Eur J Wildl Res (2005) 51: 199–206
DOI 10.1007/s10344-005-0092-1
O R I GI N A L P A P E R
Thierry Bonaudo Æ Yvonnick Le Pendu
Jean François Faure Æ Darcisio Quanz
The effects of deforestation on wildlife along the transamazon highway
Received: 23 November 2004 / Accepted: 22 March 2005 / Published online: 10 May 2005

Springer-Verlag 2005
Abstract Hunting, although prohibited, is widely prac-
ticed by the rural inhabitants settled along the Tran-
samazon highway. In 1997 and 2000, we investigated
subsistence hunting in Uruará, a township located on an
Amazonian pioneer front (Brazil). We analyze hunting
practices, game yield, hunting efficiency and their rela-
tion to forest coverage rate. The hunting methods were
stand hunting (55.5%) and beating (44.5%). Paca
(Agouti paca), tatus (Dasypus novemcinctus and D. sep-
temcinctus), and collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) were
the most frequently hunted species, supplying 68% of
the gross game weight. Beating was significantly more
efficient than stand hunting (3 vs. 1.9 kg/hunter/h,
Mann–Whitney U test, P=0.02). Hunting territories
were classified in three categories according to forest
coverage rate. The higher the forest coverage rate the
larger was the harvested species and the more efficient
the hunter (Kruskal–Wallis test P=0.01). Considering
the ecological and demographic changes in this pioneer
T. Bonaudo (&)
Département TERA-Green, CIRAD,
TA 60/15, 73 rue JF Breton,
34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
E-mail: b_thierry@yahoo.com
Tel.: +33-467-615966
Fax: +33-467-614415
Y. Le Pendu
Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC),
Departamento de Ciências Biológicas,
Rodovia Ilhéus/Itabuna km 16,
CEP: 45662-000 Salobrinho,
Ilhéus, Ba, Brazil
E-mail: yvonnick@uesc.br
J. F. Faure
Unité de Service ESPACE,
IRD Centre IRD d’Orléans Technoparc,
5 rue du Carbone, 45072 Orléans Cedex 2,
France
D. Quanz
Embrapa, CEP: 68 140-000 Uruará,
Pará, Brazil
settlement, development of a viable plan for game
management and forest preservation is of great impor-
tance.
Keywords Subsistence hunting Æ Amazon region Æ
Game harvest Æ Pioneer settlement Æ Deforestation Æ
Hunting techniques
Introduction
In Brazil, vast colonization programs were started dur-
ing the second half of the twentieth century with the
settlement of thousand colons along axes of penetration
called pioneers fronts. Anthropogenic degradation is
more pronounced in border zones between wooded
ecosystems and agricultural areas. Cattle ranching and
lumbering are the main causes of both deforestation and
the building of these new rural areas. The pasture would
cover 80% of all deforested surfaces (Santana et al.
1997). The National Institute for Space Research sug-
gests that from 1978 to 2000, 65 millions hectares of
forest were lost in the Brazilian Amazonian region, i.e.
more than the surface of Germany and Italy together
(INPE 2003).
Redford (1993) estimates that rural Amazonian
populations in Brazil hunt 14 million mammals yearly.
Peres (2000) increased the number to 23.5 million
mammals killed every year. Under this circumstance,
game meat consumption would be up to 89.224 tons
representing a value of US$ 190 million per year (Peres
2000). In spite of its ecological, economic and food
supply importance, fauna exploitation is not submitted
to management or valorization. Even though legally
forbidden, hunting is widely practiced. The majority of
the rural population practices subsistence hunting. In
fact, game is the most accessible source of animal pro-
tein. At the same time, hunting is a pastime maintaining
social relations with neighbours. Consequently, it is
necessary to put in place new ways of exploiting faunal
200

resources while meeting local population needs and

preserving Amazonian biodiversity. This study analyzes
hunting practices on a pioneer front and tests the rela-
tion between game yield, hunting efficiency and forest
cover.
We also compare our results with those of a similar
study conducted in the same region at the beginning of
its colonization (Smith 1976) in order to detect any
change in the hunting methods and game yield.
Methods
Study Site
The survey took place in the Uruará township (Pará,
Brazil), 180 km west of Altamira on the Transamazon
highway, between 0251 S¢ and 0416 S¢ and 5309 W¢
and 5417 W¢ (Fig. 1). Since 1970, this township has

Fig. 1 Location of the study

site
 201

grown rapidly with the immigration of farmers coming 2. Reports: hunters filled out activity report sheets every
from southern and northeastern regions, with a limited time they hunted, even when hunting was not suc-
knowledge of the Amazonian environment. Actually, cessful. A hunt was considered successful when at
13,000 urban and 32,000 rural inhabitants live on the least one animal was killed. A scientist (T.B.) visited
10.666 km2 of the township (IBGE 2000). Human den- each hunter weekly in order to help him fill out the
sity is low, about 4 inhabitants/km2, and is concentrated hunting activity report sheets.
along the communication axes (Transamazon highway 3. Direct observations: The same scientist accompanied
and trails). each hunter, two to three times to validate the data
Farming is the main activity, with more than 6,500 collected during the interview.
rural households. More than 70% of the agricultural
These methods allowed collecting individual data on
exploitations have an area of less than 150 ha (Veiga
methods, frequencies and duration of hunting, as well as
et al. 1996). Production is divided between annual (rice,
the number of participants and the game yield.
cassava, corn, bean) and perennial crops (pepper, coffee,
Consumed game species were allocated to three
cacao), as well as extensive cattle ranching (Ferreira
groups according to body weight. ‘‘Small’’ species weigh
2001; Toni 2003). Game meat is an important part of the
less than 10 kg: armadillo, Dasypus novemcinctus and D.
diet for settlers who generally live in isolation. The
septemcinctus; paca, Agouti paca; Brazilian agouti,
average game meat consumption is 16.42 kg/individual/
Dasyprocta leporina; marail guan, Penelope marail.
year (Bonaudo et al. 2001). Lumbering is the second
‘‘Medium-size’’ species weigh from 10 kg to 20 kg: col-
economic activity in the township and employs 1,500–
lared peccary, Pecari tajacu and gray brocket deer,
2,000 people.
Mazama gouazoupira. ‘‘Large’’ species weigh more than
Anthropogenic degradation is still limited: in 1999,
20 kg: white-lipped peccary, Tayassu pecari; red brocket
the forest ecosystem represented more than 85% of the
deer, M. americana; capybara, Hydrochaeris hydrochae-
surface of the township and the yearly deforestation rate
ris. Jaguar (Panthera onca), margay cat (Leopardus
was only 1% from 1992 to 1999 (Venturieri et al. 2003).
wiedii) and coati (Nasua nasua) were also hunted but not
The climate is equatorial, warm and humid with a rainy
consumed.
season from December to May and a mild dry season
Game gross weight for each consumed species was
the rest of the year.
estimated by multiplying the number of animals killed
by the mean gross weight of the species. The values used
were provided by Fonseca et al. (1996) for mammals and
Study period and hunters
Thery et al. (1992) for guan marail.
Hunter efficiency was defined as the mean gross
This study focuses on rural hunters, for whom game is
weight of consumed game harvested by a hunter during
an important nutritional part of their diet. We studied
an hour. Values were compared according to hunting
the practices of 40 hunters living along 15 trails. The
method (non parametric Mann–Whitney U test) and to
surveys were conducted in two periods, from May 27th
forest recovery rate of the hunting territory (non para-
to September 29th of 1997 (127 days), and from April
metric Kruskall–Wallis test and Dunn’s Multiple Com-
28th to July 18th of 2000 (81 days). The surveys repre-
parisons test).
sented 133 and 94 hunting expeditions, respectively.

Hunting territory
Data collection
Each hunter had two to five favorite hunting locations
This study was completed successfully thanks to the
situated at a distance of 0–20 km from their house.
collaboration of Embrapa Amazônia Oriental agents
However, more than 95% of the hunting is carried out
and rural development technicians having the trust of
on foot, at a maximum range of 5 km from the house.
the population. This allowed us to accompany them and
Therefore, each hunting territory was defined as a disk
present this research to the communities. We worked
of 10 km in diameter centered on the house of the
with the most interested colons. The first hunters who
hunter.
joined the project led other hunters to collaborate. The
The forest coverage rate of each individual hunting
fact that one of the scientists (T.B.) lived in the township
territory was calculated from a 1999 satellite picture
during several months prior to the study and knew the
(Landsat ETM+ scene). After correction, the channels
hard realities of pioneers’ life also facilitated to build
3, 4 and 5 of the picture were organized by automatic
relations of trust.
algorithms, according to a semi-supervised method
Three methods were used to study hunting practices:
elaborated from fit together masks (ERDAS Imagine
1. Interviews: hunters were questioned about their software).
practices, i.e. hunting methods, hunting frequency Knowledge of the study site and the analysis of the
according to season, harvested game species and satellite picture helped us to isolate main structures like
locations. water bodies, vegetation, roads, and bare soils. Then,
202
those structural entities were divided in subtypes corre-
sponding to different ecosystems: forest, fallows, pas-
tures, etc. Forest recovery rate of each hunting territory
was determined by superimposing the disks on the
transformed image. These rates were then allocated to
one of the three following types of habitat:
Type 1: 49–65% of forest (n=8 territories)
Type 2: 66–85% of forest (n=19)
Type 3: more than 86% of forest (n=10).
Results
Hunting methods
Beating and stand hunting are the two methods used
locally. A hunter chooses the technique according to his
preference and the opportunity to have dogs. The search
for a specific kind of game and the ecological charac-
teristics of the hunting location do not influence his
choice.
Beating is done by one to six individuals with their
dogs (1–12) and is carried out throughout the year. It
begins at dawn and ends at noon, so that dogs can
use fresh tracks on the trails. Beatings represent 44.5%
(101/227) of all hunting. Peccaries, felines and coatis
are killed exclusively during beatings. Hunting of
brocket deer is mainly done by beating but deer are
occasionally killed during stand hunting (Table1).
Beating represents only 11% (n=5) of hunts con-
ducted in hunting territories of type 1 but is prefer-
entially practiced in more forested hunting territories
(50 and 55% of hunts in hunting territories of type 2
and 3, respectively).
Stand hunting is practiced alone, generally at night
during the dry season. The hunter hides and waits at the
bottom of a tree producing fruits that are sought by
game. This method represents 55.5% of all hunting (126/
227). Armadillos and pacas are mainly killed during
stand hunting at night (respectively 63 and 79%, Ta-
ble 1). This method is mainly practiced in low forested
hunting territories, representing 89% (n=41) of the
hunts conducted in hunting territories of type 1.
Therefore forest recovery rate seems to influence the
choice of hunting method.
Hunters use 0.16 to 0.36-caliber rifles and home-made
ammunition. Hunting methods and tools are rudimen-
tary.
Duration and frequency of hunts
Hunting duration is highly variable, from 30 min to
12 h. Mean hunt duration is 3 h and 47 min (n=185
hunts of known duration) and does not differ
according to the method used (Mann–Whitney U test,
P=0.38) or among habitat types (Kruskall–Wallis test,
P=0.78).
According to the interviews, hunters go hunting on
an average 3.6 times a month during the dry season and
only once every 2 months during the rainy season (an-
nual mean=2). During our survey, hunters went out on
an average of 2.3 times a month (SD=1.8, min=0 and
max=7.7 hunt/month). Only three hunters did not
shoot during our study period.
Hunted species
Pacas and armadillos represent 61% of the animals
killed, with 81 and 46 individuals, respectively (Table 1).
Collared peccaries and red brocket deer are also fre-
quently hunted. Transformed to gross weight values
(Table 1), the same game species come first with paca
(664 kg, 26%) followed by armadillo (570 kg, 22%) and
collared peccary (522 kg, 20%).
Game yield
A mean number of 0.92 animals are killed during a hunt,
corresponding to a mean gross weight of 6.33 kg of
game (n=227 hunts). Beating is significantly more effi-
cient than stand hunting: 3.01 versus 1.91 kg (Mann–
Whitney U test, P=0.02; Table 2). Game species differ
according to the technique used: medium and large
species like deer and peccaries are mainly hunted during
beating whereas small species like pacas and armadillos
are killed during stand hunting.
The percentage of successful hunts is high in all types
of habitat: 65, 63.9 and 69.7% respectively in types 1, 2
and 3. Yet, hunter efficiency varies according to the type
of habitat (Kruskall–Wallis test, P=0.01; Table 3): it is
significantly higher in type 3 than in type 1 (2.84 vs.
1.53 kg/hunter/hour, Dunn’s Multiple Comparisons
Test, P<0.01) and in type 2 than in type 1 (2.53 vs.
1.53 kg/hunter/hour, Dunn’s Multiple Comparisons
Test, P<0.05). Table 1 details hunting efficiency for
each consumed species and habitat type during 100 h. It
is based on hunting of known durations of this study i.e.
includes stand hunting and beating in the proportion
showed in Table 2.
Prey size
The size of the killed animals depends on the forest
coverage rate (Fig. 2). In hunting territories of type 1,
86% (31/36) of the animals killed are small and only 3%
(1/36) are large. In highly forested hunting territories of
type 3, large species represent 25% (20/77) of the ani-
mals killed. The higher the forest coverage rate, the
higher the proportion of large species killed. The largest
proportion of medium size prey is encountered in
hunting territories of type 2.
Table 1 Hunted species and number of animals killed according to the method used; relative importance of species hunted according to gross weight; harvested game by a hunter during 100 h according to the
forest coverage rate of the hunting territory by weight (227 hunts)

Scientific Brazilian Number of % of total % of animals % of animals Unitary mean total gross % of total Number of animals Gross weight (kg) killed
Name Name* animals animals killed during killed during gross weight weight (kg) gross killed by a hunter by a hunter during 100 h
killed killed beating stand hunting (kg)* weight uring 100 h according according to the forest
to the forest coverage coverage rate of the
rate of the hunting hunting territory #
territory #

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 1 Type 2 Type 3

Agouti paca Paca 81 38,9 21 79 8.2 664.2 26.03 13.28 13.22 9.67 108.87 108.37 79.32
+
Dasypus sp. Tatu 46 22,1 37 63 2.9 570 22.34 5.64 6.22 9.39 16.35 18.05 27.24
Pecari tajacu Caititu 30 14,4 100 0 19 522 20.46 0.00 3.04 1.35 0.00 57.80 25.61
Mazama americana Veado-mateiro 18 8,6 87 13 29 210 8.23 0.00 1.82 3.02 0.00 52.66 87.44
Mazama gouazoupira Veado-catingueiro 8 3,9 63 37 16 200 7.84 3.58 0.35 0.16 57.25 5.66 2.55
Tayassu pecari Queixada 7 3,4 100 0 30 128 5.02 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.00 0.00 12.87
Dasyprocta leporina Cutia 5 2,4 33 67 2.2 133.4 5.23 0.00 3.61 3.68 0.00 7.95 8.09
Hydrochaeris Capivara 4 1,9 100 0 50 11 0.43 0.25 0.15 0.69 12.25 7.53 34.72
hydrochaeris
Penelope marail Jacu 4 1,9 0 100 1 4 0.16 0.00 0.31 0.74 0.00 0.31 0.74
Leopardus wiedii Gato-maracajá 3 1,5 100 0 3.2 9.6 0.38 0.00 1.17 0.00 0.00 3.73 0.00
Panthera onca Onça 1 0,5 100 0 94.5 94.5 3.70 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 22.77 0.00
Nasua nasua Quati 1 0,5 100 0 5.1 5.1 0.20 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.77 0.00
Total 208 2551.8 22.75 30.28 29.13 194.72 285.60 278.58
+
* From Fonseca et al. (1996) except Penelope marail, from Thery et al. (1992) D.novemcinctus and D. septemcinctus # Territories: type 1, 2 and 3: 49 to 65%, 66% to 85%, 86% and more
203
204

Table 2 Hunting output and hunter efficiency according to the method used

All hunts (n=227) Hunts of known duration (n=185)

Type of hunt Number of Mean number Mean gross Number Mean Mean number Mean gross Hunter
hunts of animals weight/hunt of duration of of animals weight/hunt efficiency
killed/hunt (kg/hunt) hunts hunt(hours) killed/hunt (kg/hunt) (kg/hunter/hour)

Stand hunting 126 0.83 6.4 99 3 h 40’ 1.05 8.06 1.91

Beating 101 1.02 17.3 86 3 h 56’ 1.10 19.03 3.01

Amazon region focus on the sustainability of the activity

Discussion
According to various authors, small species like agouti,
armadillos (Naughton-Treves et al. 2003) or even col-
lared peccaries (Altrichter and Boaglio 2004) resist well
to anthropogenic pressures such as hunting and eco-
system transformation. Our study shows that the num-
ber of animals killed and hunting efficiency are related to
the forest recovery rate of the hunting territory. The
more deforested a hunting territory, the smaller the
species hunted and the less efficient the hunter. The small
species hunted in degraded habitat are more prolific,
more tolerant to second-growth mosaics (Peres 2001a)
and consequently better adapted to a changing envi-
ronment. As game yield reflects the characteristics of the
habitat where hunting occurs, it can be used as an
indicator of the degradation of wooded ecosystems.
Hunters also adapt their hunting techniques accord-
ing to the habitat and the game species present. In the
most deforested areas where small game is abundant, the
hunters practiced preferentially stand hunting. The
density of fruit trees is low in deforested areas and fauna
concentrates on these rare feeding spots, turning them
favourable stations for hunt. Only five beatings were
conducted in the most deforested type of hunting terri-
tories. All were opportunistic huntings of isolated ani-
mals previously seen in cultivated areas or pastures.
Lastly, stand hunting does not interfere with the agri-
cultural work since it is generally practiced at night.
In forested areas, hunters prefer to make beatings
because this technique enables them to kill larger prey.
Moreover, hunting efficiency (in terms of gross weight/
hour/hunter) is superior during beating than stand
hunting (12 and 30% in type 2 and 3, respectively). It is
worth noting that most research on hunting in the
(see for example Bodmer and Robinson 2004). A few
studies investigated the hunting techniques used by non
indigenous hunters, and more precisely the adaptation
of these techniques to the ecological characteristics of
the environment.
In a survey done in the same region in 1976, Smith
described the same techniques of hunting and ob-
served similar seasonal variations of hunting frequen-
cies. Most of the hunted species are found in both
studies: armadillos, agoutis, peccaries and deer. The
most remarkable difference is the tapir (Tapirus ter-
restris) which provided 18.5% of game weight in 1976
but was not killed during the present survey. The
weak reproductive rate of the species makes it very
sensitive to overhunting and to the transformations of
its natural habitat (Fragoso 1991; Bodmer 1997).
Consequently, it is one of the first species to disap-
pear. Other authors have demonstrated that large and
medium size mammals are sensible to human impacts
(Lopes and Ferrari 2000; Jerozolimski and Peres 2003)
and forest fragmentation (Peres 2001a; Altrichter and
Boaglio 2004). For example, there is a relation be-
tween the size of mammal species and fragmentation
in Brazilian Atlantic Forest (De Oliveira et al. 2004).
Sudden local extinctions of large mammals (tapir and
white lipped peccaries) has been recorded in forest
fragment and poaching is suggested to override other
effects of fragmentation (Cullen et al. 2004). Peres
(2001a) predicted that the extinction rate of verte-
brates is a function of fragment size in Amazonian
forests, and is aggravated by hunting pressure. Hunt-
ing and fragmentation are linked. Fragmentation in-
creases the access to forest and hunting pressure as
well. Hunting extirpates key vertebrate seed dispersers

Table 3 Hunting output according to the forest coverage rate of the hunting territory (type 1, 2 and3: 49 to 65%, 66% to 85%, 86% and
more)

All Hunts (n=227) Hunts of known length (n=185)

Type of Number of Mean number Mean gross Number of Mean duration Mean number Mean gross Hunter
hunting hunts of animals weight/hunt hunts of hunt(hours) of animals weight/hunt efficiency
territory killed/hunt (kg/hunt) killed/hunt (kg/hunt) (kg/hunter/hour)

Type 1 40 0.90 7.35 34 4 h 01’ 1.03 8.56 1.53

Type 2 111 0.86 10.25 83 3 h 37’ 1.05 12.33 2.53
Type 3 76 1.01 14.74 68 3 h 53’ 1.13 16.48 2.84

Fig. 2 Proportion of animals killed according to their size and the
forest coverage rate of the hunting territory (type 1, 2 and 3: 49 to
65%, 66% to 85%, 86% and more)
and therefore is seriously disrupting many basic eco-
logical processes. Such disruption exacerbates the loss
of tree species, intensifying fragmentation effects
(Naughton-Treves et al. 2003; Tabarelli et al. 2004).
Conclusion
Our study demonstrated the relation between game yield
and forest recovery rate. As human disturbance (agri-
culture and persistent hunting pressure) increases, the
mean biomass and diversity of mammals decline. Small
and adaptable species become predominant. It confirms
the sensitivity of game populations to the transforma-
tion of their ecosystem and most likely to hunting
pressure. Because of the rapid changes occurring on
pioneer fronts, it is necessary to define management
plans for animal resources and their habitat. Fauna is of
cultural and dietary importance to colons since most of
them are breeders and know how to manage animals. It
is worth exploring the idea of commercially raising wild
mammals in the Amazon region. The extensive breeding
of wildlife in its natural environment can constitute an
economic valorization of the forest and therefore its
conservation. Intensive breeding systems of wildlife can
also provide an economic alternative to the actual
extensive production of cattle. Both extensive and
intensive production systems of wildlife do not require
large deforested areas. Furthermore, breeding game
could contribute to diminish the hunting pressure on
natural populations of wild mammals. Human popula-
tion size in Amazon region could double in the next two
decades (Peres 2001b). The valorization and the pro-
tection of wooded ecosystems imply a better knowledge
of the ecology of the pioneer fronts as well as the socio-
economical factors responsible for their rapid evolution.
Acknowledgments We are especially grateful to the Embrapa-
Amazônia oriental Research Centers of Belém and Uruará (Bra-
zilian Agricultural Research Corporation) and to Cirad (French
Agricultural Research Centre for International Development) that
permitted the good progress of this survey. We thank Professor
Jean François Tourrand for his logistical and scientific help.
205
References
Altrichter M, Boaglio GI (2004) Distribution and relative abun-
dance of peccaries in the Argentine Chaco: assosciations with
human factors. Biological Conservation 116:217–225
Bodmer RE, Robinson JG (2004) Evaluating the sustainability of
hunting in the Neotropics. In: Silvius KM, Bodmer RE, Frag-
oso JMV (eds) People in nature: wildlife conservation in South
and Central America. Columbia University Press, New York,
pp 299–323
Bodmer RE, Eisenberg JF, Redford KH (1997) Hunting and the
likelihood of extinction of Amazonian mammals. Conserv Biol
11:460–466
Bonaudo T, Le Pendu Y, Chardonnet P, Jori F (2001) Chasse de
subsistance sur un front pionnier amazonien:le cas d’Uruara.
Revue d’élevage et de mèdecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux
54:281–286
Cullen L Jr, Bodmer RE, Valladares-Padua C, Ballou JD (2004)
Mammalian densities and species extinctions in Atlantic for-
est fragments. In: Silvius KM, Bodmer RE, Fragoso JMV
(eds) People in nature: wildlife conservation in South and
Central America. Columbia University Press, New York, pp
211–226
De Oliveira ME, Pereira DG, Vivas D, Da Silva VV, Oliveira LFB
(2004) Linking landscape features to mammal populations
viability: the fragmented atlantic forest, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
In: UNAP, DICE, WCS (eds) Libro de Resúmenes. VI Cong-
reso Internacional sobre Manejo de Fauna Silvestre en la
Amazonı́a y Latinoamérica. Iquitos, Peru, p 73
Ferreira LA (2001) Le rôle de l’élevage bovin dans la viabilité agro-
ècologique et socio-économique des sytèmes de production
agricoles familiaux en Amazonie brésilienne - le cas d’Uruará
(Pará, Brésil), INA-PG, Paris
Fonseca GAB, Herrmann G, Leite YLR, Mittermeier RA, Rylands
AB, Patton JL (1996) Lista anotada dos mamı́feros do Brasil.
Occas Pap Conserv Biol 4:1–38
Fragoso JM (1991) The effect of hunting on Tapirs in Belize. In:
Robinson JG, Redford KH (eds) Neotropical wildlife use and
conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 6–23
IBGE (2000) Censo Demográfico 2000-http://www.si-
dra.ibge.gov.br/bda/pesquisas/cdru/default.asp
INPE (2003) - http://www.obt.inpe.br/prodes/prodes_analogi-
co.htm
Jerozolimski A, Peres CA (2003) Bringing home the biggest bacon:
a cross-site analysis of the structure of hunter-kill profiles in
Neotropical forests. Biol Conserv 111:415–425
Lopes MA, Ferrari SF (2000) Effects of human colonization on the
abundance and diversity of mammals in eastern Brazilian
Amazonia. Conserv Biol 14:1658–1665
Naughton-Treves L, Mena JL, Treves A, Alvarez N, Radeloff VC
(2003) Wildlife survival beyond park boundaries: the impact of
slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting on mammals in Tam-
bopata, Peru. Conserv Biol 17:1106–1117
Peres CA (2000) Effects of subsistence hunting on vertebrate
community structure in Amazonian forests. Conserv Biol
14:240–253
Peres CA (2001a) Synergistic effects of subsistence hunting and
habitat fragmentation on Amazonian forest vertebrates. Con-
serv Biol 15:1490–1505
Peres CA (2001b) Paving the way to the future of Amazonia.
Trends Ecol Evol 16:217–219
Redford KH (1993) Hunting in neotropical forests : a subsidy
from Nature. In: Hladik CM, Hladik A, Linares OF, Pagezy
H, Semple A, Hadley M (eds) Tropical forests, people
and food: biocultural interactions and applications to devel-
opment. Parthenon Publishing Group, Pearl River, pp 227–
246
Santana AC, Homma AKO, Tourinho MM, Mattar PN (1997)
Brasil. In: Situation y perspectivas de la seguridad alimentar en
la Amazônia. En un marco de producion agropecuaria y de
206
cooperacion intra-regional. Tratado de cooperacion Amazô-
nica, Caracas, pp 130–214
Smith NJH (1976) Utilization of game along brazil’s Transamazon
highway. Acta Amazonica 6:455–466
Tabarelli M, Da Silva MJC, Gascon C (2004) Forest fragmenta-
tion, synergisms and the impoverishment of neotropical forests.
Biodivers Conserv 13:1419–1425
Thery M, Erard C, Sabatier D (1992) Les fruits dans le régime
alimentaire de Penelope marail (Aves, Cracidés) en forêt
guyanaise: frugivorie stricte et sélective? Revue d’Ecologie
(Terre Vie) 47:383–401
Toni F (2003) Uruará : Pecuarização na fronteira agrı́cola. In: Toni
F, Kaimowitz D (eds) Municı́pios e gestão florestal na
Amazônia. A.S. Editores, Natal, pp 175–218
Veiga JB, Tourrand JF, Quanz D (1996) A pecuária na fronteira
agrı́cola da Amazônia : o caso do municı́pio de Uruará, P.A.,
na região Transamazônica. Belém, Documentos de pesquisa
n87, EMBRAPA-CPATU, 61p
Venturieri A, Laques AE, Lombardo MA (2003) Utilização de
imagens de satélite na caracterização de tipos paisagı́sticos na
frente pioneira do municı́pio de Uruará, Amazônia Oriental,
Pará. In: Anais do XI Simpósio Brasileiro de Sensoriamento
Remoto, Belo Horizonte, INPE