw conclusions.
5. Accept, reject or modify hypothesis
6. Formulation of theory.
7. Formulation of law.
Note: Hypothesis is a reasonable explanation for a particular observation.
A theory is incorporates a number of verified and accepted hypotheses.
A theory becomes a law after further consistent positive results from
independent experiments.

While testing the hypothesis formulated, the scientist must make sure that the 5
experiment is void without biases, to avoid making false conclusions. This can be
achieved using a controlled experiment.
A controlled experiment is an experiment which is designed to eliminate all biases
so as to avoid making false conclusions. Such experiments have all factors being
constant.
IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY
1. Biology finds application in other important sciences like medicine, dentistry,
veterinary science, agriculture and horticulture, food production industries and
biotechnology {genetic engineering and hydridoma technology}

Some important milestones of biological research include

 Development of vaccines and drugs for preventing and curing diseases
 Production of hybrid crop plants and farm animals.
 Pest control through development of biological pesticides.
 Organ transplant
 In-vitro fertilization (IVF) to help infertile couples.
 The use of naturally occurring bacteria to clean toxic waste and oil spillage.
 Production of single cell protein by micro organism which saves millions
from dying of protein deficiency.
 Using hybridoma technology to produce antibiotics.

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 An Account of a Scientific Investigation
Observation: Dry cowpea seeds do not germinate. They only
germinate when they are planted in the soil and watered.
Hypothesis: Cowpea seeds need water to germinate
Experiment: Label 3 containers A, B, C and place dry cotton
wool in the bottom of each. Place ten dry cowpeas in each
container. Add just enough water to B to soak the cotton wool
and wet the seeds. Add water to C until the seeds are
completely covered with water. Label A dry (control).Set aside
the containers at room temperature for a week.
Results:
A None of the cowpeas germinated
B Eight cowpeas germinated normally and showed healthy
growth
C Five cowpeas just started to germinate, and then stopped.

Analysis: Cowpeas kept under conditions (A) do not germinate,

while most of those kept in most conditions (B) germinated.
However, too much water (c) seems to prevent normal
germination. This may be due to the fact that germinating
cowpeas in C did not get enough air. This is a problem that
needs to be investigated further.
In this experiment the quality of the cowpea could not be
controlled. This may account for the cowpeas that did not
germinate in B

Conclusion: Cowpeas need water to germinate, hence the

hypothesis is verified. However, too much water seems to
prevent normal germination.

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 1.3
2. ACCOUNTS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
It is important for scientists to communicate their ideas and experimental findings
clearly. Hence it is written in a particular pattern.
AIM: This is a statement that communicates the objective of the experiment
based on hypothesis.
APPARATUS AND MATERIALS: A list of things used n the process of the
experiment.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: A detailed description of activities carried out
during the course of experiment.
RESULTS: Data collected or observations made during the course of the
experiments which have to be collected or analyzed.
DIAGRAMS: Graphs or pictorial illustrations of major observations majoring the
course of the experiments.
CONCLUSION: The final statement confirming or rejecting the hypothesis as
stated in the aim of the experiment.
EXPERIMENTAL PRECAUTIONS: These are activities carried out during the
experiment to give accurate results or accident free investigation.

2.1 GRAPHS AND TABLES

Raw data gathered during the course of an experiment are manipulated

and displayed as a graph to allow the experimenter draw conclusions
from the result.

In an experiment, apparatus is used to measure the effect of changing

one factor( variable)on the value of a second factor(variable)
The factor varied by the experimenter is the independent one which can
be regarded as the input which is usually marked on the X axis.The
dependent variable which can be regarded as the outcome is marked on
the Y axis.

Tables:
 The table should have a border and headings with appropriate units
 The independent variable of the raw data should also be in the left
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 hand columns while the manipulated data should be on the right
 The data if in numerical form must be true numbers and in the same
number of decimal place
 No blank cells should appear.

Graphs: These are visual representations of data which often help to make
a relationship more obvious.

 On the graph, the dependent variable is on the Y axis and the

independent on X axis
 The axes must be well labelled with units
 The scales on the axes in equal increments must cover all the plotted
points and make best use of space. At least 3/4 of the grid surface
 Axes should be linear and if possible unbroken. If a break is necessary
to make best use of the scale it must be shown on the particular axis.

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 3. HINTS ON MAKING GOOD BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS
3.1 Good biological diagram are made by following this set of simple instructions.
1. Use a long sharp HB pencil.
2. All guide or labeling lines must be drawn with a ruler, preferably to one side
and parallel to one side and parallel to the top of the paper. [No arrows]
3. No ink should be used on your drawing.
4. All drawings must have tittles- written clearly above or below them.
5. All biological drawings must have magnification at the bottom right hand
corner.
Magnification is calculated as size or length of drawing in centimeters or
millimeters divided by size or length of specimen.
Note: magnification has no unit. It is written to the nearest 2 decimal place.
6. The correct view of the specimen drawn must be indicated.
7. All parts of the drawing should be proportional for best results.
8. No shading of drawing.
9. Dissected surfaces should be indicated on drawing using double lines.
10. Lines must be thin and clearly visible.

3.2 Making Sections

i. Transverse or cross section means cutting through a specimen from east to
west.
ii. Longitudinal section means cutting through a specimen from north to south.
iii. Lateral view is the view from the side.
iv. Dorsal view: is the view from the top.
v. Posterior view: is the view from rear.
vi. Ventral view is the view from beneath.

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3.3 Power of observation
The ability to observe improves the quality of practical skills. The five senses are
used to observe although they can be enhance by instruments such as magnifying
lenses for sight etc.
Exercise
Spot the difference
1.

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 4. IDENTIFICATION USING SIMPLE KEYS.
Different specimens can be collected when out on a field trip. These specimens
can be grouped or classified according to their appearance and structure. Each
description is a clue that helps to identify a particular group of organisms. The set
of clues are known as Keys. The easiest key to use is the dichotomous key
(branching into two). Each time the key branches, you have to choose between
the two statements until you track down the identity of your specimen. Hence, In
biology, a key is a guideline to a name.
For instance, Example 1: The figure below shows seven species of fish that live on
reefs in the Caribbean. Use the key to identify each species. Write the letter of
each species (A to G) in the correct box beside the key. One has been done for
you.

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10
 5. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
MOVEMENT: Living organisms have the ability to move, actively in search of food,
shelter etc as found in animals and passively in response to external stimulus as
seen in plants.

RESPIRATION: This is the process of releasing energy from broken down food
substances in the body cells. There are two types; aerobic respiration and
anaerobic respiration.

SENSITIVITY: In other word known as Irritability. This is the ability to detect and
respond to internal and external stimuli e.g. light, temperature pressure e.t.c

NUTRITION: All living organisms need to feed. As food is needed to build up the
body and generate energy for various metabolic activities. Organisms that can
manufacture their own food exhibit autotrophic nutrition while organisms that
depend on other organisms for food exhibit heterotrophic nutrition. This is simply
the process of taking in food and utilizing it.

EXCRETION: This is the removal of toxic substances produced by the body during
metabolism.

REPRODUCTION: This is the ability to reproduce off springs of the same species
which enhances continuity.

GROWTH: It is an irreversible increase in mass or size which is accompanied with

development.

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EXERCISE
1. Non-living things, such as a truck, have features that seem to be
similar to those of living organisms.
Choose words from the list of characteristics of living things and match
them to the statements about a truck.
Excretion growth movement nutrition respiration
sensitivity
A truck needs to have a supply of diesel put into its fuel tank, similar to
the need for …………………………………… in animals. When this fuel is burnt
exhaust fumes are removed, like the process of…………………………………….
in animals. Energy is released when this fuel is burnt. This matches the
process of……………………………….
In both animals and plants. This energy is used to turn the wheels of the
truck, like the process of…………………………………. in animals.

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6. LEVELS OF ORGANISATION IN ORGANISMS.
All living organisms are made up of cells which show various levels of
organization, the higher the level of organization the more complex the organism.

CELL: Single- celled organisms are made up of a cell which is the basic unit of life,
capable of performing all life’s functions as an individual cell. Cells are made up of
organelles which include the nucleus, cytoplasm e.t.c.

TISSUE: These are groups of cells similar in structure performing a specialized

function. Some multicellular organisms exist at the level of organization.

ORGAN: This is a collection of tissue performing a particular function.

SYSTEM OR ORGAN SYSTEM: This is a group of organs working together in a

coordinated manner to achieve a common purpose.

ORGANISM: A group of systems functioning together at the multicellular level.

Red blood cells blood heart circulatory system man

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 7. COMPLEXITY IN ORGANISMS.
Multicellular organisms have the most complex body organization. This is not to
say that being unicellular and having simple body organization does not have its
advantages.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPLEXITY
1. It gives the organism to perform complicated physiological activities e. g faster
movement
2. It enhances efficiency and therefore adaptability to the environment.
3. It gives the organism the ability to capture smaller organisms for food.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPLEXITY
1. All parts of the organism must be kept functioning together in a coordinated
manner.
2. Complexity gives rise to bigger sizes of higher organisms which in turn needs to
the requirement of more space energy and environmental resources than the
single cell organism.

8. THE CELL
8.1. DEFINITION: This is defined as the smallest unit of a living organism that can
exist independently performing metabolic functions. Cells exist in a variety of
shapes and sizes exhibiting different functions.
TYPES OF CELLS
There are basically two criteria for classifying cells. They are classified as having
plant or animal or based on the absence or presence of a well- defined nucleus.i.e
Prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

8.2. STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

A living cell is made up of protoplasm enclosed in a plasma membrane. The
protoplasm consists of the nucleus and cytoplasm. The cell cytoplasm contains
organelles such as: mitochondrion, nucleus, ribosome e.t.c.

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COMPONENTS OF THE CELL

1. PLASMA MEMBRANE: This is a flexible membrane made up of protein and

lipids. It is semi- permeable.
FUNCTIONS
1. It prevents cell contents from escaping.
2. It controls the material entering and leaving the cell.

2. CELL WALL: This is made up of cellulose and surrounds the plasma membrane
in plant cells. It is free permeable.
FUNCTIONS
1. It gives the cell rigidity.
2. It provides mechanical support.

3. NUCLEUS: This is the largest most important organelle. The nucleus is enclosed
in a double layered membrane known as the nuclear membrane.
FUNCTION
1. It carries the chromosomes which contain the DNA.

4. NUCLEOLUS: It is found within the nucleus as a darkly stained body which

extends to form chromosomes.
FUNCTIONS
1. It is responsible for protein synthesis.
2. It manufactures protein from the nucleus and cytoplasm.

5. CYTOPLASM: This is a jelly-like transparent material composed of water.

FUNCTIONS
1. It is the site of metabolic activities.
2. It contains all cellular inclusions and organelles.

6. MITOCHONDRION: This is a sausage shaped body surrounded by a double

layered membrane, which forms a crista.
FUNCTION
1. It serves as a site for energy production.
2. It makes the cell to perform activities.

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7. CHLOROPLAST: It contains green pigments known as chlorophyll.
FUNCTION
1. It is the site for photosynthesis

8. RIBOSOMES: This are small round bodies floating freely in the cytoplasm or
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
FUNCTION
1. It serves as a site for protein synthesis.
9. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: This is a system of membrane like sacs forming
through the cytoplasm.
FUNCTION
1. It packs and transports proteins formed by the ribosomes from one part of the
cytoplasm to another.

10. GOLGI BODIES/APPARATUS: These are sacs of membrane like sacs that
continuously form at one end and at the other break up into bubbles.
FUNCTION
1. It is the site for transportation of materials outside the cell(export).

11. LYSOSOMES: These are small round sacs that contain digestive enzymes which
break down substances.

FUNCTION
1. It is involved in the transportation of materials in and out of the cell.

12. CENTRIOLE: These are rod-like structures found at right angle to one another
(animal only)
FUNCTION
1. for cell division

13. VACUOLE: These are found in plant cells as large centralized organelle
containing cell sac. They are rarely found in animal cells but when present are
small and scattered.
FUNCTION
1. They serve as store house for substances such as the excretory substances.

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8.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CELL

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The diagram below shows the differences between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.

8.4 SPECIALISED CELLS

Not all cells have the same structure as the already described cells even though
they may be plants or animal cells. Cells are able to perform different functions
because of their structure, the proteins they produce and the organelles present.
Since different cells perform different functions a nerve cell, for example, cannot
have the same structure as a white blood cell. This specialization is the same for
the organelles within the cells. In the cell, each organelle has its own role
involving its own specialized structure and chemistry.
These cells possess unique features which enable them function properly carrying
out their roles in the system, such cells are referred to as specialized cells. They
include:

SPERMATOZOA: It has a head, neck and tail

- It has 23 chromosomes.
- It fuses with the ovum to form zygote.

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CILIATED CELL: It has tiny cilia
- It prevents accumulation of germs by sweeping mucus along the tract which it is
lining such as the trachea.

OVUM: It has 23 chromosomes

- It fuses with the sperm cell to form zygote.

MUSCLE CELL: It has a spindle shape and has micro fibrils which enables it shorten
and lengthen allowing movement.
GOBLET CELL: has a goblet shape and secretes mucus.

RED BLOOD CELL: It has no nucleus increasing its surface area for oxygen carriage.
- has a typical donut shape.
- contains haemoglobin.

WHITE BLOOD CELL: It is amoeboid in shape and engulfs bacteria.

ROOT HAIR CELL: It has an extended cytoplasm which increases the surface area
for absorption of soil water.

GUARD CELL: It is bean shaped occurring in pairs ensuring the opening and closing
of the stoma.

PALISADE CELL: It is rectangular in shape and contains several chloroplasts for

photosynthesis.

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Palisade cell nerve cell Ciliated cell

8.5 CELLS FORMS OF EXISTENCE

Cells exist in four basic forms: As

1. Independent unicellular organism: A cell exists in this form when it can
perform its metabolic functions independently. Examples include Amoeba,
Paramecium, Chlamydomonas, and Euglena

2. Part of a complex multicellular organism: A cell can exist in a complex form in

which it works together with other specialized cells to form a tissue, tissues
forming organ and so on. For instance, a sensory cell of the nervous tissue in the
skin of man.

3. Part of a colony in a simple multicellular organism: In this form cells function

independently because the cells form small groups within the organism showing
low level of specialization. Example Volvox, Hydra, Obelia

4. A filament in a simple multicellular organism: Cells that exist in simple

multicellular organisms are identical and able to perform their metabolic
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functions individually although they are physically joined together. Example
Spirogyra

8.6 CELL THEORY

With the contribution of some famous scientist the cell theory was proponed.
The cell theory states that:
1. All living things are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
3. All existing cells are produced from pre-existing cells.
4. A cell contains information for its structural and functional development in its
nucleic acid.
8.7 BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
Some organisms have different names given to them in different parts of the
world. Hence to avoid confusion a Swedish Scientist known as Carl Linnaeus
solved the problem in 1735. The Linnaeus system of naming gives each organism
a name consisting of two parts. The first part of the name is the name of the
genus or generic name and the second part is the name of the species or specific
name. This method of naming is referred to as Binomial system.
Example: The African Elephant is Loxodonta africana
The house fly is Musca domestica
Note: The generic name begins with an upper case letter and the specific with a
lower case letter, both underlined and written in italics.

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 8.8 TAXONOMY OF CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

Biological classification was originated in the work of the Swedish naturalist Carl
Linnaeus, where classifications were done based on shared physical characteristics. The
science of classifying into ordered systems that indicate a natural relationship is known
as taxonomy. Taxonomy involves the naming of organisms and placing these organisms
into relevant groups based on their similarities. The taxonomic classifications are as :
Kingdom
Phyla (Phylum)
Class
Order
Family
Genera (genus)
Species
For example:

The list above is in the order of the largest (kingdom) to the smallest (individual
species). The kingdom is the most general (broad) classification, while species is
the most specific means of classifying an organism.
The scientific name of any organism is called the binomial name. For example,
humans have a binomial name of Homo sapiens. You will notice the binomial
name can be broken down into two names: a genus name followed by a species
name. Hence the binomial name indicates the species and genus to which the
organism belongs.
The basic criterion for an organism to belong to the same species is the ability to
interbreed. If two organisms of different species try to breed then there will not
be any offspring or the offspring will be sterile. An example of this is when a horse
(Equus caballus) tries to mate with a donkey (Equus assinus).
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Classification brings order and makes life easier. There is however no single
perfect classification system and as we learn more about organisms our original
classification is modified.

Exercise
(a) The binomial naming system used to identify all living things gives the Indian
elephant a scientific name of Elephas maximus.
Which part of this name refers to the genus and which part refers to the species?
Genus…………………………………
Species……………………………
(b) The list gives the names of eight members of the cat family. The common or
English name is followed by the binomial name.
Bobcat – Lynx rufus Cheetah – Acinonyx jubatus Jaguar – Panthera onca
European lynx – Lynx lynx Leopard – Panthera pardus
Lion – Panthera leo Iberian lynx – Lynx pardinus Tiger – Panthera tigris
(i) State the common or English names of two members of the same genus.
(ii) Name the genus that has only one species.

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 9. DIVERSITY OF LIFE
There are five kingdoms which are:
1. KINGDOM BACTERIA
2. KINGDOM PROCTOTISTA/ PROTOZOA
3. KINGDOM FUNGI
4. KINGDOM PLANTAE
5. KINGDOM ANIMALIA

CHARACTERISTICS OF KINGDOM BACTERIA

- They are unicellular
- They have no well defined nucleus.
- They have a cell wall.
- They are microscopic.
Example: Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Blue-green algae

CHARACTERISTICS OF KINGDOM PROCTOTISTA

- They are unicellular.
- They have both plant-like and animal-like characteristics.
- They possess a well- defined nucleus.
Example: Amoeba, Euglena, Chlorella

CHARACTERISTICS OF KINGDOM FUNGI

- They are multicellular organisms.
- They have a well- defined nucleus.
- They have cell walls.
- They don’t have chloroplast.
- They feed saprophytic ally and parasitically.
- They bear spores.
Example: Mushroom, Rhizopus/Mucor, Ringworm, Yeast

CHARACTERISTICS OF KINGDOM PLANTAE

- They are multicellular with a well- defined nucleus.
- They have chloroplast and feed by photosynthesis.
Example: Hibiscus plant, Orange tree, Mango tree.

It is further divided into:

PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA
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PHYLUM FILICINOPHYTA
PHYLUM CONIFEROPHYTA
PHYLUM ANGIOSPERMOPHYTA

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA

- They have simple stems and leaves but no true roots instead have rhizoids.
- They have no xylem and phloem. (non- vascular).
- They reproduce by means of spores.
- They are aquatic and when they grow on land are restricted to moist areas.
Examples: Mosses, Liverwort

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM FILICINOPHYTA/PTERIDOPHYTA

- They have true roots, stems and leaves.
- They have xylem and phloem.
- They reproduce by spore formation.
- They exhibit alternation of generation (i.e. reproduce by sporophyte and
gametophyte)
- Their young leaves curl as buds.
Example: all type of ferns ( Polypodium, Bracken)

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM CONIFEROPHYTA

- They have true root, stem and leaves.
- They have xylem and phloem.
- They reproduce by naked seeds called cones.
- They are purely terrestrial.
- They are non-flowering evergreen with needle –like leaves.
Example: Whispering pine, Pine Scots.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ANGIOSPERMOPHYTA
- They have true root, stem and leaves.
-They have xylem and phloem
- They bear seeds enclosed in fruits.
-They are flowering plants that reproduce sexually.
Example: Coconut tree, Hibiscus plant, Rose bush.
It can be further divided into
CLASS MONOCOTYLEDON
CLASS DICOTYLEDON
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CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS MONOCOTYLEDON
- They have leaves with parallel veins.
- The leaves are longer than wider.
- They have fibrous roots.
- The leaves have no leaf stalk.
-The seeds have one cotyledon.
- The vascular bundles are scattered in the stem.
- They don’t show secondary growth.
- The floral parts are in multiples of 3
Example: Oil palm, Elephant grass, Spear grass, Maize.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS DICOTYLEDON

- The leaves have net veins.
- The leaves are wider than longer
- The seeds have two cotyledons.
- They have tap root system.
- The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring pattern
- They exhibit secondary growth
- The leaves have leaf stalks.
- The floral parts are in multiples of 4 and 5
Example: Yam plant, Beans plant

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
CHARACTERISTICS
All the members of the kingdom are multicellular and exhibit heterotrophic
nutrition.
The kingdom animalia is divided into the following phyla:
PHYLUM NEMATODA
PHYLUM ANNELIDA
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
PHYLUM CNIDARIA
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
PHYLUM CHORDATA
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CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM NEMATODA
- They have soft, cylindrical slender bodies which are pointed at both ends.
- They are non-segmented.
- They have a digestive system with identifiable mouth and anus.
- They have a false body cavity.
Examples: Round worm, thread worm, Guinea worm, and Hook worm.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM ANNELIDA

- They have no legs; hence they possess bristles known as chaetae for moving.
(Found on ventral side, 2 or 3 per segment).
-They have an alimentary canal with mouth and anal pore.
-They have a true body cavity.
- They have very thin skin which makes them vulnerable to desiccation.
Examples: Earthworm, Leech, Tube worm

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM CNIDARIA

-Their bodies are made up of only two layers of cells.
-They are all aquatic and soft bodied.
- They have a ring of tentacles around their centralized mouth.
- They have single gastrovascular cavity that serves as the mouth, digestive cavity
and anus.
Examples: Hydra, Jelly fish, Sea anemones, Obelia

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

-They have soft non-segmented bodies covered with or without shells.
- They have no legs but have a considerable part of their bodies modified into
muscular foot.
- They have stalked eyes.
- Some of their members possess tentacles.
Examples: Octopus, Snail, Squid, Slug, Periwinkle

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES

- They have soft, flat non-segmented bodies.
-T hey are bi-laterally symmetrical.
- They have no body cavity.
-The free-living examples have no anus.
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Examples: Liverfluke, Tape worm, Planaria

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

- They are radially symmetrical and are usually star-shaped.
- They have no distinct head.
- They live in the marine habitat.
-They have tough spiny exoskeletons that are made of calcium.
Examples: Star fish, Sea urchin, Bristle star

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

-They possess exoskeleton
- They have jointed limbs or appendages.
This phylum is further divided into various classes.
CLASS CRUSTACEA
CLASS MYRIAPODA
CLASS ARACHNIDA
CLASS INSECTA

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS CRUSTCEA

- They have more than four pairs of jointed legs.
- They breathe through gills
- They have two pairs of antennae.
- They have a pair legs modified into pincers.
Examples: Lobster, crabs, prawn, shrimp

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS MYRIAPODA

- They have a pair of jointed legs on each segment.
- Their body is segmented into several parts.
-They are usually elongated either cylindrical or dorso-ventrally flattened
Examples: Millipede, Centipede

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS INSECTA

- They have three pairs of jointed legs.
- They have two pairs of wings in most cases.
-Their bodies are divided into three: head, thorax and abdomen
- They breathe through their trachea.
- They have a pair of antennae
28
Examples: House fly, butterfly
CLASS ARACHIDA
CHARACTERISTICS OF ARACHIDA
- Has 4 pairs of jointed legs.
- Body segmented into 2 parts: cephalothorax and abdomen.
-Simple eyes
Examples include: spider, scorpion

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM CHORDATA

- They have notochord.
-They have backbones
This phylum can be divided into
CLASS PISCES
CLASS AMPHIBIA
CLASS REPTILIA
CLASS AVES
CLASS MAMMALIA

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS PISCES

- They have fins for swimming.
- They are aquatic.
- They possess bony scales except a few.
- They breathe through their gills.
-Their bodies are stream lined in shape.
- They are cold blooded
- They exhibit external fertilization
Example: herring fish, Tilapia

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS AMPHIBIA

- They have a moist scale less skin.
- They adult live on land and go to the water to breed.
- They are cold blooded.
- They exhibit external fertilization
- They larva has gills for breathing in water while the adults use their skin, lungs
and mouth.
29
Examples: Newts, frogs, toads.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS REPTILIA

- They possess dry keratinous scales on skin
- They lay leathery waterproof eggs.
- They are cold blooded.
-They breathe with their lungs.
- They exhibit internal fertilization.
Examples: Tortoise, wall gecko, crocodile

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS AVES

- They have skin covered with feathers.
- They have their forelimbs modified into wings.
- They lay eggs in calcareous shells.
-they exhibit internal fertilization
- They are warm blooded.
- They have beaks and no teeth.
- They have light bones with air sacs.
- They breathe through their lungs.
Examples: ostrich, sparrows, eagle

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS MAMMALIA

- They have skin covered in hair or fur.
- They feed their young with milk from their mammary glands.
- They are warm blooded
- Their hearts are four chambered
- They have heterodont dentition.
- They have a diaphragm
- They breathe through their lungs.
- They have external ears known as pinna.
Examples: kangaroo, man, whale, bat

30
Exercise
1 Vertebrates can be classified by their external features.
Complete the paragraph by using the name of a vertebrate class in each space.
Some vertebrates have scales all over their skin. If they also have nostrils that
allow air into their lungs and two pairs of legs they are …………………………………….
Some vertebrates have wings. If their body is also covered in feathers they are
………………………………………..but if their body has fur they are…………………………………
Vertebrates that do not have feathers, fur or scales on the outside of their body
are………………………………………….

2. The Figure below shows a young deer feeding from its mother.

State two features of the deer, visible in the figure, that distinguish mammals
from other vertebrates.

31
10. THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
10.1. DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the movement of ions, particles or molecules from a region of higher

concentration to a region of lower concentration. This process occurs in both
liquid and gaseous substances. It is important to note that diffusion would cease if
there is no difference in the concentration of the particles in both regions. In
other words, there is equilibrium. The difference in concentration is known as
concentration / diffusion gradient.

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE DIFFUSION OF PARTICLES

Factors affecting rate of diffusion

 State of matter
 Size of particle
 Temperature
 Diffusion gradient

Biological significance of diffusion

1. Movement of gases in and out of the stomata during gaseous exchange or

photosynthesis.

2. Movement of water vapour out of the leaves during transpiration.

32
3. Exchange of nutrients and materials between maternal and foetal blood vessels
in the placenta.

4. Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide from the alveoli to the capillaries in
the lungs.

5. Gaseous exchange during respiration in unicellular organisms.

10.2 OSMOSIS

Osmosis is defined as the movement of water molecules from a region of higher

concentration of water molecules to a region of lower concentration through a
semi permeable membrane.

The basic principles can be further illustrated if two solutions of different

concentration are placed on either side of a semi permeable. Examples include:
cell membrane found in every cell of plants and animals but in the laboratory
purposes cellophane paper, pig’s bladder, visking tube, pawpaw, yam and potato.
It will be observed that the movement of water molecules, like the case of
diffusion would only continue as long as the difference in concentration of water
exists.

33
In using living cells as osmometer, a solution that has a higher concentration than
the cell sap is referred to as Hypertonic and when a plant cell is placed in it
shrinks: becoming flaccid/ limp. When an animal cell is placed in it, the cell
becomes plasmolysed losing all it water.

A solution that has a lower concentration than the cell sap is referred to as
hypotonic, and when a plant cell is placed in it, it becomes rounded and rigid:
Turgid. When an animal cell is placed in it, it swells to full capacity bursting open
and spilling all the cell content. In red blood cell it is known as haemolysis.

A solution that has equal concentration as the cell sap is referred to as isotonic
and when a cell is placed in it whether plant or animal, there is no movement of
water as equilibrium is already established.

Biological Significance of osmosis

1. In plants, osmosis helps in absorption of water from the soil into root hairs.

2. It helps in the movement of water molecules from the root hairs to the cortex.

3. It helps in the opening and closing of the stomata.

4. It gives turgidity to the plant cell.

5. It regulates the amount of water in the animal cell.

34
10.3 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
This is the movement of ions from a region of lower concentration to a region of
higher concentration against the concentration gradient. This process thus
requires a lot of energy by respiration in form of Adenosine triphosphate.

Biological significance of active transport

1. In human, small intestine, glucose can be actively transported from the lumen
of the intestine to the cells of the villi.
2. Potassium ions can be transported from the plasma into a human blood cell.
3. Special protein carriers pick up nitrate ions from the soil in the root hair cells.

EXERCISE
Nine pieces of raw Irish potato, Solanum tuberosum, were cut carefully to a
length of 60mm.
Three pieces were placed in each of three different concentrations of glucose
solution and left for 2 hours. The pieces were removed and their lengths
measured.

35
The table shows the appearance of these pieces at the end of the two hours.

i. Calculate the mean [average] length of the potato pieces. The first three rows
have been completed for you.
(ii) Calculate the change in mean length in all three concentrations of glucose
solutions.
(iii) Explain why three pieces of potato were used in each solution and not just
one piece.

36
 11. NUTRITION
11.1 DEFINITION
Nutrition can be defined as the ability to feed. It is the process of supplying and
receiving nourishment.
During nutrition food materials taken into the body are converted into complex
body substances and energy through a process of anabolism and catabolism.
MODES OF NUTRITION
There are two types of nutrition: Autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic
nutrition

11.2 HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

This means different nourishing and exhibited by organisms that cannot
manufacture their own food but depend on various sources for food supply.

HOLOZOIC NUTRITION: This is the nutrition in which organisms take complex

organic food which they digest and assimilate into their body. These include:
Phagocytosis in Amoeba, Herbivorous feeding, Carnivorous feeding and
Omnivorous feeding.

PARASITIC NUTRITION: This mode of nutrition involves an organism living

permanently on or in another organism obtaining nourishment from it or from its
body tissue.
Note: The latter organism is referred to as the Host and the former is referred to
as the PARASITE.

SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION: This mode of nutrition is exhibited organisms that

depend on organic material present in the soil or in dead organic matter. These
organisms are referred to as SAPROPHYTES. Examples: Mucor, Mushroom

CARNIVOROUS PLANTS: Carnivorous plants can manufacture their food using

photosynthesis but need to feed on small animals to get enough Nitrogen as they
grow in Nitrogen deficient soil. These plants have special devices for trapping and
digesting their prey. Examples: Venus fly trap plant, Pitcher plant, Sundew.

37
FILTER FEEDING: It is exhibited mainly by aquatic or semi- aquatic organisms that
feed on planktons (tiny water floating organisms). Planktons are trapped in a
sieve –like part of the before they are swallowed.

11.3 AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

This a mode of nutrition exhibited by organisms that can manufacture their own
food using simple inorganic substances in the environment.

TYPES OF AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

CHEMOSYNTHESIS: This is a process by which some organisms use chemical
energy to make carbohydrate. These organisms usually live in places where there
is no sunlight. Example includes the deep ocean floor or Hydrothermal vents. In
most of these locations inorganic compounds such as sulphide are produced
which the organisms use to manufacture their food. On the other hand, some of
these organisms might simply be colourless lacking chlorophyll.
Chemosynthesis involves the use of chemical energy to convert carbon dioxide,
water and chemical compounds such as Hydrogen sulphide, ferrous iron e.t.c. into
carbohydrate. Chemo synthesizing organisms include Sulphur bacteria, Iron
bacteria, and Nitrifying bacteria.

WORD EQUATION FOR CHEMOSYNTHESIS:

CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER+ HYDROGEN SULPHIDE GLUCOSE+SULPHURIC

ACID

CHEMICAL EQUATION:
6CO2 + 6H2O +3H2S C6H12O6 +3H2SO4

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
It is the process by which green plants manufacture carbohydrate using simple
inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight.
WORD EQUATION FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
ENZYME
CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER SUNLIGHT GLUCOSE +OXYGEN

CHEMICAL EQUATION:
ENZYME
6CO2 +6H2O SUNLIGHT C6H12O6 +6O2
 THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
In green leaves, light rays from the sun are trapped within the chloroplast, carbon
dioxide diffuse through the stomata and water enter through the root hairs from
the soil. All these are involved in the reaction quickened by enzymes to produce
glucose. The glucose is immediately converted to starch and stored as granules.
At dusk, the starch is converted back to glucose which is the soluble form of
carbohydrate and transported through the phloem, to the other parts of the
plant, where they would be required for metabolism. The movement of the food
in the plant is known as TRANSLOCATION. The excess sugars are then converted
to various forms of more complex sugars and stored in the roots, stems, fruits and
seeds.

=
CHEMISTRY OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
LIGHT STAGE REACTION: This involves the splitting of the water molecules by
light energy, to produce Hydrogen and Hydroxyl ions. This stage is referred to as
photolysis.
+ -
H2O 4H + 4OH
-
4OH 2H2O + O2

DARK STAGE REACTION: The dark stage reaction involves the reduction of carbon
dioxide molecules to form sugars.
+
CO2 + 4H CH2O + H2O

Note: The light stage reaction cannot be separated from the dark stage reaction if
photosynthesis has to occur and the dark stage is dependent on the light stage.

ADAPTATIONS OF A LEAF AS AN ORGAN OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The leaf has certain features that make it an efficient site for photosynthesis.
These features include:
Leaf stalk: This holds the leaf blade in the best position to receive maximum
amount of sunlight.
Leaf blade: This gives the leaf a large surface for receiving sunlight. The leaf blade
is also thin ensuring the quick diffusion of Carbon dioxide in the cells.
Stomata: The presence of stomata on the underside of the leaf allows the
diffusion of carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour.
Intercellular spaces: The presence of these spaces in the leaf helps to link the
interior of the leaf to the external environment ensuring efficient diffusion and
distribution of necessary gases.
Transport tissues: The presence of the xylem and phloem in the leaf enables the
leaf get a good supply of water and distributes the food respectively.
Mesophyll tissues: These tissues are made up of cells that contain large amount
of chloroplast which carry chlorophyll.

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is very important in the food cycle as it is the only process that can
trap the enormous energy from the sun converting it into organic food.
Photosynthesis also helps to purify the air in the environment by releasing oxygen
and removing carbon dioxide.
 LIMITING FACTORS

Among the many factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis, there are three
main important factors. These include: Sunlight, Carbon dioxide and Water.

A graph of showing the relationship between light intensity and the rate of
photosynthesis

In the dark plants cannot photosynthesize slowly. As the light intensity increases
the rate of photosynthesis will increase until the plant is photosynthesizing as fast
as it can. At this point even when the light becomes brighter the plants cannot
photosynthesize any faster.

A graph showing the relationship between the concentration of CO2

The more CO2 the plant gets the faster it photosynthesizes up to a point until the
maximum is reached.
There is a factor that is indirectly linked to the amount of carbon dioxide that
reaches the plant. This factor is the stomata (number or whether opened or
closed).
Note: Temperature is also another limiting factor because chemical reaction of
photosynthesis will only take place very slowly at low temperature and become
faster when it is warm due to enzymatic actions. Other factors that may affect
photosynthesis include:
-Chlorophyll concentration
-Water
-Pollution
-The stomata on leaves (whether they are open or closed)

11.4 MINERAL NUTRIENTS

Apart from manufactured food which the plants make during photosynthesis, it
needs additional mineral salts for the formation of protein and healthy growth.
These mineral salts can be classified into:

 Essential/ Macro/ Major nutrients

 Non- essential/ Micro/ Minor nutrients.

MAJOR NUTRIENTS

Major nutrients are chemical ions required by the plants in a very large quantity.
They are;

a. NITROGEN
Function: It is responsible for making protein e.g enzymes, hormones.
Deficiency symptom: Extreme stunted growth, small yellow leaves.
Source: Nitrates in soil and organic compounds from Nitrogen fixing Bacteria.

b. PHOSPHORUS
Function: 1. To manufacture Adenosine Triphosphate(ATP)
2. It assists in nuclear division and also acts as buffer.
Deficiency symptom: Poor weedy growth especially the roots, stems and leaves become
purplish
Source: Phosphate in the soil.

c. POTASSIUM
Function: 1. It maintains the right salt balance in the cells.
2. It regulates certain cell activities and assists in cell formation.
Deficiency symptom: leaves become mottled, shrink and orange, indicating poor
growth.
Source: Potassium salt in the soil.

d. SULPHUR
Function: It helps in the manufacture of protein.
Deficiency symptom: yellowing of leaves and poor growth.
Source: Sulphate in the soil.

e. CALCIUM
Function: It is responsible for cell wall formation and enzyme activation.
Deficiency symptom: Weak and stunted growth, poor root development
Source: calcium salt in the soil.

f. MAGNESIUM
Function: Manufacture of chlorophyll
Deficiency symptom: yellowing of leaves especially between veins
Source: Magnesium salt in the soil.

g. IRON
Function: It assists in the manufacture of chlorophyll
Deficiency symptom: yellowing in young leaves.
Source: Iron salt in the soil.
MINOR NUTRIENTS

Minor nutrients are ionic nutrients required in small quantities by the plants. These
include:

a. COPPER
Deficiency symptom: Poor growth, reduction in flowering and fruiting.
b. BORON
Deficiency symptom: poor growth, at the apex and brittle tissues.

c. MANGANESE
Deficiency symptom: leaf malformation and death of shoot

d. MOLYBDENUM
Deficiency symptom: Blackening of the internal tissues in some plants

e. ZINC
Deficiency symptom: Poor leaf development

FUNCTIONS OF MICRO NUTRIENTS v

COPPER, MANGANESE, ZINC and MOLYBDENUM have the principal responsibility of

assisting enzymatic activity, although Molybdenum is also required for nitrogen fixation.

BORON is responsible for the development of the apical meristems.

The mineral salts in the soil are dissolved in the soil waters and enter the root hairs by
diffusion and active transport.

If any nutrient whether major or minor is absent in the soil the plant will not grow well,
hence it is said to suffer from a deficiency disease and this is evident in the physical
symptoms manifested. Plants can grow in any medium so long as it contains all the
mineral nutrients.

WATER CULTURE or hydroponics is a solution containing all the micro and macro
nutrients essential for healthy plant growth.
11.5 ECOLOGICAL CYCLES

NITROGEN CYCLE

During thunderstorms, Nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form Nitric oxide. A further
reaction with oxygen produces Nitrogen Peroxide. When Nitrogen Peroxide dissolves in
the rain water it forms Nitric acid which is washed into the soil where it combines with
other mineral salts to form Nitrates.

Another way by which Nitrates are formed in the soil is by the action of some
microorganisms that are able to convert gaseous Nitrogen directly to proteins as 79% of
air is composed of Nitrogen gas. These microorganisms include the Nitrogen fixing
Bacteria which live in the root nodules of legumes e.g Rhizobium, Azobacter,
Clostridium, convert Nitrogen gas in the air spaces of soil and other salts to Nitrate.

Another way of adding Nitrate to the soil is by adding artificial fertilizers e.g Ammonium
or Nitrate fertilizers.

ROLE OF PUTREFACTION AND NITRIFICATION IN THE CYCLE

Plants are food producers in nature and when animals feed on them they turn plant
protein to animal protein.

When the animals are eaten by other animals more animal protein is formed and
Nitrogen is trapped within the body of the animal and it enters the Nitrogen cycle
through putrefaction or decay.

Saprophytic organism n the soil which includes fungi and Bacteria converts the dead
organisms into simpler substances such as Ammonia during a process known as
ammonification. Another group of Bacteria known as Nitrifying bacteria e.g
Nitrosomonas turn the ammonia to nitrates ready for the plant use.

Nitrogen is also returned to the soil when animals excrete nitrogenous waste in form of
urea or ammonia. Another group of Bacteria known as Denitrifying bacteria undo the
work of Nitrifying bacteria by turning nitrate and ammonia to Nitrogen gas.
CARBON CYCLE

Carbon is very important in the environment as it is an essential part of

carbohydrate, fats and protein. Carbon exists in the atmosphere as Carbon
dioxide, which green plants use to make carbohydrate. Some of this carbohydrate
(glucose) will be broken down by the plant during respiration and released back
into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
Some part of the Carbohydrate in the plant will be eaten by animals and these
animals would respire releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Their
excretory waste materials include carbon dioxide. Fossilation which is the process
of organic matter being trapped in rock strata over a long period of time to give
fossil fuel also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when burnt.
WATER CYCLE

All living organisms contain a high percentage of water. Plants take up water from
the soil in large quantities and lose most of it by transpiration and small quantity
is used for photosynthesis and other metabolic reactions. Animals take in water
constantly from their food and drink and lose most of it as vapour or liquid when
exhaling, defaecating and urinating.

All organisms lose water during cellular respiration. Decomposer release water
during putrefaction.

In nature, water circulates mainly within the abiotic environment; only a small
proportion revolves through living organisms. The water cycle is maintained
mainly by the evaporation and condensation of water in the abiotic environment.
Water that enters the biotic component of the ecosystem returns to the abiotic
environment via respiration, decay, excretion and transpiration.
EXERCISE

1.An experiment was carried out to find out if carbon dioxide is needed for
photosynthesis.

(a) (i) The stages involved in testing a leaf for starch are shown below.
The stages are in the correct sequence, but the reasons are in the wrong order.
Use straight lines to match the stages with the correct reasons. One has been
done for you.

(ii) Explain why chlorophyll is removed from the leaf before testing it for starch.
(b) State two factors, other than carbon dioxide, that both plants would need in order to
photosynthesise.
(c) Plant B was used as a control in the experiment. Explain the importance of this
control.
(d) Explain why the plants were destarched.

2. (a) List four chemical elements that are found in proteins.

The Figure below is a photograph of some root nodules from a pea plant, which is a type
of legume.
(b) Nodules like those in the figure develop on the roots of pea plants and other
legumes when the soil is lacking in nitrate ions.
Explain what happens inside the nodule to help legume plants grow in soils lacking
nitrate ions.
(c) After the peas have been harvested, the plants are ploughed back into the soil.
Describe what happens in the soil to convert dead plant material into nitrate ions that
plants can absorb.
 11.6 ANIMAL NUTRITION

FOOD NUTRIENTS
Food nutrients can be classified into two
Primary food nutrient: These are the basic chemical building blocks of an
organism and they include: carbohydrates, fats and oils, proteins and
water (although not a nutrient).

CARBOHYDRATES: These are food nutrients made up of chemical elements which

include carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in varying proportion depending on the type
of carbohydrate.
Types of carbohydrates
MONOSACCHARIDE: Simple / reducing sugars with 6 carbon atoms e.g glucose,
fructose and galactose.
DISSACHARIDE: non-reducing sugars formed by the joining or condensation of two
molecules of simple sugars. E.g. sucrose, maltose and lactose
POLYSACCHARIDE: These are formed from the condensation of many molecules of
simple sugars which are insoluble and non- sweet.
Function of Carbohydrate:
It provides energy for the body.
Deficiency: Marasmus.(undernourishment causing a child’s weight to be significantly
low for their age)

PROTEIN: Proteins are made-up of chemical elements which include carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur. Proteins are formed from long
chains of amino acids. There are about 20 different types of amino acids. Proteins
may be soluble (e.g. haemoglobin) or insoluble (e.g. keratin).
Function of protein:
It is responsible for body building.
Replacement of damaged or worn out parts
Manufacture of antibodies and enzymes.
Deficiency: Kwashiokor

FATS AND OILS: Fats and oils are made-up of smaller molecules of glycerol and
fatty acids in a ratio of 1:3 containing carbon, hydrogen and little amount oxygen.
Functions of fat:
It provides the body with energy.
It serves as insulators.
Deficiency: Cold chills.
WATER: About 70% of our body mass is made up of water and is a very important
medium in any organism which:
-Assist in the chemical reactions.
-Transports important substances from their site of production to their
destination.
-Plays an important role in temperature regulator.
-Helps in the removal of waste products.

Welfare food nutrients: These are nutrients that are essential for the well being of
an individual and healthy growth. They are mineral salts and vitamins.

ROUGHAGE OR FIBRE: consist of indigestible fibrous materials derived from fruits,

vegetables, carbohydrate and proteins. It stimulating effect on the alimentary canal
keeps it working and prevents constipation.
 TABLE SHOWING VARIOUS VITAMINS
VITAMINS SOURCES FUNCTIONS DEFICIENCY
A Liver, palm oil, 1. healthy growth ocular disturbances
(Retinol) eggs, green 2. Proper vision of the eye. leading to blindness,
Vegetables, 3.embryoic development growth retardation,
milk, carrot, 4. High resistance of body to dry skin, diarrhea,
tomato diseases. vulnerability to
infection
B1 cereal grains component of a coenzyme in impairment of the
(Thiamine) carbohydrate metabolism; nerves and heart
supports normal nerve Beri-beri(muscle
function wasting, paralysis)
B2 Milk, eggs, component of coenzymes inflammation of the
(Riboflavin) leafy required for energy skin, tongue, and lips;
vegetables, production and lipid, ocular disturbances;
kidney, and vitamin, mineral, and drug nervous symptoms
liver metabolism; antioxidant
B6 Cereal grains, component of coenzymes in dermatitis, mental
(Pyridoxine) meats, nuts, metabolism of amino acids depression, confusion,
and some and other nitrogen- convulsions, anemia
fruits and containing compounds;
vegetables. synthesis of hemoglobin,
neurotransmitters;
regulation of blood glucose
levels
B12 Eggs, meat, cofactor for enzymes in smoothness of the
(Cynacobal and dairy metabolism of amino acids tongue,
amin) products, (including folic acid) and gastrointestinal
kidney fatty acids; required for new disturbances, nervous
cell synthesis, normal blood symptoms
formation, and neurological
function
B3 Yeast, bean component of coenzymes skin lesions,
(Niacin) milk, yam, palm used broadly in cellular gastrointestinal
wine, metabolism, oxidation of disturbances, nervous
vegetables fuel molecules, and fatty symptoms
acid and steroid synthesis
54
Folic acid leafy green component of coenzymes in DNA impaired formation of red
vegetables, citrus synthesis, metabolism of amino blood cells, weakness,
fruits, cereals, acids; required for cell division, irritability, headache,
beans, poultry, maturation of red blood cells palpitations, inflammation of
and egg yolks mouth, neural tube defects
in fetus

B5 yeasts, liver, as component of coenzyme A, weakness, gastrointestinal

Pantothenic kidney, eggs, essential for metabolism of disturbances, nervous
Acid whole grains, carbohydrate, protein, and fat; symptoms, fatigue, sleep
and legumes cofactor for elongation of fatty disturbances, restlessness,
acids nausea
Biotin egg yolk, beef cofactor in carbohydrate, fatty dermatitis, hair loss,
liver, and yeast. acid, and amino acid metabolism conjunctivitis, neurological
symptoms
C Fresh citrus antioxidant; synthesis of collagen, swollen and bleeding gums,
Ascorbic Acid fruits, grapes, carnitine, amino acids, and soreness and stiffness of
green hormones; immune function; the joints and lower
vegetables, black enhances absorption of non- heme extremities, bleeding under
currant iron (from plant foods) the skin and in deep
tissues, slow wound
healing, anemia

D Liver, fish, eggs, maintenance of blood calcium defective bone growth in

(Calciferol) milk, oil, and phosphorus levels, proper children, soft bones in
sunshine mineralization of bones adults
E Liver, milk, meat, antioxidant; interruption of free peripheral
(Ergosterol) butter, eggs, radical chain reactions; neuropathy(Numbness and
green vegetable protection of polyunsaturated pain from nerve damage),
fatty acids, cell membranes breakdown of red blood
cells
K Egg yolk, tomato, synthesis of proteins involved in impaired clotting of blood &
(Phylloquinon Liver blood coagulation and bone internal bleeding
e) metabolism (Haemorrhages)
55
 TABLE SHOWING ESSENTIAL HUMAN MINERAL SALTS
MINERAL SOURCES FUNCTION DEFICIENCY
CALCIUM milk ,cheese, yogurt, leafy 1.formation of osteoporosis,
green vegetables, seafood bones & teeth rickets,
such as salmon and 2.for blood hypertension,
clotting
sardines. colorectal cancer
3. helps in
muscle
contraction.
4. It plays a role
in the
transmission of
nerve impulses.
5. It also
regulates the
secretion of
various
hormones.
PHOSPHORUS Milk,cheese,egg,fish 1. Formation of Rickets, dental
Wheat, snail bones & teeth. decay, poor
2. forms part of health
DNA and RNA.
3. for respiration.
FLOURINE Drinking water, green 1. hardens bones Decaying teeth
vegetables, tooth paste & teeth.
2. protects teeth
from decay
IRON Kidney,beans,unripe 1. Formation of anemia
plantain red blood cells &
enzymes.
IODINE Fish, milk, sea salt 1. proper goitre
functioning of
thyroid

56
 BALANCED DIET
A balanced diet is a diet that is made up of all food nutrients (carbohydrate,
protein, fats, fibre, vitamins and minerals) in the right proportion as required by the
body.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE AN INDIVIDUAL’S DIET

1. Age.
2. Type of occupation.
3. Gender
4. State of health.
5. Pregnancy

EFFECTS OF AN UNBALANCED DIET

1. Obesity.
2. Malnutrition
3. Diseases

Exercise
1.Mycoprotein is similar to single cell protein and is sold as an alternative to meat
such as beef.
The table shows the composition of mycoprotein and beef.

(a) (i) State two differences in composition between mycoprotein and beef.
(ii) Using data from the table, suggest two reasons and fully explain why eating
mycoprotein is better for health than eating beef.
(b) (i) Calculate the dry mass of mycoprotein not represented by protein, fat, fibre
or carbohydrate. Show your working.
(ii) Suggest one nutrient that this dry mass might contain.

57
 10.7 FOOD TEST
Tests for proteins
3
1. Biuret’s test: Add 1cm of dilute sodium Hydroxide and 2 drops of copper
(ii) sulphate solution to a mixture of the crushed food sample and water.
Result: purple/lilac colour confirms the presence of protein.
2. Millons Test: Add a few drops of million’s reagent to food sample in solution.
Result: Red colour confirms the presence of protein.
3. Xanthoproteic test: Add a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and excess
ammonium hydroxide to a small quantity of food sample in solution and heat.
Result: orange precipitate which on cooling turns to yellow confirms protein.

Test for reducing sugars

2
1. Benedict’s test: Add about 2cm of Benedict’s solution to a small quantity of
food sample and heat.
Result: brick red / orange precipitate.
3
2. Fehling’s test: Add 2cm of a mixture of Fehling A and B to an equal quantity of
food sample in solution and heat.
Result: brick red precipitate.
Test for fats and oils
1. Grease spot/Translucent paper test: Put a drop of the food sample on paper or
crush the food on the paper.
Result: Translucent/grease spot confirms oil.
3
2. Emulsion test: Mix 10cm of ethanol with food sample and allow it to settle. Pour
the mixture in water.
Result: A white or milky emulsion confirms presence of fat.
3. Sudan III test: Add a few drops of Sudan III stain to the food substance (oil) in
solution and boil the solution.
Result: A red colouration appears before boiling and a black precipitate is formed on
boilig

Test for Water.

Dip a blue, dry cobalt chloride paper in a food item
Result: The colour of the paper changes from blue to pink

58
 12. EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON THE
ENVIRONMENT
In the environment, plant and animal communities interact over a long period of
time to attain a balance. This balance is usually destroyed by human activities
especially agricultural practices. Such agricultural practices sometimes have
negative implication on the environment.
BUSH BURNING: Farmers when clearing their piece of land sometimes set the
entire vegetation on fire. This practice however, produce ash which contains
minerals such as Calcium, Potassium and Phosphorus causing reduction in soil
acidity, encouraging erosion, killing soil organisms and destroying humus.

TILLAGE: is the act of breaking up soil particles. This act destroys the seedlings and
undergrowth of shrubs, encourages erosion and destruction of soil structure.

APPLICATION OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS:

EFFECTS OF FERTILISER APPLICATION
Long term application of fertilizer especially artificial ones causes the soil to lose its
organic humus making it vulnerable to erosion. It also affects the soil porosity. The
excessive use of fertilizers causes eutrophication (rapid growth of algae) when it
washed into the rivers and lakes. Eutrophication increases the competition for
oxygen among water organisms and decreasing light penetration in such waters.
The water is unfit for drinking due to it high concentration of nitrates.

EFFECTS OF HERBICIDE APPLICATION

Selective herbicides usually kill targeted plants leaving others while non-selective
herbicides destroy the total plant population. Some of these herbicides are found
to cause birth defects in animals, cancer and miscarriages.

EFFECTS OF PESTICIDE APPLICATION

Pesticides are usually non-specific in action, killing not only the pests but other
beneficial organisms such as pollinators. Most of the pesticides are also persistent
and non-biodegradable, hence, they accumulate in the body tissue of organisms
causing poisoning in the food chain. Pesticides sometimes interfere with
reproduction in animals. They also cause the pest to develop resistance after long
term usage. A pesticide such as DDT causes disease in humans such as cancer.
DEFORESTATION: encourages thinning of the soil causing erosion, when such soil is
washed into the river filling up the bed it causes flooding. The forest supports a
diversity of species hence, deforestation threatens many species of animals and
plants with extinction, it also affects the water cycle and encourages global
warming due to enhanced green house effect.

OVERFISHING: Humans have probably always used fish as a source of protein- rich
food. However, in recent years there has been increasing threat to the fish
population.

EFFECTS OF THE DIFFERENT FARMING TECHNIQUES: Techniques such as crop

rotation, shifting cultivation, bush fallowing, mixed farming; monocropping and
pastoral farming affect soil fertility, soil structure plant and animal species
distribution and population.

12.1 PESTS AND DISEASES OF AGRICULTURAL IMPORTANCE

DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS
DISEASE ANIMAL SYMPTOMS CONTROL
AFFECTED
RINDERPEST Cattle, goat, Severe diarrhea, Immunization,
DISEASE sheep High fever, Killing of affected
Eyes &nostril animals
discharge,
Difficulty in
breathing
ANTHRAX Cattle, sheep High fever, Immunization,
depression, Burying /burning of
Sudden death affected animals.
NEW CASTLE Poultry Difficulty in Immunization
DISEASE breathing, Good sanitation
General body
weakness,
blindness,
paralysis
COCCIDIOSIS Cattle, sheep, Bloody faeces, Good sanitation
goat, poultry paleness Administration of
Weakness, appropriate drugs.
emaciation

TRYPANOSOMIASIS Poultry, cattle, Intermittent fever, Killing the vector

Pigs Aneamia, Application of drugs
Loss of weight, for treatment.
Eye disorder
TUBERCULOSIS Poultry, cattle, Infection of liver & Good sanitation
Pigs spleen Killing infected
Lung infection animals.
Constant weight
loss.
FOOT & MOUTH Cattle, sheep , High fever Slaughter infected
DISEASE goat, pig Laceration in the animals. Vaccination
mouth and foot Improved sanitation

DISEASES OF COMMON CROPS

CROP DISEASE EFFECTS CONTROL
GROUNDNUT Rosette Yellow leaves and Plant healthy seed
( viral) mottled appearance Burn infected plants.
Leaf falls
Stunted growth and
death
Rice Blast( fungal) Brownish yellow leaf Use fungicide
spots
Leaves may dry up.
maize Maize Red spot on leaves Destroy affected plants
rust(fungal) which die off Grow resistant varieties.
cocoa Black Fungus penetrates pod Apply fungicides
pod(fungal) and developing beans. Destroy affected pods.
Pods have black patches.
61
cassava Mosaic (viral) Leaves become mottled. Spray chemicals on
Chlorophyll breaks down white flies carrying
affecting yield. virus.
Use healthy and
resistant varieties as
cutting.
Tomato Bacterial wilt Leaves wilt and die. Avoid infected soil for
Production of milky five years.
exudates Destroy affected crops.
Yam Witch broom Dwarfed plants, small Crop rotation
chlorotic leaves Destroy affected plants.
Guinea corn Head Grains are destroyed Seed dressing with
smut(fungal) copper compounds
Tobacco Mosaic (virus) Leaves are mottled, Use resistant varieties.
wither and die.

PEST OF SELECTED FARM ANIMALS

Pests are organisms that disturb the proper growth of crops or livestock. In the case
of animals the pest is either ectoparasite or endoparasite.

ECTOPARASITES:
TICKS
These are blood sucking parasites which cause irritation, restlessness and
inflammation in livestock. As a result, the animal becomes weak and unproductive
as its growth is retarded.

LIFE CYCLE OF TICKS

After feeding and a female tick is filled with blood from the host, It detaches from it
falling to the ground. The tick then lays eggs which hatch into larvae that attach to
leaves waiting to attach to an unsuspecting animal that has come to graze. The
livestock is their first host. After sucking blood, they drop to the ground and moult
into nymphs which soon attach themselves to a second host to feed. After which
they drop to the ground and moult into adults which attach themselves to the third

62
host. If the tick is a female, it starts to feed immediately on the host and in case it is
a male, it detaches itself and looks for a mate before he dies.

ENDOPARASITES:
LIVERFLUKE
This parasite is found in the liver and bile duct of cattle, goats and sheep. This blood
sucking endoparasite causes anaemia and interferes with the functioning of the bile
duct, as digestive process is affected, the host waste away and dies.

PESTS OF COMMON CROPS

PEST CROP AFFECTED

Stem borer Maize
Yam beetle Yam
Mealy bug Cassava
Cotton stainer Cotton
Capsid bug Cocoa
Dropsid flies Rice
Leaf hopper Cowpea
Root borer Banana

12.2 AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.

Cereals: are plants cultivated for their seeds and grains. Examples include: rice,
wheat, maize, guinea corn, millet

Legumes: Provide a rich source of protein and fodder crops for livestock. The plants
are cultivated mainly for their seeds. Examples: cowpea, groundnut, soya beans
Vegetable crops: provides vitamins and minerals. Examples: egg plant, okra,
lettuce, spinach

Root crops: Are cultivated for the large amount of carbohydrates stored in their
swollen roots. Example: cassava, sweet potato

Cultivated fruit: Edible fruits are produced by mango, avocado pear, citrus banana,
pawpaw
63
Forage crops: They are grown primarily to feed animals. Example grasses, legumes.

Oil and latex crops: Oil producing plants include coconut, oil palm, shea butter and
groundnut while latex is produced by rubber tree.

Beverages and Stimulants: plants that produce substances that refreshes and
stimulate. Example: coffee, cocoa, cola

Fibre crop: Plants cultivated mainly for their fibre Example: cotton, jute, sisal

Spices: Plants having one or more parts strongly flavored. Example: pepper, ginger.

Stem tuber: These are swollen underground stems. Example: yam, cocoyam, Irish
potato

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON LIFE CYCLE

Annuals:
These are plants which germinate, grow to maturity, flower, produce seeds and die,
within a year. Maize, wheat, beans, vegetable, ground nut

Biennials: These are plants that require two seasons to complete their life cycle.
The first year is mainly concerned with flowering. Fruiting and storage of food.
Cocoyam, carrot, onion

Perennials: Plants that live for more than two seasons. They persist in producing
reproductive structures year after year, if the conditions are suitable for their
continued growth. Shrubs: Hibiscus, Allamanda

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 13. FOOD PRODUCTION

13.1 FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD PRODUCTION

1. Climatic factors

RAINFALL: The water requirements of crops vary and if crops fail to receive the
optimum rainfall during its growing season, it will not survive. In other words, the
quantity and distribution of rain determines the soil water content, which is a key
factor for photosynthesis. The abundance of rainfall means abundance of food,
both plants and livestock.

HUMIDITY: Relative humidity affects the rate of transpiration in plants (a process

required for growth of healthy plants), only crops that can balance the rate of
transpiration with their water requirements during the rowing season thrive well.

TEMPERATURE: Each crop grows within a particular temperature range and this
affects the production of such crops.

LIGHT: light is necessary for photosynthesis and plants have varying requirements
of light intensities to grow well. Flowering in crops is even controlled primarily by
the length of daily period of light (photoperiod).

2. Soil factors
The presence of water, nutrients in the soil and the ability of the soil to retain them
affect the productivity of any plant. A good soil must have good texture, structure,
moisture content; must also be well aerated and fertile. The acidic or alkalinity of a
soil may determine kind of crop that can thrive on it.

3. Economic factors
When there is a greater demand for a particular crop, farmers tend to concentrate
on the production of the crop. Some crops may be grown in places where they
cannot thrive properly due to their economic value. Some farmers may also grow
cheaper crops. Farmers in Africa do not have the financial capacity to practice
mechanized farming.

65
4. Social factors
Lack of social amenities, lack of education and ignorance of the farmers who are
the rural area limit food production as most of the large expanse of lands are in the
rural areas.

5. Biotic factors
Livestock and crop diseases and pests are responsible for a large percentage of the
problems affecting food production.

6. Poor storage facilities and wastage.

Poor preservation techniques, late harvesting, microbes and storage pests are
other factors that affect food production.

13.2 WAYS OF IMPROVING CROP YIELD

1. Practicing mechanized farming with high level of technology.
2. Using selected agricultural chemicals.
3. Planting crop varieties and breeding livestock that are resistant to pests and
diseases.
4. Educating the farmers through agricultural extension programmes and
enlightenment campaigns.
5. Planting of crops that mature faster should be encouraged to create abundance.
6. Use of artificial vegetative propagation should be encouraged for quick harvest.
7. Provision of adequate infrastructure by the government will go a long way in
checking the rural – urban drift.
8. Government subsidy on agricultural chemicals and seedlings.
9. Irrigation methods should be encouraged where there is water shortage.
10. Use of proper storage techniques and preservation methods to prevent
wastage.
11. Financial institutions should be encouraged by the government to reduce
interest rates on loans used for agricultural purposes.

66
13.3 METHODS OF PRESERVATION

All methods of food preservation are based upon one or more of the following
principles:
(1) Prevention of contamination and removal of microorganisms,
(2) Inhibition of microbial growth and metabolism
(3) Killing of microorganisms. Prevention—or, more accurately, minimization—of
contamination is achieved by the sanitary handling of raw food products,
inhibition of growth by low temperatures (refrigeration or freezing), dehydration
by evaporation or by high concentrations of salt or sugar, and killing of microbes
by the application of high temperatures and, in some instances, radiation.

FREEZING/ REFRIDGERATION: This is keeping of food at a low temperature at

which microorganisms are inactive and cannot spoil it. Examples of foods
preserved this way include: meat, poultry, and fish.
SALTING: This is the covering of the food with excess salt in order to preserve it.
Meat and fish can be salted, drawing out all the moisture, making it unsuitable for
the microorganisms to thrive.
SMOKING: This method is used for meat, fish, poultry, maize, and groundnut. It is
the drying of food over the smoke of naked fire. The smoke contains chemicals that
poison the microorganisms.
PASTEURIZATION: Pasteurization is the application of heat to a food product in
order to destroy pathogenic (disease-producing) microorganisms, to inactivate
spoilage-causing enzymes, and to reduce or destroy spoilage microorganisms. The
relatively mild heat treatment used in the pasteurization process causes minimal
changes in the sensory and nutritional characteristics of foods compared to the
severe heat treatments used in the sterilization process. The temperature and time
requirements of the pasteurization process are influenced by the pH of the food.
When the pH is below 4.5, spoilage microorganisms and enzymes are the main
targets of pasteurization.

CANNING: most vegetables, fruits, meat and dairy products, and processed foods
are stored in tin cans, but soft drinks and many other beverages are now
commonly stored in aluminium cans, which are lighter and do not rust. Canneries
are usually located close to the growing areas of the product to be packed, since it
is desirable to can foods as quickly as possible after harvesting. The canning
process itself consists of several stages: cleaning (usually involves passing the raw
67
 food through tanks of water or under high-pressure water sprays, after which
vegetable or other products are cut, peeled, cored, sliced, graded, soaked,
pureed, and so on. Almost all vegetables and some fruits require blanching by
immersion in hot water or steam; this process softens the vegetable tissues and
makes them pliable enough to be packed tightly, while also serving to inactivate
enzymes that can cause undesirable changes in the food before canning.
Blanching also serves as an additional or final cleansing operation) ; filling the
containers with solid contents and, in many cases, with an accompanying liquid
(often brine or syrup) in order to replace as much of the air in the can as possible,
using automated machines, usually under a vacuum; closing and sealing the
containers; sterilizing the canned products at temperatures high enough and for a
long enough time to destroy all microorganisms (bacteria, moulds, yeasts) that
might still be present in the food contents; and labelling and warehousing the
finished goods.

DRYING: This is a process whereby moisture is removed from the food to a level
that Bacteria are unable to grow or secrete enzymes. It is done by drying the crops
or products using an oven or the sun.
IRRADIATION: involves the use of either high-speed electron beams or high-energy
radiation with wavelengths smaller than 200 nanometres, or 2000 angstroms (e.g.,
X rays and gamma rays). These rays contain sufficient energy to break chemical
bonds and ionize molecules that lie in their path. The two most common sources of
high-energy radiation used in the food industry are cobalt-60 and cesium-137). For
the same level of energy, gamma rays have a greater penetrating power into foods
than high-speed electrons.
CHEMICALS: Chemical food preservatives are substances which, under certain
conditions, either delay the growth of microorganisms without necessarily
destroying them or prevent deterioration of quality during manufacture and
distribution.
Sugar is used partly for this purpose in making jams, jellies, and marmalades and in
candying fruit. The use of vinegar and salt in pickling and of alcohol in brandying
also falls in this category. Some chemicals foreign to foods are added to prevent the
growth of microorganisms. The latter group includes some natural food
constituents such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C), which is added to frozen peaches to
prevent browning, Sodium benzoate and other benzoates are used as organic
preservatives and Sulfur dioxide are extensively used in wine making.

68
Exercise
1. The figure shows crop productivity for a range of plants but the bar graph is
incomplete.

(a) Complete the graph using the following data.

(b) State which crop has

(i) the highest average productivity,…………………………………………………….
(ii) the greatest difference between the average yield and the highest yield……………
(c) Outline how modern technology could be used to increase the productivity of a
crop from the average yield to a high yield.

69
14. POLLUTION
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment. These
contaminants cause instability, disorder, harm and discomfort to the living organisms.
Pollutants can take the form of chemicals or energy such as noise and heat.

Pollutants are elements of pollution which act as the contaminants in some cases
these pollutants are naturally occurring and are considered pollutants when they
exceed their natural level.

14.2. TYPES OF POLLUTION

AIR POLLUTION
Air pollutants include :
 sulphur and nitrogen oxides from burning of fossil fuel such as coal, oil and
natural gases.
 Chlorofluorocarbon from manufacture of coolants for fridges, air- conditions,
aerosol and foams.
 Smoke from combustion
 Dust particles from construction sites, mining and quarry activities.
 Heat from hydrothermal stations, industrial furnaces and thermal electrical
generating plants.
 Chemicals from application of pesticides and other agricultural activities.
 Radioactive rays from nuclear power stations.

Effects of air pollution

 Reduction in visibility.
 Damage of the ozone layer.
 Global warming.
 Acid rain.
 Genetic mutation in living organisms such as cancer
 Irritation of the respiratory tracts and diseases such as bronchitis.
 Leaching of soil.
 Poisoning and destruction of living organisms.

Control
 Banning of chemicals that encourage ozone layer depletion.
70
  Reducing the burning of fossil fuel by using alternative forms of energy.
 Recycling should be encouraged instead of incineration.
 Biodegradable substances should be used.
 Biological pest control methods should be employed.
 Use of dust collecting systems in industries such as electrostatic precipitation
and bag houses.

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollutants include:
 Sewage and domestic liquid waste dumped indiscriminately into the water
ways.
 Phosphate detergents from industries.
 Crude oil from oil spillage and drilling.
 Agricultural chemicals such as fertilisers and herbicides used in excessive
quantity.
 Hot water from cooling towers of industries.
 Chemical waste discharge from paint and galvanising industries.

Effects of water pollution

 Destruction of aquatic life due to suffocation.
 Eutrophication
 It makes the water unfit for domestic use.
 Poisoning of aquatic life.
 Encourage spread of water-borne diseases.
 Reduction of reproduction of aquatic organisms.
 Increases turbidity.
Control
 Treatment of sewage before discharge.
 Industrial liquid waste should be recycled.
 Constant inspection of oil pipes and prompt cleans up.
 Minimal use of agricultural chemicals.
 Use of biodegradable detergents.

71
15. CONSERVATION
Conservation is the rational use of earth’s natural resources to achieve the highest
sustainable quality of living for mankind. Conservation is the responsible stewardship
of the environment to preserve natural ecosystems while insuring that balanced
consideration is also given to human needs for production and recreation. People
vary in their opinions on the levels of importance of the various components and on
how much emphasis should be placed on each. Thus, some people view the primary
function of conservation as a mechanism to preserve natural habitats and wildlife,
whereas others view conservation as the means to assure the persistence of
economically important natural resources that are of direct benefit to humans.

15.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR CONSERVATION

Natural resources need to be conserved:
 To avoid depletion of the natural resources such as the forest which encourage
desert encroachment.
 The risk of extermination of our indigenous wildlife from uncontrolled hunting,
fishing and other adverse agricultural activities such as bush burning.
 High rate of soil degradation caused by erosion or other unsound agricultural
practices would be avoided.
 The dangers of pollution would be reduced from the ecosystem.

15.3 EXAMPLES OF CONSERVABLE RESOURCES

Renewable resources include: soil, wildlife, forest, water and air.
Non- renewable resources include: crude oil, minerals.

15.4 WAYS OF CONSERVING RESOURCES

WILD LIFE
 Establishment of game reserves to protect animals.
 Banning indiscriminating killing of wildlife.
 Prohibition of poaching.
 Prevention of pollution.
 Controlling deforestation.

SOIL
 Mulching of the soil.
 Cover cropping.
72
  Contour ploughing.
 Crop rotation.

15.5 AGENTS OF CONSERVATION

 The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural resources.
 World Wildlife Fund.
 Nigerian Conservation Foundation.
 Federal Environmental Protection Agency.
 Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Water resources and rural development.
15.6 WAYS OF SOLVING CONSERVATION PROBLEMS.

1. Including conservation education in school curriculum

2. Public enlightenment programs which help in achieving the goals of conservation.
3. Implementation of conservation laws.
4. Restriction of hunting to certain area.
5. Ban on sale of body parts of endangered species.
6. Strict penalties for poaching, sale of endangered species, illegal felling of trees.

73
16. ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Ecology can be defined as the study of living organisms in relation to
their environment that is, where they are suited to live. It is a practical
science involving
1. Measurement of physical factors affecting the environment
2. Study of distribution of living organisms between the environments.
3. Investigation of the interrelationship between the biotic and abiotic
factors.

IMPORTANCE OF ECOLOGY
As organisms we make the greatest impact on the environment, by our
manipulations. We need to study ecology to help us understand how we
affect our environment and enable us utilize the natural resources.

ORGANISATIONAL LEVELS OF ECOLOGY

Groups of organisms interact with one another and their non-living
environment to form levels of organization that increase both in size and
complexity.

ORGANISM

POPULATION

COMMUNITY

ECOSYSTEM

BIOSPHERE

74
 BIOSPHERE

ECOSYSTEM

COMMUNITY

POPULATION

ORGANISM

TYPES OF ECOLOGY

1. SYNECOLOGY: This is the study of natural communities and their interactions in

the ecosystem.
2. AUTECOLOGY: This is the study of individual species within the ecosystem.

ECOLOGICAL TERMS
ENVIRONMENT: This is the place where the organism lives, the physical
conditions of the place, their natural enemies and pathogens that affect them.
HABITAT: This is a place where an organism lives in the community. It is a
place that is suitable to its way of life. i.e habitat of caterpillar is the plant on
which it lives.
1. Aquatic habitats: puddles, freshwater, ponds, streams and flooded rice
field
2. Terrestrial habitats: bush, farmland, rain forests and deserts
3. Arboreal habitats: tree trunks and tree tops 75
BIOME: This is a major regional or global community of organisms characterized
by the climatic conditions and plants or a collection of similar ecosystems in a
particular region.
NICHE: An organism is usually confined to a particular part of a habitat. For
example, a caterpillar and an aphid which live on the same plant occupy different
positions or ecological niches on the plant.

The caterpillar lives mainly on the leaves and feeds on them

The aphid lives on the young shoot and sucks sap from it.

76
POPULATION: This is a group of organisms of the same species living together in
the same area.
COMMUNITY: A group of different species living together in one area that is
different populations sharing a common area.
BIOSPHERE: This is the part of the earth where life exists. It covers part of the
atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
ECOSYSTEM: This is the self contained part of the biosphere where organisms
interact with one another and with their environment or a localized group of
communities and their physical environment.

16.2 COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

BIOTIC COMPONENT
The biotic component form the living part of the ecosystem which include
 Food producers such as autotrophs, protophytes and chemosynthetic
Bacteria.
 Food consumers such as heterotrophs, parasites and phagophytes.
 Food decomposers such as saprophytes.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
The abiotic components are the non- living part of the ecosystem and they consist
of both natural resources and conditions.
 The abiotic resources are the resources that organisms need to stay alive.
This includes inorganic nutrients such as mineral salts, carbon dioxide, and
oxygen.
 Abiotic conditions are conditions that affect the behavior and breeding
pattern of an organism and therefore, these conditions determine the kind
of organisms that are found in a particular ecosystem (plant and animal
distribution). This condition include air pressure, water pressure, soil type,
temperature, humidity, water current, light intensity, cloud cover, wind
velocity and turbidity.

77
 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
1. The biotic and abiotic components interact e.g. feeding relationship.
2. It has a characteristic energy flow.
3. It is self supporting, that is the sizes of the biotic population adjust according
to the amount of food available to them.

16.3 MEASURING ECOLOGICAL FACTORS

TEMPERATURE: It is degree of hotness or coldness and this varies from place to

place, season to season, determining the existence of organisms in the area. It is
measured using a thermometer.

RAINFALL: rainfall is very important both in terrestrial and aquatic environment

as it plays a major role in the water cycle. It is measured with a rain gauge.

LIGHT: It is necessary for photosynthesis which is the major process for producers
to make their food. Hence, the amount of light intensity affects the terrestrial and
aquatic organisms. It is measured with a photometer.

HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION (pH): The pH values range from 1-14. The pH
is a factor limited to the aquatic environment and in the terrestrial environment
limited to the soil. In water pH varies with salinity. It is measured with a pH meter.

WIND: In aquatic environment, it produces current and waves, carrying rain

bearing clouds. On land, the winds help in dispersal of seeds and pollination.
Wind direction is determined by the wind vane and wind speed by anemometer.

SALINITY: This is the concentration of dissolved salts in water. Aquatic organisms

have to maintain the amount of salt water concentration in their bodies.

DENSITY: This is restricted to the aquatic environment and determines the region
of the water where the organisms can survive. It is measured with a hydrometer.

TURBIDITY: It is the amount of suspended matter in water which limits light

penetration. Light can penetrate to a greater depth below the water surface in
less turbid waters. It is measured with a secchi disc.
78
WATER CURRENT: Is caused by difference in temperature of the lower and upper
surfaces of the water. This factor increases the ventilation of the water. It is
measured with a simple float.

TIDAL MOVEMENTS OF WATER: This affects the biotic community found in the
intertidal zones of the sea shore and river mouth. Most organisms that exist here
attach to substrates like rocks while others have the habit of burrowing into the
soil.

DISSOLVED GASES: Oxygen decreases in concentration with water depth

RELATIVE HUMIDITY: This is the amount of moisture in the atmosphere and it

varies with other abiotic factors like temperature, rainfall and wind. It is
measured with a hygrometer.

LAND TOPOGRAPHY: this is sloppiness of the land. The slope gradient usually
affects plant growth and soil fertility. It is measured with a slope gauge.

AIR PRESSURE: is measured with a barometer.

WATER DEPTH: is measured with a depth gauge.

CLOUD COVER: It measured with ceilometers.

INSTRUMENTS USED IN MEASURING BIOTIC FACTORS

SWEEP NET: is used for collecting flying insects.

FISHING NET: is used for collecting aquatic specimen.

PIT FALL TRAP: is used for collecting crawling insects.

POOTER: used for collecting insects from the bark of trees.

TULLGREN FUNNEL: used for collecting soil organisms.

QUADRAT: used for measuring population.

79
SPECIMEN BOTTLE: used for temporary storage of specimen.

PIPETTE: used for collecting tiny aquatic organisms.

SOIL
Soil is a very important environmental factor, because plants rely on it for many
of their requirement.
Soil is formed from rocks. When rocks are weathered by wind, freezing and
thawing, or by water flowing over them, they are broken down into small
particles. These particles are gradually colonized by lichens, mosses and flowering
plants which die and decay with time enriching the particles.
Soil components: The soil has six main constituents. They are mineral particles,
humus, water, air, nutrient ions and living organisms.

Types of soil
Clayey soil
 The particles of clayey soil are very small and tightly packed.
 It is poorly drained and easily water logged.
 It is not easily prone to leaching.
 I t is plastic and sticky when wet.

Loamy soil
 It has a good mixture of sand and clay particles.
 It holds water and mineral ions not easily being water logged.
 It is moderately smooth.

Sandy soil
 The particles are very large.
 The particles are not closely packed and have large pores.
 It is well aerated and well drained.
 It cannot retain mineral ions, hence prone to leaching.

Functions of the soil

 Anchorage: Soil provides an anchorage for plants roots.
 Nutrient minerals: soil provides nutrients for plants, particularly minerals
such as nitrates, potassium salts.
 Water: Plants obtain water from the soil.
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  Air: Plant roots and other soil organisms need air, to provide them with
oxygen for respiration. A good soil has plenty of air spaces.
 Habitat: The soil is a dwelling place for living organisms.

FORMULAE FOR ESTIMATING SOIL COMPONENT

PERCENTAGE OF WATER
% WATER IN = WEIGHT OF WATER IN SOIL SAMPLE
SOIL SAMPLE ORIGINAL WEIGHT OF SOIL SAMPLE

PERCENTAGE OF HUMUS
% HUMUS IN = WEIGHT OF HUMUS IN SOIL SAMPLE X 100
SOIL SAMPLE ORIGINAL WEIGHT OF SOIL SAMPLE
(Before drying)

METHODS OF ESTIMATING POPULATION

1. DIRECT COUNT METHOD: This involves counting of all organisms physically.

2. QUADRAT METHOD: This method entails the use of a wooden or metal quadrat
which is fixed or movable. The principles involved in the use of quadrat include:
 Making throws at random.
 Making at least ten throws.
 Estimating stationary organisms.
 Avoiding overlap of throws.
 Measuring the total area being sampled.

AVERAGE FREQUENCY= TOTAL NUMBER OF ORGANISMS

TOTAL AREA QUADRAT COVERED
TOTAL ESTIMATE= AVERAGE FREQUENCY X TOTAL AREA OF SAMPLING PLOT.

3. TRANSECT METHOD: Involves tying a line across the sampling plot and marking
the line at regular intervals. At these interval a record of the species that occur
are taken and a table of frequency drawn. It is used to estimate population of a
transitional habitat. The principles of using a transect include:
 Field must be very large.
 Record of species must be taken at regular intervals.
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  Population been estimated must be stationary.

4. MARK, RELEASE AND RECAPTURE METHOD: This method involves capturing a

large population of mobile organisms which are marked, released and recaptured.

ND
NUMBER OF ANIMALS X NUMBER OF ANIMALS CAUGHT THE 2 TIME
CAUGHT THE FIRST TIME NUMBER OF MARKED ANIMALS CAUGHT
ND
THE 2 TIME

16.4 ECOLOGICAL ROLES

All organisms have roles to play in their communities. Although these roles ensure
their survival because it allows them to get food it also makes the organisms
interdependent.
The major ecological roles include:
Producer: This role is played by the autotrophs which are plants or other
chemosynthetic organisms such as algae. Their job is to capture energy from the
sun or chemicals and use inorganic materials to manufacture food.
Consumer: This role is played by animals or other heterotrophs which depend
directly or indirectly on plants and other autotrophs for food. There are 3
categories of consumers:
 Primary consumer: depends directly on plant materials for food. This set of
animals is usually herbivores.
 Secondary consumer: depends directly on the herbivores and indirectly on
the plants.
 Tertiary consumer: depends directly on carnivorous animals for food or are
decomposers/ scavengers.
 NOTE: Some organisms can fit into more than one role; hence the feeding
relationship determines which role is played at a particular time. The
positions occupied by the organisms as a result of the role played in the
feeding relationship to as trophic level that is, feeding level.

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16.5 ECOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

Life within ecological communities revolves around relationships or

interactions. There are 3 major categories of relationships: competition,
dependence and Interdependence.

Types of association

 Parasitism: is an association in which one organism (the parasite) lives on or

in the body of another organism (the host). The parasite derives its
nutrients from the host at the host’s expense. The external living parasites
are known as ectoparasites while the internal living ones are known as
endoparasites. Examples of parasites includes plants such as dodder, witch
weed, mistletoe ,animals such as
louse,ticks,plasmodium,leech,aphids,mites,trypanosome,tapeworm,ascaris
and guinea worm.
 Symbiosis is a close association of two or more species of organisms which
are beneficial to one or both organisms.
 Mutualism: is the relationship between two organisms of different
species, in which both benefit from the relationship.

Examples: 1. Lichen results from this type of relationship between the 10%algae
and 90% fungi; where the latter helps attach the fungi to substrates by mycelia so
that the algae can receive maximum light for photosynthesis.

2. Protists living in the gut of the termites which help the termite digest the
cellulose from the wood it has eaten; it in turn gets a constant supply of food and
a stable environment to dwell.

3. Rhizobium bacteria found in the root nodules of legumes; the bacteria obtain
carbohydrate from the plant and provide the plant with ammonium compounds.

4. Microorganisms in the intestine of ruminants which help the ruminant break

down the cellulose from the plant material they eat and get constant supply of
food and shelter.

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5. Boxer crab has anemones attached to its pincers, which it uses to defend itself
from predators in turn the anemones get scraps of food from the crab.

 Commensalism: is an association between two species of organisms

in which one (commensal) benefits but the other (host) is unaffected.
The commensal benefits shelter and food.

Examples: 1. the relationship between the remora fish (commensal) and the
shark.

2. Epiphytes (commensal) and rainforest trees. The epiphytes get physical support
so they are in position to get maximum amount of sunlight for photosynthesis.

16.6 FOOD CHAINS AND WEBS.

One of the ways by which organisms show interdependence is by feeding. Feeding
is one of the ways by which energy is transferred from one organism to another in
the ecological community. The linkage of this energy transfer is referred to as
food chain.
FOOD CHAIN: is a sequence by which energy in form of food passes from one
organism to another. And every food chain begins with a producer, as energy is
passed along this food chain, each organism uses part of this energy for its
metabolism so the further along the food chain, the organism is the less the
energy available to it. Therefore, the shorter the food chain the more efficient it
is.
RAIN FOREST HABITAT
TREE LOG TERMITE INSECT EATING BIRD HAWKS

SAVANNA HABITAT
GRASS GRASSHOPPER LIZARD SNAKE

MARINE HABITAT
DIATOM COPEPOD TILAPIA SHARK

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DESERTED FARM LAND
r
POND
LEMMA DRAGONFLY FROG

FOOD WEB: In the community more than one organism might depend on a
particular organism for energy hence the existence of related or linked food chains.
The food web can be defined as a network of interlinked or inter-related food
chains.

DIAGRAM OF A TERRESTRIAL FOOD WEB

16.6 ENERGY FLOW

Understanding how energy is passed along the food chain can be useful in
agriculture. We can eat a wide variety and can feed at several different trophic
levels. The most form of efficient sort of food for the farmer to grow and for us to
eat would depend on its nearness to the beginning of the food chain, this is why
our staple foods are plants e.g wheat, rice, potatoes, plantain and cassava. When
we eat meat, eggs and drink milk, we are feeding further along the food chain and
the energy available to us is lower than the original energy provided by the sun.
In principle, it is more efficient to eat grass in the field than to allow the cattle eat
it and then eat the cattle. However, there are many plant products which we can
eat e.g soya beans, this yields a high amount of protein, it is much more efficient
in terms of energy and cheaper than other forms of flesh e.g beef.

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16.7 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

PYRAMID OF ENERGY: is a diagram that compares energy used by the producer,

consumer and other trophic levels. The pyramid therefore illustrates how
available energy is distributed among the trophic levels in an ecosystem.
The unit of measurement used to describe the amount of energy at the trophic
level is kilojoules (KJ).Each horizontal bar or tier of the pyramid represents the
trophic level with the size correlating with the amount of energy at that level.
The typical energy pyramid is upright with a very large section at the base for the
producer and sections that become progressively smaller above.
Note: Between each tier up to 70% of the energy is lost as heat and waste into
the atmosphere.

OWL
270KJ
FERRET
900KJ
PRIAIRE DOG 3000KJ

GRASS 10000KJ

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PYRAMID OF ENERGY

PYRAMID OF NUMBERS: is a representation of the numbers of individual

organisms at each trophic level of an ecosystem. It is particularly effective in
showing the vast number of producers required to support even a few top level
consumers. The pyramid of numbers maybe upright or inverted. The inverted
pyramid usually occurs when the producer is a single tree. This single tree would
be greatly outnumbered by the primary and secondary consumers such as insects
and birds that live within it. The pyramid could also be irregular, when there are
parasitic consumers in the food chain.

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 50 FOXES

200 RABBITS

1000 GRASSES

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE NORMAL PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

20 BLUE TITS

100 CATEPILLARS

1 OAK TREE

DIAGRAM SHOWING AN INVERTED PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

5 CATTLE EGRETS

150 TICKS

5 COWS

300 GRASSES

DIAGRAM SHOWING AN IRREGULAR PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

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PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: is a diagram that compares the biomass of different
trophic levels within the ecosystem. Biomass is a measure of total dry mass of
organisms in a given area. It provides a picture of the mass of producers needed
to support primary consumers, the mass of primary consumers required to
support secondary consumers and so on. Usually when a consumer incorporates
the biomass of a producer into its own biomass, a great deal of energy is lost in
the process as heat and waste. The conversion of biomass of a consumer is
inefficient. The unit of biomass is gram per metre .
NOTE: The pyramid of biomass can also be inverted when there are seasonal
changes.

2
75g/m
MAN
2
150 g/m
CARNIVOROUS FISH
2
675 g/m HERBIVOROUS FISH

2
2000 g/m ALGAE

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

16.8 ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN NATURE

In nature, energy exists in different forms which are inter convertible that is, one
form of energy can be transformed into another. Such energy transformations are
brought about by living organisms and governed by the laws of thermodynamics.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The first law states that energy may be changed from one form to
another, but it can never be create nor destroyed.

 The second law states that no process of energy transformation

occurs without a part of energy being converted to heat. It is also
called the law of entropy.
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The food resulting from photosynthesis in the green plant contains potential
energy. This potential energy is a result of light energy tapped by the plant from
the sun which it converted to chemical energy (carbohydrate).This chemical
energy is used for growth, respiration and the rest is stored as potential energy in
the plants. The primary consumer that feeds on this plant converts the potential
energy to chemical energy which it uses for growth, respiration etc. and even
movement which is kinetic energy. The same occurs as the energy is being
transferred from one trophic level to another as energy does not remain in one
form but is converted to various forms. As this energy moves from one trophic
level to another, no energy is destroyed neither is any created but at every
trophic level, some amount of energy is converted to heat which enters into the
atmosphere.

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EXERCISE
The Figure shows a food web for British toads.

(i) State the trophic level of toads.

(ii) State which foods the two species of toad both eat.
(iii) With reference only to food, suggest why the Common toad is more likely to
survive when the two species are in competition.

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91
17. MICROORGANISMS.
Micro organisms are living organisms that are minute and too small for the naked
eyes to see. They can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. Some
microorganisms are harmful while others are useful. Microorganisms can be
grouped as such: Bacteria, Fungi, Protists, Viruses and Algae.

15. 2 TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS

BACTERIA: are minute unicellular organisms which reproduce by binary fission. A
bacterium consists of a cell covered with or without a slimy capsule, a cell wall,
dense cytoplasmic granules and nuclear materials (DNA).

CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA
Bacteria can be classified using two criteria:

1. Classification based on type of respiration:

 Aerobic bacteria: require oxygen to respire.
 Anaerobic bacteria: require no oxygen to respire.
 Facultative bacteria: respire with or without oxygen.

2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SHAPES:

 Spherical bacteria known as cocci.
1. Streptococci: are arranged to form a chain e.g. Sore throat bacteria.
2. Staphylococci: are stuck together to form irregular bunches.
3. Diplococci: are struck together in pairs e.g. pneumococcal bacteria that
cause pneumonia.
 Rod like bacteria known as Bacilli.e.g. Bacteria that cause typhoid fever.
1. Spirilla: are twisted bacilli.
 Helix shaped bacteria known as Spirochaetae e.g. Treponema bacteria that
cause syphilis.
 Comma shaped bacteria known as Vibrio.e.g. Vibrio cholera that cause
cholera.

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 Diagram of a bacterium

FUNGI: are non- photosynthesising plant- like organisms which are either
saprophytes or parasites. The saprophytic ones are beneficial in biodegradation
while the parasitic ones are harmful. Examples include Mucor, aspergillum,
penicillum, ring worm, Tinea.

PROTOCTISTA: Is unicellular free living or parasitic plant like or animal like

organism which is mostly carried by vectors.

VIRUSES: are the tiniest group of microorganisms which have the following
characteristics:
 Their nuclear materials are enclosed in a protein wall.
 They behave like living organisms when within another living cell.
 They are host specific and predominantly parasitic. Examples include:
Human Immunodeficiency virus, Cold virus and mumps virus, influenza
virus, poliomyelitis virus.
ALGAE: Most are small and unicellular. They contain chlorophyll. They exist in
water bodies such as ponds, lakes e.t.c. and on land under stones, damp soil, on
plants and animals.
15.3 HARMUL MICROORGANISMS
Harmful microbes are referred to as pathogens. They cause contagious and
infectious diseases as they gain entry into the body through cuts, wounds, intake
of contaminated food and drink, inhalation and contact with vectors.
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EFFECT OF PATHOGENS
1. Bacterium: Vibrio cholera
Disease: Cholera
Mode of transmission: Taking contaminated food and drink.
Symptoms: Profuse diarrhoea and vomiting.

2. Virus: Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Disease: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
Mode of transmission: Sharing contaminated sharp objects, sexual intercourse
and infected blood transfusion.
Symptoms: Depression of immunity, excessive weight loss and loss of appetite.

3. Fungus
Disease: Ring worm
Mode of transmission: Contact with infected persons and their clothing.
Symptom: Red round patches on the skin and scalp resulting in hair loss.

4. Bacterium: Clostridium tetani

Disease: Tetanus
Mode of transmission: Contamination of wound with dirt containing the germs.
Symptom: Muscles twitch, locked jaw, aching limbs and painful breathing.

5. Bacterium: Salmonella typhi

Disease: Typhoid
Mode of transmission: Taking contaminated food and drink.
Symptom: Fever, severe frontal headache and muscular pain.

6. Bacterium: Meningococcus
Disease: Cerebrospinal meningitis
Mode of transmission: Droplet infection
Symptom: high fever, head ache, stiff neck, photophobia, convulsion and coma.

7. Virus
Disease: Rabies
Mode of transmission: Bites from infected cat, dogs, bats and racoons.
Symptom: High fever, hydrophobia.

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8. Fungus: Tinea
Disease: athlete’s foot
Mode of transmission: contact with infected floors in communal showers and
swimming pools, Poor personal hygiene.
Symptom: cracking and flaking skin of the foot.

9. Bacterium: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Disease: Tuberculosis
Mode of transmission: By droplet infection, using infected person’s eating
utensils.
Symptom: Intense persistent cough with phlegm stained with blood

10. Bacterium: Neisseria gonorrhoea

Disease: Gonorrhoea
Mode of transmission: sexual intercourse with infected person
Symptom: Discharge of pus from genital organ, itching around genital and pain
with burning sensation during urination.

11. Virus: Hepatitis A and B

Disease: Hepatitis
Mode of transmission: Contaminated water, intrinsic contact with infected person
Symptom: Yellowing of eyes, dark coloured urine

15.4 BENEFICIAL MICROORGANISMS

Beneficial microbes have various economical importance such as:
1. The bacteria in the human intestine assist in the digestion of foods.
2. Some bacteria occurring on the human skin help in the production of
substances that protect it.
3. Some bacteria in the human body aids the production of vitamin K.
4. Bacteria are used in sewage treatment and decomposition.
5. Bacteria are used in the food industries for the breaking down of cellulose and
clearing of fruit drinks.
6. The nitrifying bacteria help in nitrogen fixing in the soil.
7. Microbes are used in the pharmaceutical industries for the manufacture of
antibiotics, vitamin C, vitaminB12, artificial insulin and riboflavin.

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8. Microbes such as yeast are used in the alcoholic fermentation of sugars in the
breweries and distillers. It is also used in the bakery for rising dough.
9. Microbes such as Saccharomyces, lactobacillus are used in diary industry for
the manufacture of cheese, yoghurt.
10. Acetobacter is used in the manufacture of vinegar.
11. Fusarium which is a fungus is used in the manufacture of mycoprotein (a rich
source of protein that tastes like meat).

15.5 CONTROL OF MICROORGANISMS

Methods of controlling pathogenic microbes
 High salinity: High salt content destroys microbes that cause decay.
 Dehydration: This process entails the removal of water from substances.
The dehydration of microbes stops their metabolic activities, therefore
decreasing their population.
 High temperature: some microbes are destroyed at very high temperature
o
of about 150 C. Hence, it is applied during the process of sterilisation and
pasteurization.
 Antibiotics: are compounds that are synthesized and excreted from specific
microbes which are selectively toxic to others .e.g. Penicillin, Streptomycin,
Tetracycline.
 Antiseptics: are used to destroy or prevent the growth of bacteria and
viruses in the body. E.g. Hydrogen peroxide, common salt, Naphthalene or
camphor.
15.6 CULTURING MICROORGANISMS.
Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and protists can be cultured using dead
organic substances while viruses require living substances to thrive.
 Viruses can actually live on a bacterium and as it dwells within the
bacterium, releasing its DNA and instructing the bacterium to copy it
enclosing by a viral coat, when all the viruses are assembled the bacterium
wall breaks open releasing viruses.

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Diagram showing how virus infects the bacterium

 As for bacteria and fungi, they are easily cultured although requiring three
essential things: water, food source and warm temperature. Some of them
require oxygen which would be the fourth essential provision.
Culturing bacteria in the laboratory
1. Sterilise all apparatus and materials to be used.
2. Prepare the agar and pour the molten mixture into a Petri dish.
3. Seal the Petri dish with cellotape so the lid doesn’t accidentally drop.
4. Collect a small quantity of the medium containing the bacteria to be
cultured .e.g. pond water.
5. Insert the inoculating needle or loop in hot flame to sterilise it, then put
it into the medium to pick up some of the bacteria to be cultured.
6. Make specific designs or marks on the agar using the infected needle or
loop.
7. Cover and reseal the Petri dish.
8. The Petri dish is then placed in an incubator at an adequate
temperature.

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 EXERCISE
The figure below shows a diagram of a bacterial cell.

(a) (i) State four structural features, present in a photosynthesizing plant cell, that
make it different from the bacterial cell in the figure.
(ii) State two structural features present in both the bacterial cell in the figure and
in an
animal cell, such as a liver cell.
(b) Bacteria are examples of microorganisms.
State two different types of food manufactured using microorganisms.
(c) Many bacterial diseases can no longer be treated with antibiotics. Outline how
Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria can develop.
(d) Explain why bacteria, in particular, are very useful organisms in the
process of genetic engineering.

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18 VECTORS
Carriers of microorganisms are referred to as vectors. They have this privilege
because of their characteristic mode of life, dwelling places and life style which make
them suitable victims. Some of these vectors include
FEMALE ANOPHELES MOSQUITO
PATHOGENS: plasmodium, filial worm
DISEASES: Malaria, Elephantiasis
CONTROL:
 Use insecticides to kill the adult form.
 Clearing stagnant water and bushes which are breeding sites.
 Pouring oil in stagnant water to suffocate the larvae.
 By using electrical traps
 Using mosquito nets to cover windows and doors.
FEMALE CULEX MOQUITO
PATHOGENS: Yellow fever virus, filial worm
DISEASES: Yellow fever, Elephantiasis
CONTROL: Same control methods as used for Anopheles mosquito.

HOUSE FLY
PATHOGENS: Vibrio cholera, polio virus.
DISEASES: Cholera, Poliomyelitis
CONTROL:
 By covering food and drinks.
 By washing your hands after using the toilet.
 Flushing the toilet after use and covering of the dustbin.
 By disposing sewage and organic waste properly.

COCKROACH
PATHOGENS: polio virus, Entamoeba histolytica
DISEASES: Poliomyelitis, Dysentery
CONTROL:
 Sweeping and tidying up of rooms.
 Using insecticides to kill adult forms.
 Regular garbage disposal
 Avoid cluttering of rooms

TSE TSE FLY

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PATHOGEN: Trypanosome
DISEASE: sleeping sickness/ trypanosomaisis
CONTROL:
 Spraying insecticides on the bushes.
 Clearing their breeding grounds.

BLACK FLY
PATHOGEN: Onchocerca/microfilaria
DISEASE: River blindness
CONTROL:
 By spraying insecticide to kill the adult form
 By growing the bacteria which are their natural enemy in the rivers.
 By clearing the bushes around the rivers.

LICE
PATHOGEN: Rickettsiae
DISEASE: Typhus
CONTROL:
 By washing your hair, body and clothes regularly.
 By using special pesticides in powder form.

FRESH WATER SNAIL

PATHOGEN: Schistosoma
DISEASE: schistomiasis
CONTROL:
 By destroying the snail.
 Keeping the water free from weeds.

RAT
PATHOGEN: bacteria, virus
DISEASE: bubonic plague
CONTROL:
 Destroying the rats using poison.
 Using their biological enemy cats.
 Destroying the rats using traps.

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