2

Contents

Preface..................................................................................................... 11
Preface to the English edition ............................................................... 19
Legal matters .......................................................................................... 20
1. The hierarchy of mathematical models of the ether as a
continuous media............................................................................ 21
1.1. Microlevel and macrolevel models of the ether ................... 23
1.2. Comparison of ether equations with classical equations
of continuous media mechanics ............................................. 29
1.3. Invariance of the ether continuity and motion equations
with respect to the Galilean transformation ........................ 34
1.4. Ether energy density and power density. Ether pressure.
The equation of the ether state .............................................. 39
2. Derivation of Maxwell's equations from the ether equations.... 46
2.1. Derivation of the generalized Maxwell – Lorentz
equations from the equations of the ether ............................ 47
2.2. Calculation of electric and magnetic fields........................... 56
2.3. Vector potential. Physical interpretation ............................. 57
2.4. Generalized equations of electric and magnetic field
oscillations ............................................................................... 59
2.5. *Studying the question of the generalized and classical
Maxwell equations invariance at the Galilean
transformation ........................................................................ 63
2.5.1. Invariance in the mathematical modeling and physics
........................................................................................ 63
2.5.2. Transformation of derivatives and operators at
Galilean changing of variables. Invariance of the
ether continuity and motion equations in Euler
variables ........................................................................ 70
2.5.3. The reason of the Galilean invariance loss in the
generalized Maxwell equations is a non-invariant
transformation of the original ether equations.
Invariance of the generalized Maxwell equations
at sublight velocity of the coordinate system ............. 77

3
 2.5.4. Galilean non-invariance of the classical Maxwell
equations in the absence of a medium and their
invariance in the etheric interpretation at the
sublight coordinate system motion ............................. 80
2.6. General remarks ..................................................................... 83
3. Charge, its electric field. Gauss theorem. Coulomb's law.
Electric potential. Relation between the potential electric field
and the ether pressure gradient. Charge conservation ............... 84
4. Wave processes in the ether........................................................... 93
5. Energy of the electromagnetic field .............................................. 97
5.1. General formulas for the energy density and power of the
electromagnetic field .............................................................. 97
5.2. Electromagnetic wave energy density ................................. 103
5.3. Interpretation of the light quantum energy, Planck's
constant and de Broglie wave .............................................. 105
6. Discontinuities in the ether. Quantization effects ...................... 107
6.1. Spontaneous formation of discontinuities .......................... 108
6.2. Conditions on the discontinuity surface ............................. 109
6.3. Quantization example .......................................................... 113
6.4. Etheric representation of the discontinuity conditions
of the magnetic and electric fields ....................................... 114
7. Derivation of the Biot – Savart law from the ether equations.. 116
8. The inductance of a geometric object creating a magnetic
field ................................................................................................ 122
9. The basic law of the electromagnetic induction. An electromotive
force. The Lenz rule ..................................................................... 124
9.1. The basic law of the electromagnetic induction ................. 124
9.2. Galilean invariance of the basic law of electromagnetic
induction ................................................................................ 128
10. Vortex impulse of the ether. The law of the vortex impulse
conservation. Preservation of the magnetic field moment........ 130
11. An external force acting from the medium on the ether vortex
flow. Generalization of the Zhukovsky force for the case of the
three-dimensional partially or fully permeable object ............. 135
11.1. Generalization of the Zhukovsky force ............................ 135

4
 11.2. Motion of the ether elementary volume in strong
external magnetic and electric fields. Larmor radius
of the ether elementary volume rotation. Cyclotron
ether resonance .................................................................. 143
12. Electric current in conductors .................................................... 150
12.1. Currents outside and inside conductors. Ampere's
Laws .................................................................................... 153
12.2. Ohm's law. Electrical conductivity ................................... 164
12.3. Law of Joule and Lenz....................................................... 166
12.4. Influence of the ether velocity distribution inside the
wire on the magnetic field and electric current density
created in it ......................................................................... 167
12.5. Superconductivity .............................................................. 170
13. Force effect of the ether on an object, caused by the presence
of a pressure gradient .................................................................. 173
14. The ether analogue of the Bernoulli theorem ............................ 175
15. Classification of ether steady flows ............................................. 177
15.1. Electric flow of the ether ................................................... 178
15.2. Gravitational flow of the ether.......................................... 181
15.3. Magnetic flow of the ether ................................................. 185
16. The force impact of the ether flow on the object ....................... 188
16.1. Impact on a charged object. The Lorentz force .............. 190
16.2. The force of etheric gravitational attraction ................... 195
17. Interaction of objects ................................................................... 202
17.1. Coulomb's law for two charged objects ........................... 202
17.2. The law of gravitational attraction ................................... 203
18. Etheric interpretation in electrical engineering and
electrochemistry ........................................................................... 205
18.1. The creation of electric current in the wire. Voltage
drop across the circuit ....................................................... 205
18.2. Power of the electric circuit .............................................. 207
18.3. Electrical resistance in an electrochemical cell and
a gas discharge ................................................................... 210
18.4. Electrical resistance in the wire ........................................ 212
18.5. Electric capacitance, capacitors ........................................ 215

5
 18.6. The equation of a current in the contour of a constant
form ..................................................................................... 218
18.7. Energy density of the electric current at non-vortical
magnetic field ..................................................................... 222
18.8. Magnetic energy of the closed conductor with a current
in the magnetic field. Magnetic energy density in the
circuit .................................................................................. 224
18.9. Full electromagnetic power of circuit with current.
Umov – Poynting Vector ................................................... 230
18.10. Explosion of wires by the electric current in vacuum.
Explosive electronic emission ............................................ 232
18.11. Emf of Zhukovsky. Unipolar generator ........................... 237
18.12. Hall effect. Hall's constant ................................................ 244
18.13. Electrostatic effects ............................................................ 247
18.14. Electrostatic devices ........................................................... 257
18.15. Plasma confinement in toroidal traps. Generalization
of mathematical models of plasma ................................... 260
19. Interpretation of magnetic phenomena ...................................... 264
19.1. Ether flow created by a domain ........................................ 266
19.2. Magnet and a ferromagnetic material ............................. 268
19.3. Conductive non-magnetic material and a magnet .......... 277
19.4. A conductor with a current and a magnet ....................... 278
19.5. The interaction of magnets with each other .................... 279
19.6. On attempts to create an engine or a power generator
based on the permanent magnets system motion ............ 280
20. Estimation of the unperturbed ether density ............................. 283
20.1. Ether density units ............................................................. 284
20.2. Estimates based on experiments with lasers .................... 286
20.3. Estimates using the ether model of the photon and the
characteristics of the electromagnetic field in it .............. 286
20.4. The estimate from the ether model of the photon and
its momentum ..................................................................... 290
20.5. Estimates using ether models of electrons and protons .. 292
20.6. Estimation based on Coulomb barrier data .................... 298
20.7. Main conclusions. Ether density value ............................. 300

6
 20.8. The fallacy of the vacuum dielectric constant adoption
as the unperturbed density of the ether ........................... 301
21. The structure of the ether carriers – newtonians. Kinetic
effects in the ether and substance ............................................... 303
21.1. Unperturbed ether pressure.............................................. 303
21.2. Mass and size of the ether carriers - newtonians.
Average distance between them ........................................ 304
21.3. Newtonians distribution in chaotic heat and
directional motion .............................................................. 311
21.4. A brief review of models of non-equilibrium, irreversible
processes and transport coefficients in physics. Appli-
cation to the description of the newtonians kinetics ....... 315
21.5. Heat transfer in the ether. Heat capacity of the ether .... 319
21.6. Heat transfer in solid matter ............................................. 331
21.7. Ether viscosity .................................................................... 335
21.8. Self-diffusion in the ether .................................................. 337
21.9. Electrical conductivity of the ether and matter in the
absence of free charges ...................................................... 339
21.10. Estimation of the ether electroconductivity model
parameters according to experimental data .................... 350
21.11. Wiedemann and Franz law in the metal and the ether... 355
21.12. Ether pressure inside solid materials and liquids ........... 361
21.13. Sticking of plates with smooth surfaces, Casimir effect.
Phase transition of object states. Radioactive decay .......... 364
21.14. Phenomena in contacts ...................................................... 365
21.15. Electronegativity of chemical elements ............................ 367
21.16. The ether current density in a gas discharge ................... 368
21.17. Inexpediency of the thermodynamic entropy concept
application in the ether model .......................................... 370
22. Estimation of the boundary layers radii causing the emergence
of the Lorentz force and the force of gravitation ......................... 377
22.1. Charged objects.................................................................. 377
22.2. Objects with a mass. Estimation of the ether gravitational
flow rotation speed around the Earth, its pressure
gradient and pressure ........................................................ 379

7
23. Summary of experimental facts confirming the presence of
the ether ........................................................................................ 384
23.1. Basic general laws of electrodynamics and gravitation .. 384
23.2. Electric current in a wire .................................................. 385
23.2.1. Internal inconsistency of the free electron model
in a solid conductor ............................................... 385
23.2.2. Problems of experiments interpretation in the
electronic theory of conductivity.......................... 388
23.2.3. Calculation of the ether flow inside the wire ...... 393
23.3. Experiments with a unipolar generator. Aspden's
effect .................................................................................... 400
23.4. Electromagnetic wave impulse. About the EmDrive
engine .................................................................................. 410
23.5. Thermal conductivity of metals ........................................ 412
23.5.1. Thermal conductivity in a field of gravitational
force ........................................................................ 412
23.5.2. Thermal conductivity in a rotating disk.............. 427
23.5.3. Thermal conductivity at the presence of vibration
................................................................................. 437
23.6. Rotation of bodies in the absence of an external
magnetic field ..................................................................... 438
23.6.1. The experiment of Tolman and Stewart with a
rotating coil ............................................................ 439
23.6.2. Lepeshkin inertial experiment with the rotating
spiral ....................................................................... 446
23.6.3. The creation of a magnetic field by a rotating
superconductor, a ferromagnet and other objects.
The moment of London. Barnett effect. London's
gravity magnetic moment ..................................... 452
23.6.4. Creating a phantom in the ether by rotation of a
magnetic disk ......................................................... 460
23.6.5. Electromagnetic field created by the tuning fork
................................................................................. 463
23.6.6. Magnetic field of a rotating non-magnetic disk.
Project of experiments .......................................... 463
23.6.7. Experiment with a rotating disk and a vane ....... 468

8
 23.6.8. Erroneous interpretations of the objects motion
in some experiments as a result of mechanical
interaction with the ether ..................................... 479
23.7. On the destruction of materials by rotation .................... 480
23.8. Destruction of material by a laser .................................... 483
23.9. Experiments in a technical vacuum.................................. 485
23.9.1. Dark current .......................................................... 485
23.9.2. Dark current in the presence of a magnet .......... 501
23.9.3. Mill ......................................................................... 507
23.9.4. Brace....................................................................... 510
23.9.5. Asymmetric capacitors. Biefeld-Brown effect.
Lifter. Modified brace........................................... 513
23.9.6. Autoelectronic emission and photoemission of
electrons from the conductor ............................... 518
23.9.7. Breakdown current ............................................... 522
23.10. Counteraction to gravity. Screening of the gravitational
ether flow ............................................................................ 523
23.10.1. Rotation of partially superconducting ceramic
disk in a magnetic field. Counteraction to
gravity in the Podkletnov experiment............... 524
23.10.2. Reducing of an electron weight in a vacuum tube,
surrounded by a superconductor, due to the
screening of the gravitational ether flow .......... 534
23.10.3. Screening of the ether gravitational flow by the
atomic powder..................................................... 535
23.10.4. Concept of a stand for experiments with gravity
.............................................................................. 539
23.11. The Cherenkov radiation in the ether .............................. 540
23.12. Anomalies in orbits of the first Von Braun's satellites .... 543
23.13. Strange radiation, observed in low energy nuclear
reactions (LENR) ............................................................... 552
24. Etheric model of ball lightning (BL)........................................... 556
24.1. Anomalous properties of BL ............................................. 556
24.2. Attempts to explain the BL without the ether ................. 558
24.3. The simplest ether model of BL. Interpretation of
anomalous features ............................................................ 560

9
 24.4. Interpretation of Tesla's experiments with BL.
Resonance mechanism of anomalous phenomena in
electrotechnical devices ..................................................... 567
25. Etheric model of the Earth structure ......................................... 573
Conclusion ............................................................................................ 583
Appendix 1. Derivation of the Ampere equation .............................. 590
Appendix 2. On the search for the ether wind .................................. 593
Appendix 3. On moving light sources ................................................ 597
Appendix 4. Trajectories of Lagrangian particles for the equation
of motion with zero right side........................................ 599
Appendix 5. New systems of units associated with the ether............ 601
Appendix 6. Concentrations of electrons and ions in air at low
pressure ........................................................................... 604
Appendix 7. The ion wind in the corona discharge ........................... 608
References ............................................................................................. 616
References added in the second edition.............................................. 623
References added in the English edition ............................................ 636
Views of some great scientists about the structure of matter........... 638
Quotes from comments on the first and the second Russian
editions of the book ...................................................................... 640
Falsifications, misrepresentation and misunderstanding of the
methodology and results of the book .......................................... 642

10
 Preface

In modern physics, after more than half a century oblivion, the

interpretation of natural phenomena using the hypothesis about the
presence of the physical vacuum, as a certain medium in which all
processes develop, is becoming widespread again. Further, this me-
dium we call the ether for short.
Main tasks of this book are: to demonstrate a possibility of inter-
preting a large class of macroscopic phenomena using the methodology
of continuous media mechanics without involving the relativism; to
give an impetus to the research of fundamental physical laws within the
paradigm of the continuous media; and to describe in details the math-
ematical formalism having the prospect of becoming the common plat-
form for consolidating of the ether theory proponents efforts to estab-
lish it as the basic concept for analyzing of natural phenomena.
At once we emphasize that the concept of the ether considered in
the book differs significantly from the ether concepts of the XVIII–XX
centuries [98]. In the proposed research, the ether is represented as some
one-component continuous medium that satisfies the generally accepted
conservation laws: of the matter and momentum. The mathematical rep-
resentation of these laws in the form of the continuity equation and the
second law of Newton we call the ether equations. From these equa-
tions, with the level of rigor accepted in applied mathematics, the con-
sequences are obtained, which are given a physical interpretation. The
new theoretical results are compared with the basic experimentally es-
tablished physical laws and the data of physical experiments concerning
the electrical, magnetic, gravitational, and kinetic phenomena. A good
match is demonstrated. We reveal details of many process mechanisms
that seemed previously paradoxical. It is once again confirmed that the
traditional physical interpretations have a limited scope of applicability,
and in some cases are not correct.
For the first time, 150 years after studies of Faraday and Maxwell,
it is shown that premises of the matter and momentum conservation

11
mathematically give basic physical laws established experimentally:
the Maxwell equations, the Lorentz force, the Gauss theorem; the laws:
Coulomb, Biot – Savard, Ampere, electromagnetic induction, Ohm,
Joule – Lenz, Wiedemann – Franz, universal gravitation, and etc.
In the methodology of mathematical modeling [1–5], the mathe-
matical model is considered adequate if the consequences of it corre-
spond to all well-established experimental facts. Therefore, according
to the methodology of mathematical modeling, it is possible to make
a conclusion about the adequacy of the mathematical model of the
ether, presented as a continuity equation and Newton's second law,
for describing of the electromagnetic and gravitational processes.
The logical construction of the ether theory is essentially more
transparent than that commonly used in physics: experimental verifica-
tion is required for the ether equations and the equation of its state, but
not for various formulations of numerous physical laws, derived here
as the formal logical consequences of the ether equations. Although the
mathematical aspects of reasoning at deriving of some physical laws
from the ether equations can be quite complicated.
The studies performed are based on well-known information from
the continuous mechanics and electrodynamics [6–39]. Here, this in-
formation is systematized and advanced to obtain the etheric interpre-
tation of electrical, magnetic, gravitational and kinetic processes.
The equations of microlevel dynamics of the ether on the scales
of atomic times and distances are proposed by N.A. Magnitskii in
[40]. Macro-level equations of the ether are proposed by V.L. By-
chkov in [41–44]. The hierarchy of mathematical models of the ether
is considered in the article [45]. Some results of these papers are pre-
sented and advanced in this book.
Publications [40, 46–50] and given there in bibliography are de-
voted to studies of the microlevel processes in the ether. This book
deals mainly with the macro-level phenomena.
The book presents the following new results. Using the approach
of [45], a system of equations is derived from the macrolevel equa-
tions of the ether; it generalizes the Maxwell equations with regard to

12
the macrolevel effects. The etheric interpretations are given for the
charge, the Gauss theorem, Coulomb's law, electric potential, electric
current, electromagnetic energy, and electrostatic effects. The ether
equation of state is proposed. The following empirical regularities are
obtained as the mathematical consequences of the ether equations:
Biot – Savard law, formulas for the electric driving force, inductance
and resistance, Ampere's law for electric currents, Ohm's law, Joule-
Lenz law, Lorentz force for electric charges, potential difference in
the Hall effect, Wiedemann – Franz. Some effects are studied quanti-
tatively. The difference between the ether equations and the equations
of the fluid and gas mechanics is discussed. It is shown that the equa-
tion of the liquid and the gas motion can be interpreted as a special
case of the ether motion equation. Mathematical classification of the
ether steady state flows with separation into electric, gravitational and
magnetic ones is given. The structure of the ether carriers – the new-
tonians – is discussed; the thermal conductivity, heat capacity, viscos-
ity and electrical conductivity of the ether are estimated.
Many fundamental phenomena and paradoxes of physics find a
natural explanation in the proposed approach, based on the continuity
equation and the second law of Newton. For example: wave-particle
duality, different behavior of oppositely charged bodies in electric and
magnetic fields; gravitational interaction; phenomena associated with
magnets and electric currents, including superconductivity; interac-
tion of bodies with smooth surfaces; phase states of objects; quanti-
zation of processes; contactless charge transfer between conductors,
etc. At the same time, we do not use here the model of quantum me-
chanics with its set of postulates and principles.
The difficulties in explaining the above phenomena by modern
physics indicate the necessity to take into account the ether effects,
which are completely excluded from the consideration in it.
One of the main forces determining the behavior of many objects
in the inviscid medium is the Zhukovsky force (the lifting force). A
theoretical study of this force began in 1902–1906. The book shows

13
that the origin of the generalized Zhukovsky force allows one to nat-
urally explain two of the most fundamental and mysterious phenom-
ena – the motion of differently charged bodies in different directions
in the electric field and their rotation in opposite directions in the mag-
netic field. Besides, the forces arising from the vortex motion, al-
lowed us to give a natural interpretation of Ampere's law of the inter-
action of conductors with the current.
The study of continuous mechanics models, including the role of
Zhukovsky's force, turned out to be a rather complicated task from a
historical view; it required a lot of time and considerable efforts of the
outstanding scientists. The difficulty lies in the fact that the Zhu-
kovsky force in the general case arises in the volume, and the body on
which it acts can be partially permeable to the flow. In fact, detailed
and deeply comprehended results in this area appeared only in the first
half of the last century [6–9, 19]. It is possible that until then the ab-
sence of the detailed analysis of continuous mechanics models in the
form accessible to the wide scientific community was one of the rea-
sons for the theory of relativity expansion, which rejects the notion of
the medium (physical vacuum, or the ether) and interprets experi-
ments and natural phenomena with a help of hard-to-understand par-
adoxes [74, 77–81]. For example, upon reaching the speed of light, an
object must lose its geometrical dimensions, in particular, moving
with the speed of light photon should become a point; the mass, elec-
tric and magnetic fields turn into infinity; time stops (the clock para-
dox) [29, sec. 106, 111; 14, p. 317–319].
From the point of view of the mathematical modeling methodol-
ogy, the theory of relativity is a certain mathematical model with its
initial postulates. This model is not criticized and not contested in the
book. Instead, we offer another general mathematical model of na-
ture, which gives phenomena much more convincing explanations
grounded on two fundamental laws.
The proposed mathematical model is based on the equations of
continuity and motion of the continuous media (ether) that are invar-

14
iant with respect to the Galilean transformation. All the basic exper-
imental laws of electrodynamics and gravity are obtained here as a
mathematical consequence of these equations. Therefore, this mathe-
matical model confirms the Galileo – Newton principle of relativity,
according to which all physical equations and laws must be invariant
with respect to the Galilean transformation.
In section 2.5.4, added in the second Russian edition, it is shown
that the classical Maxwell equations are invariant with respect to the
Galilean transformation to coordinates moving with the sublight
speed if these equations are considered not in the empty space, but in
the medium. The loss of the invariance of the Maxwell equations in
the general case is due to the non-invariant transformation of the
ether equation of motion, see sec. 2.5.3, 2.5.4.
It should be noted that starting from the XIX century the hydrody-
namic interpretation of the electromagnetic phenomena is widely rep-
resented in scientific and educational literature [6–9, 16–20], [34, p.
136]. However, prior to this work, a consistent, systematic study of
electrodynamics and electrical engineering based on the methods of the
continuous media mechanics practically has not been carried out. When
constructing the mathematical theory of the ether, it was necessary to
generalize the equations of the continuous media mechanics and con-
sider its motion in the general three-dimensional case.
The accumulated experimental facts and the inconclusiveness of
generally accepted physical interpretations or the absence of experi-
ments explanations have led to the active development in recent dec-
ades of various ether ideas about the natural phenomena. A bibliog-
raphy of modern approaches to the study of the ether and the literature
on some experiments are briefly discussed in the conclusion on p. 583.
The theory of the ether described in the book is distinguished by the
systematic application of the conservation of matter and momentum
laws to the analysis of experimental facts, by logical consistency and
mathematical elaboration.

15
 The questions of experiments on the search for the ether wind and
experiments with moving light sources are not the subject of this
book. Nevertheless, they are briefly discussed in appendixes 2 and 3,
where we show the inconclusiveness of these experiments’ interpre-
tation, accepted in physics.
Section 23 contains many well-known and new experiments,
which, in accordance with the methodology of physics generalizing
the experimental facts, allow to draw (confirm) a conclusion about the
existence of the ether as the medium in which all processes take place.
It is interesting to note that Einstein in his later studies, see, for
example: [99], as a result of the logical analysis of the relativity theory
paradigm, came to the formulation of the problem of finding a com-
mon basis for the concepts of matter, field and energy. On the basis of
these Einstein studies, within the framework of the relativity theory, a
direction is developed in which natural phenomena are considered as
occurring in a certain media. The teaching of the relevant courses be-
gins in the leading institutions of high school. For example, in MIPT
(Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology) since 2009, the stu-
dents' training program includes a course of electrodynamics that does
not use the concept of empty space [100]. Such trends provide addi-
tional confirmation of the need to revise the theoretical interpretation
of natural phenomena that dominated in the twentieth century.
We emphasize once again that in this book the theory of relativity
is not used. Instead, the book offers a different model of nature.
The book uses the CGS units of measurement with the absolute
Gaussian system for measuring the electrical and magnetic quantities.
This system of units is more convenient with respect to the SI system
for the description of the ether since it does not contain artificially
introduced parameters 𝜀𝜀0 and 𝜇𝜇0 .
Some analytical solutions of equations were obtained using the
Maple symbolic computing system (www.maplesoft.com).
The material presented here, regardless of the attitude to the hy-
pothesis of the ether existence and its physical interpretation, can be

16
considered as a new effective mathematical apparatus for the detailed
study of the electrical, magnetic and gravitational phenomena.
The application of the new theoretical apparatus using methods
of the applied mathematics began in [50]. Research in this direction
is of primary importance since the detailed understanding of the nat-
ural phenomena hidden from the direct observation opens the possi-
bility of creating fundamentally new devices and technologies for en-
ergy production and storage, information processing, motion in space,
and mastering the force of gravity.
Some publications in open sources, cited in the first Russian edi-
tion of the book, were supported by "New Inflow" LLC, Moscow,
Russia.
The first edition of the book [101] caused great interest, especially
among scientists studying the most fundamental laws of nature. The
entire print run was distributed in less than six months. The review of
this book was presented in reports at the physics and the mechanics
and mathematics faculties of the M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State Uni-
versity (MSU), at the Institute for Problems of Mechanics RAS, at the
Peoples' Friendship University of Russia at the seminar on modern
problems of physics, and in other organizations. Videos of some re-
ports and their discussion, as well as slides of the presentations, can be
found on the sites: eth21.ru, lenr.seplm.ru, шаровая-молния.орг.
In 2018, the book won the M.V. Lomonosov MSU competition
of outstanding works important for the development of science and
education.
In the second Russian edition, the range of issues discussed was
expanded, some formulations were clarified, and a number of minor
typos were corrected. The kinetic theory of the ether has been con-
structed. The ether thermal conductivity, heat capacity, viscosity, self-
diffusion, and electrical conductivity are considered. Ether models of
the thermal and the electrical conductivities in the solid substance are
presented. Much attention is paid to the demonstration of the ether

17
theory application to the study of various phenomena, more than sev-
enty experiments have been analyzed. We list the new sections and
sections with important modifications: the preface, 1, 1.4, 2.4, 2.5,
12.2, 12.3, 16.1, 18.2, 18.10–18.14, 21, 22.2, 23–25, and conclusion.
The authors are grateful to Ph.D. Vladimir A. Chizhov for partic-
ipation in some experiments and their interpretation, to Igor N. Ste-
panov for creating some installations, and to Sergei M. Godin for con-
tribution to experiments, carrying out delicate measurements, and dis-
cussing the experimental results.

18
 Preface to the English edition

The original publication of this book was in 2016. Afterwards

there were a number of requests from researchers for release of the
book in the English language to make it available to the international
community.
The English version is based on the translation of the second Rus-
sian issue of the book, published in 2019. Some important new results
are included here, which were obtained by the authors after 2018: sec-
tions 9.2, 11.2, 21.16, 21.17, 23.12, 23.13. These are addendums 1–6 of
the pdf in Russian dated 07.04.2021. We also added a section on mis-
understanding of the methodology and results of the book, see p. 642.
The translation into English was done by V.L. Bychkov. The cor-
rectness of the ideas expression was checked by F.S. Zaitsev. The text
may look a bit oddly to a native English speaker and some grammar
bugs may have gone undetected, but we hope that in most cases the
meaning is clear. The grammar is planned to be corrected eventually
in the pdf version of the book, distributed on the website eth21.ru. We
invite readers to point out grammatical errors and misprints by e-mail
a@eth21.ru.
The authors are grateful to Ilya Alekseevich Gudovshchikov, a
graduate of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, for join-
ing efforts in studying the ether and for supporting the publication of
the English edition.
It should be emphasized that the aims of this book do not include
review of all ether theories. It concentrates on a systematic presenta-
tion of the approaches, developed by the authors during the last four-
teen years.
Also, the list of references given in the book should not be con-
sidered exhaustive.
The opinions and the interpretation of measurements expressed
in the book reflect the personal views of the authors and not neces-
sarily of collaborating scientists and organizations.

19
 Legal matters

The authors do not give any warranties, that presented in the book
results are consistent with any standard of merchantability, or meet re-
quirements of any particular applications, or free of errors. The materi-
als presented in this book should not be used for problems, wrong so-
lution of which can cause injury to a person or property. If someone
does use the material in such a manner then it is at his/her own risk.
The author and the publisher disclaim all liability for direct or conse-
quential damages resulting from use of any materials of this book.
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mission from the authors of this book.

20
 1. The hierarchy of mathematical models of the ether as a
continuous media

When studying phenomena with mathematical models, it is im-

portant not to forget that the objective processes in nature do not know
anything about man-made methods of defining the position of objects
in space, methods of time measuring and other abstractions. In the
mathematical modeling, the concepts of a coordinate system and time
are introduced only for the formal description of real processes within
the framework of the existing mathematical apparatus and are com-
ponents of the mathematical model. The choice of data and other con-
cepts should contribute to the solution of the main modeling task –
formulation of the quantitative relations, preferably the most general,
adequately reflecting and revealing the mechanisms of the natural
phenomena, allowing to predict and control them. It is important to
keep in mind that the methodology of the mathematical modeling al-
lows, if necessary, to refine the model including its most basic con-
cepts, if, for example, at some stage in the study of the model, the
discrepancy between its consequences and experimental observations
becomes clear.
The concepts of the coordinate system and time for the descrip-
tion of the ether are introduced as in classical Newtonian continuous
media mechanics, see, for example: [14, p. 23, 24]. That is, the three-
dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with the Euclidean metric
and the absolute time, uniform for all points of space, are considered.
The origin of the coordinate system and the law of its motion are se-
lected depending on the required accuracy of the model and the con-
venience of phenomena describing.
In the mathematical model, the ether is represented by some ab-
stract continuous medium, characterized at the moment of time 𝑡𝑡 at
the point of the medium with coordinates 𝐫𝐫 by the volume density of

21
the ether 𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) and the velocity 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) of the ether motion. Contin-
uous medium is assumed to be non-viscous and, generally speaking,
compressible. The possibility to ignore the ether viscosity is justified
in sec. 21.7.
We emphasize that considered below mathematical description
of the ether does not depend on its interpretation as a non-moving
medium in which perturbations propagate (not necessarily small), or
as the medium whose carriers move. That is, the mathematical model
of the ether describes both cases. In addition, the construction of the
ether mathematical model does not rely on the idea of it as a solid,
liquid, gas or plasma. On the contrary, the initial quantitative relations
and the consequences of them allow to build reasonable hypotheses
about the possible structure of the ether carriers and to suggest exper-
iments on their verification. The simplest model of the structure of the
ether carriers is presented in sec. 21.1–21.3.
The equations of the ether dynamics are based on two generally
accepted fundamental laws, namely, the law of conservation of matter
and the law of conservation of momentum (the second law of Newton).
The hierarchy of mathematical models of the ether was proposed
in [45]. In relation to the characteristic times and scales of atomic pro-
cesses, the models are divided into micro- and macrolevel ones. This
book deals mainly with the macro-level models.
The system of equations for the description of the ether on atomic
characteristic times and scales was proposed by N.A. Magnitskii, see
[40, 46–49] and references therein. In [45], this system was general-
ized to the case of much greater times and scales, including the level
of direct observation of material objects.
The results of the listed papers are presented and advanced in this
section. The discussion of the differences between the equations of
the ether and the equations of the fluid mechanics is continued here.
The concept of the ether energy is introduced. The equation of state
of the ether is proposed.

22
 1.1. Microlevel and macrolevel models of the ether

The microlevel mathematical theory of the ether [40, 46–49] pos-

tulates a description of processes using the law of conservation of the
ether amount (continuity equation) and the law of conservation of the
density of the ether flow (conservation of momentum). Here it is con-
venient to write these equations using Lagrange variables in which
the medium is characterized by functions of time on the trajectory of
the medium point 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡):

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�
= −𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� �𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ∙ 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)�𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) , (1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��
= 0, (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)
= 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�. (3)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

In the applied here Lagrangian form of expressions (which is also

called the semi-Lagrangian*) functions depend on time 𝑡𝑡 and the tra-
jectory 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡). In the continuous media mechanics, a somehow different
form of notation is often used with the functions of time and the initial
position of a medium point highlighted in the arguments (see, for ex-
ample: [14, p. 129–132; 24]), but this form of equations is less con-
venient here, since makes difficult to demonstrate analogies.
The system of equations (1)–(3) is reversible, that is, replacing
the velocity 𝐮𝐮 and time 𝑡𝑡 by the opposite −𝐮𝐮 and −𝑡𝑡 does not change
the set of solutions of this system. Thus, the ether at the microlevel,

*
The semi-Lagrangian form of writing one or another equation can be interpreted
as consideration of its Eulerian notation, which is valid at any point (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) in the
domain of the equation, on the trajectory �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� of a lagrangian particle with roll-
ing up of the corresponding partial derivatives into a full derivative over time

23
having come from a certain initial state to a final state, can pass from
it back to the initial state.
We emphasize that, mathematically, the law of conservation of mo-
mentum in the ether (2) is identical to Newton's second law for the ma-
terial point of a variable mass at the absence of the force (see sec. 1.2).
In appendix 4, it is proved that for the equation of motion with
the zero right hand side (2) the trajectories of Lagrangian particles of
the medium outside its discontinuities are straight lines (at that the
current lines for unsteady motion can be curved). However, objects
observed in the ether can be formed due to the spontaneous formation
of discontinuities in the medium (see sec. 6.1, and also the example
considered in [50]). Equations (1)–(3) are not defined in the differen-
tial form directly on the discontinuities, since the derivatives on the
discontinuity do not exist. In this area, additional conditions are added
to (1)–(3), including the ones following from the integral form of the
ether equations (see sec. 6).
It is possible that the microlevel model (1)–(3) requires an intro-
duction of the volume density of the force in the right hand side of the
equation (2), the force that describes the interaction of carriers (struc-
tural elements) of the ether.
The solution of the system (1)–(3) causes difficulties at the de-
scription of the macrolevel phenomena, when it is necessary to study
the behavior of a system consisting of a significant number of objects
of the ether, such as atoms, since there is a strong difference in the
typical times and spatial scales of the processes. In addition, it is nec-
essary to take into account a large number of discontinuities of the
sought-for functions. Besides, the numerical modeling of objects at
the macrolevel using equations (1)–(3) is not possible even with ap-
plication of supercomputers being developed now.
We construct the macrolevel model of the ether for describing the
motion of individual microobjects on a basis of the general form of
the medium continuity law and Newton's second law. In the Lagrange
variables we have

24
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� �𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ∙ 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)�𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) (4)
1
+ 𝑞𝑞 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡), 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��,
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��

= (5)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
�𝐅𝐅�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)� + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑃𝑃�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)�� ,
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)

𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) (6)
= 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�,
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

where 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 is the converting coefficient (constant) of the electromag-

netic units of the ether density measurement into mechanical (see de-
tails about 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 at the end of this paragraph and in sec. 20.1).
In the nonlinear system (4)–(6), the functions 𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� and
𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� are the sought-for functions. The functions 𝐅𝐅 and 𝑃𝑃 are
treated as known (given). There are no restrictions on the magnitude
of the velocity 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�.
Further, the equations (1)–(3) and (4)–(6) will be called for brief-
ness the equations of the ether. The ether equations in Euler variables
are written on p. 49.
The validity of Newton's third law in the ether is accepted as a
postulate. This law is applied, for example, in sec. 11.
The difference of equations (4)–(6) from (1)–(3) consists in the
presence of the source 𝑞𝑞�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� in the continuity equation (4) and the
density of forces 𝐅𝐅 and 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑃𝑃 in the right hand side of the motion equa-

25
tion (5), where 𝑃𝑃 – is the ether internal tension, which can be intro-
duced by analogy with continuous mechanics. 𝑃𝑃 is a tensor. The rules
for calculating 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑃𝑃 are described, for example, in [14, p. 138–144].
In the case of equality of the diagonal and the absence of non-
diagonal elements in 𝑃𝑃, a pressure 𝑝𝑝 is introduced; it is equal to the
value of the diagonal elements 𝑃𝑃 with the opposite sign (see, for ex-
ample: [9, p. 78] or [14, p. 158]). Then 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑃𝑃 = −𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑝𝑝. This case is con-
sidered in the book.
One of the reasons for the emergence of forces and sources is the
influence of the ether flows, described by equations (1)–(3) on the
boundaries (surfaces) of discontinuities and the refraction of trajecto-
ries. Expressions for the source and force are determined on the basis
of the experimental studies of macrolevel processes or on the basis of
theoretical concepts.
Examples of terms in the right parts of the ether equations in the
ether model of electrical engineering and electrochemistry at constant
density and their analysis are given in papers by V.L. Bychkov [41–
44]. Another example of the macroscopic force is the Lorentz force
(see sec. 2.1 and 16.1).
The concept of pressure in the continuous medium mechanics
takes into account the effect of internal tension of the medium resulting
from its motion or propagation of perturbations through it. Therefore,
the assumption of the presence of a similar property in carriers of the
ether is quite natural at least at the macrolevel. In addition, the pressure
has the dimension of the energy density, and its presence in the equa-
tion of motion can be interpreted as a description of transformations
between the kinetic energy and the internal energy of the medium.
Thus, the model (4)–(6) can be considered as a continuation of
the model (1)–(3) for typical times and scales, much greater the
atomic ones, in which sources and forces are introduced instead of
direct describing the effects on the discontinuities.

26
 It is important to emphasize that discarding of 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑝𝑝 and 𝐅𝐅 in the
equation of motion would exclude description of the electrostatic ef-
fects from the model, see formula (72) in sec. 3.
The model of the ether (4)–(6) as a continuous medium can be con-
sidered applicable up to the volume of the Lagrangian particle, which
contains about 103 structural elements of the ether. In sec. 21.1, 21.2,
the simplest model of such elements (newtonians) is considered and
their size is estimated. It is shown that newtonian is ~1013 times smaller
than the proton radius 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 (sec. 21.2). About of 103 newtonians can be
put in a volume with a linear size of ~10−12 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 , since (10−12 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 )3 /
(10−13 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 )3 = 103 . Therefore, depending on the concentration of new-
tonians, the model of the continuous media (4)–(6) can be applied at
very small distances, up to ~10−12 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 , that is, at the microlevel, for ex-
ample, to describe the motion of the ether in the proton and electron.
The principle of forces superposition follows from the equation
(5): the sum of solutions 𝜌𝜌𝑘𝑘 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮𝑘𝑘 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡)� of the equation (5)
with the right hand sides

�𝐅𝐅𝑘𝑘 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝐮𝐮𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)� + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑃𝑃𝑘𝑘 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝐮𝐮𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)��
𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡)

is the solution of the equation (5) with the right hand side, in which
the sum of

�𝐅𝐅𝑘𝑘 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝐮𝐮𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)� + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑃𝑃𝑘𝑘 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝐮𝐮𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫𝑘𝑘 )��
𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡)

over 𝑘𝑘 is present.
The ether density can be measured in different units.
Electromagnetic units [s g1/2 /cm3/2 ] of measuring the ether
density 𝜌𝜌 in the CGS system (with the absolute Gaussian system) are
introduced in the reference [52] (see also appendix 5). The coinci-
dence of the dimensions of the physical quantities generated by the

27
ether with the traditional units of their measurement is shown; new
systems of units using the ether density are discussed.
At the macro level, it is possible to measure the force impact.
Therefore, at the macrolevel, by analogy with the mechanical density,
mechanical units are introduced for the density of the ether in [g/cm3 ]
or [kg/m3 ], as in [41]. However, mechanical units are not always
convenient for the interpretation of electrical phenomena, since they
give an unconventional dimension of electric and magnetic fields,
charge and other physical quantities (see sec. 20.1). Nevertheless, me-
chanical units reveal and clarify the mechanical side of the electro-
magnetic phenomena. The density of the ether, expressed in mechan-
ical units, we will denote further by 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 .
To establish the relationship between the physical quantities ex-
pressed in terms of the ether density in various units of measurement,
we introduce a constant equal to the ratio of the numerical value of the
unperturbed ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0, obtained in mechanical units, to the
value of the unperturbed ether density 𝜌𝜌0 in the electromagnetic units:

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 /𝜌𝜌0 .

The constant 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 in the CGS system (with the absolute Gaussian
system) has the dimension of the charge density[g1/2 /(s cm3/2 )].
Thus, the density of the ether in mechanical units 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 is related to the
density of the ether in the electromagnetic units 𝜌𝜌 as follows:

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌.

The transformation of a certain value 𝑓𝑓, expressed through 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚

into a value expressed through 𝜌𝜌 is carried out by the formula
𝑓𝑓(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ) = 𝑓𝑓�𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌�.
The units for measuring of the ether density are discussed in more
detail in sec. 20. The estimates for the constants 𝜌𝜌0 , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 , 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 are

28
also obtained there. In sec. 20.1 we discuss the expression of the elec-
tromagnetic quantities in the mechanical units and, conversely, the
expression of the mechanical quantities in the electromagnetic units.
In sec. 20.7 we give the values of the constants 𝜌𝜌0 , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0, 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 . Ap-
pendix 5 presents the new systems of units related to 𝜌𝜌.
For the ether medium consisting of a large number of material
objects and ether flows with brakes of trajectories, where the equa-
tions (1)–(6) are not applicable in differential form, it is necessary to
use models of the continuous media in the integral form by analogy,
for example, with [10, p. 55], or models describing the medium using
distribution functions according to the methodology of the statistical
physics [38].

1.2. Comparison of ether equations with classical equations

of continuous media mechanics

The equation of the ether motion (5) is an analogue of Newton's

second law in the case of a material point of variable mass, which
changes according to the continuity equation (4).
Mathematically, the law of momentum conservation in the ether
(5) is identical to Newton's second law for the material point of vari-
able mass 𝑚𝑚�𝑡𝑡, 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡)� (see, for example: [66, sec. 4; 67, ch. IV, part
IV; 68, p. 56]):

𝑑𝑑 �𝑚𝑚�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��

= 𝓕𝓕.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
In the literature on mechanics [66, sec. 4; 67, ch. IV, Part IV; 68,
p. 56] Newton's second law for a material point of a variable mass is
usually written as

𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�

𝑚𝑚�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� + 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� = 𝓕𝓕,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
29
where the second term in the left hand side is transferred to the right
part and is considered as one of the acting forces, and this force is
calculated, as a rule, separately for one or another reason. Therefore,
in the equation of the ether density flow conservation (5) with the dis-
closed time derivative

𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�

𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� + 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
(𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑃𝑃)𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

the second term in the left part can be interpreted as the force term.
In the classical continuous media mechanics, the continuity equa-
tion has the same form as the equation (4). However, the equation of
motion is different. In the classical mechanics of continuous media
the following equation is derived (see, for example: [10, p. 55, equa-
tion (5.5)] and [14, p. 137, 144]), basing on the momentum conserva-
tion law in the integral form and the formula for differentiation of the
integral with respect to the moving volume [10, p. 37, equation
(15.7)], that is, the differentiation of the volume integral depending
on a parameter,

𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��

=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (7)
−𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� �𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ∙ 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)�𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) +
(𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑃𝑃)𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) .

Further, the first term in the right hand side of equation (7) is
excluded taking into account the continuity equation and in the ab-
sence of sources one comes to the formula:

30
 𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�
𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� = (𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑃𝑃)𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) . (8)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Thus, the formal difference between the equation of the ether mo-
tion (5) and the equation of motion in the classical continuous media
mechanics (8), including the gas and hydrodynamics, consists in the
presence in the equation (5) of the force term 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡))/
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (analogue of the term arising in the second Newton's law in the
case of time-dependent mass). Although, as noted in [14] on page 137,
various forces in the continuous mechanics can be added if necessary.
The first term in the right hand side of the equation (7) arises due
to the time variation of the moving volume [10, p. 37]. This circum-
stance allows us to give a geometrical interpretation of the difference
in the motion of the ether flow density from the motion of the flow a
density, considered in the mechanics of the continuous medium (liq-
uid and gas). The magnitude of the elementary volume of the contin-
uous medium, consisting of a large number of material carriers gen-
erated by the ether, generally speaking, can vary over a wide range.
While disturbances in the ether propagate with the preservation of the
elementary volume magnitude.
The physical interpretation of the differences is as follows. Fluid
and gas mechanics consider a medium with a liquid volume (see, for
example: [21, p. 147]), that is, a medium in which any selected vol-
ume always consists of the same particles and its boundary in the pro-
cess of deformations are formed from the same particles (particles of
the medium do not cross the boundary of this volume). In other words,
there is a fairly strong bond between the particles of the medium.
However, not all the media and phenomena have such a property, for
example, the bulk medium (sand-like) may not have such a property,
as well as the process of propagation of matter perturbations in the
case when the matter itself is not carried. From this point of view, the
equations of mechanics of liquid and gas can be considered as a spe-

31
cial case of the equations (4)–(6) when the hypothesis about the mo-
tion of a continuous medium in the form of liquid volumes is valid,
leading to the presence of a force compensating the term
𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡))𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)) /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
In the mathematical theory of the ether, the effect of the density
change in time 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡))/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 plays a crucial role in the equation of
motion (5) (see, for example: [49]). Besides, unlike the equation (8),
it is the equation of motion (5) from which the Maxwell equations and
other generally accepted laws immediately follow, see [46–49] and
the following sections of this book. Otherwise, for non-constant den-
sity 𝜌𝜌 problems arise, for example, with obtaining of the Maxwell
equations from the equation of motion.
In the considered mathematical model of the ether, the continuity
equation (4), unlike the equation of motion (5), has the same form as
in the continuous media mechanics. This means that the description
of the behavior of the ether density and the density of the ether flow
is different. In the geometric interpretation, the density of the ether at
infinitely small distances spreads in the form of an elementary vol-
ume, the value of which can vary, and the flow density (momentum)
of the ether propagates with preservation of the value of the elemen-
tary volume.
It will be clear from what follows that the equation of the ether
motion plays the main role in the reproduction of physical laws. The
continuity equation is involved to resolve the system of the ether
equations in respect to 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮.
A modification of the ether model can be considered, in which
instead of equation (4), by analogy with the equation of motion, the
conservation law is used

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�
= 𝑞𝑞.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

32
 For the modified model, the general expressions obtained in this
book will remain valid if we formally replace 𝑞𝑞 with 𝑞𝑞 + 𝜌𝜌𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮 in
them. But the properties and type of solutions 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮 of the modified
system of the ether equations can differ. We illustrate this with the
example.
In a steady flow (partial derivatives of 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮 are zero in time)
in the absence of sources 𝑞𝑞 = 0, the equation 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 goes to 𝐮𝐮 ∙
𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 = 0, and the equation (4) gives 𝜌𝜌𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮 + 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 = 0. As a result,
in the model (4) at 𝑞𝑞 = 0, the density isotropy of 𝜌𝜌 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 implies
the divergence-free velocity of the steady state flow 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮 = 0, while
in the model 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞 at 𝑞𝑞 = 0, generally speaking, it is not the
case. Besides, for 𝜌𝜌 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, the system of equations 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 = 0 and
(5), taking into account (15) when 𝛱𝛱 = 0, for the vortex-free velocity
field 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮 = 0 gives the condition 𝛁𝛁𝐮𝐮2 = 0 (see (21)), meaning the
constancy of the velocity magnitude, and the restriction 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮 = 0
does not arise.
At present, the study of ether flows corresponding to various pro-
cesses is at the initial stage. Therefore, when difficulties arise in in-
terpreting the solutions 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮 of the ether equations (4), (5), one
should be aware of the possibility of considering the modification of
the ether model, in which instead of equation (4) the conservation law
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞 is used.
We emphasize that this book shows that the original ether equa-
tions (4)–(6) allow us to give a clear explanation of many seemingly
paradoxical phenomena, while a number of generally accepted ap-
proaches require additional research and checks as shown by modern
experiments [88–90].
From the point of view of statistical physics, the gas-hydrody-
namic model of a continuous medium is the averaging of microscopic
motion of elementary carriers over their momenta [38]. Therefore, in
the model with the equation (8) of classical continuous media mechan-
ics difficulties arise in describing the details of the elementary particles
structure and microscopic electromagnetic phenomena in the ether.

33
 Note that the ether equations become equivalent to the equations
of fluid and gas mechanics, for example, when the density 𝜌𝜌, is con-
stant in time and space, and also in the case 𝐮𝐮 ⊥ 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 with the density
𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌�𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� not depended explicitly on time (in this case 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 = 0 and the term 𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 falls out of the equation (5)).

1.3. Invariance of the ether continuity and motion equations

with respect to the Galilean transformation

An important property of the continuity and the motion equations

of gas-hydrodynamics is their invariance with respect to the Galilean
transformation (see, for example: [77, 82, 92]). This property is of
principled importance in physics. Therefore, we consider it in detail
for the ether equations, which differ from the hydrodynamic equations
by the occurrence of 𝜌𝜌 under the sign of the time derivative.
Replace the time and coordinates in the system of the ether equa-
tions (4)–(6) according to the Galilean transformation

𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) − 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡, 𝐯𝐯 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

Such a replacement assumes the existence of some initial coordi-

nate system, in which the model equations are considered, the sought
functions 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮 are determined and the velocity vector 𝐯𝐯 of motion
of the new (primed) coordinate system relative to the initial one is
defined. The center 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 0 of the new system moves over a straight
line 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡. The choice of the initial coordinate system is usually
related to experimental data [14, c. 311], p. 2.5.1. The direction of the
axes of the original coordinate system can always be set so that the
axes of the primed system move parallel to the appropriate axes of the
original system.
We introduce new notation for the sought 𝐮𝐮, 𝜌𝜌 and given 𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝, 𝐅𝐅
functions

34
 𝐮𝐮′ �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� ≡ 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡);
𝑓𝑓 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡), 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�� =
𝑓𝑓�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡, 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡)� ≡
𝑓𝑓 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡, 𝐮𝐮′ �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)�� ≡
𝑓𝑓 ′ �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡), 𝐮𝐮′ �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)�� =
𝑓𝑓 ′ �𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡 ′ ), 𝐮𝐮′ �𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡 ′ )�� , 𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝜌, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝, 𝐅𝐅.

Here and below, the function 𝑓𝑓 for 𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝜌, 𝐮𝐮 has no third argument.
The first relation corresponds to the introduction of a vector in math-
ematics as an object that is invariant with respect to the coordinate
system, see sec. 2.5.1.
For full time derivatives, we have

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�

= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)� 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�
= = ,
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 ′
𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑�𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮′ �𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡 ′ )�
= = ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 ′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�
= ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 ′
′ (𝑡𝑡) ′ (𝑡𝑡) ′ (𝑡𝑡′)
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑(𝐫𝐫 + 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫
= = + 𝐯𝐯 = + 𝐯𝐯.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′

Derivatives in space, taking into account the invariability of the

directions of the unit basis vectors 𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉′ = 𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 , 𝜉𝜉 = 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧, are converted
to the form

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)�

� � =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)

35
 𝑓𝑓 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 , 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 �� − 𝑓𝑓�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)�
� lim � =
∆𝜉𝜉→0 ∆𝜉𝜉
𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)

𝑓𝑓 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 , 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 �� − 𝑓𝑓�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)�

lim � � =
∆𝜉𝜉→0 ∆𝜉𝜉
𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)
𝑓𝑓 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 , 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 �� − 𝑓𝑓 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡), 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��
lim =
∆𝜉𝜉→0 ∆𝜉𝜉
𝑓𝑓 ′ �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′) + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 ′ , 𝐮𝐮′ �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′) + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 ′ �� − 𝑓𝑓 ′ �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′), 𝐮𝐮′ �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)��
lim =
∆𝜉𝜉→0 ∆𝜉𝜉
𝑓𝑓 ′ �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 ′ , 𝐮𝐮′ �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 ′ �� − 𝑓𝑓 ′ �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ , 𝐮𝐮′ (𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )�
lim � � =
∆𝜉𝜉→0 ∆𝜉𝜉
𝐫𝐫 ′=𝐫𝐫 ′�𝑡𝑡 ′�
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ (𝑡𝑡′, ′ )�
𝑓𝑓 �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 ′ , 𝐮𝐮 �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 + ∆𝜉𝜉𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 ′ �� − 𝑓𝑓 �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 , 𝐮𝐮 𝐫𝐫
� lim � =
∆𝜉𝜉→0 ∆𝜉𝜉
𝐫𝐫 ′=𝐫𝐫 ′�𝑡𝑡 ′�
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ , 𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )�
� � , 𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝜌, 𝐮𝐮, 𝑝𝑝.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′ 𝐫𝐫 ′ =𝐫𝐫 ′ �𝑡𝑡 ′�

Substituting all these formulas into the equations (4)–(6), we obtain

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�
= −𝜌𝜌′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)� �𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫′ ∙ 𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )�𝐫𝐫 ′ =𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 ′ (9)
1
+ 𝑞𝑞′ �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡), 𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)��,
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡 ′ )� 𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡′)��
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′
1 (10)
= �𝐅𝐅′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ , 𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )�
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
+ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑝𝑝′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ , 𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )�� ,
𝐫𝐫 ′ =𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)

36
 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′) 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)
= 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� − 𝐯𝐯 or = 𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫′(𝑡𝑡′)� − 𝐯𝐯. (11)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′

That is, the form of the continuity and motion equations of the
ether (4), (5) does not change at the Galilean transformation, but the
velocity of the radius vector 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′) of a point in the primed coordinate
system is the difference of the velocity in the original coordinate sys-
tem (6) and the velocity 𝐯𝐯, with which the primed system is moving.
Thus, the formulas (4), (5) are invariant, and the formula (6) is not
invariant with respect to the Galilean transformation.
The physical interpretation of the invariance property of the con-
servation laws (4), (5) consists in the fact that in the moving coordi-
nate system in these laws no new sources and forces arise that explic-
itly depend on the coordinates velocity 𝐯𝐯 (herewith the projections of
the Lagrangian particle trajectory on the axes of moving coordinate
system differ). Such an interpretation of the Galilean invariance al-
lows in a certain region, moving with a constant velocity 𝐯𝐯 and iso-
lated from the influence of the incoming medium, to construct the lo-
cal model with fixed relatively to this region coordinate system and
describe the processes without using 𝐯𝐯. The task of constructing of a
local mathematical model based on the invariance property of equa-
tions is discussed in detail in sec. 2.5.1.
It is clear from the proof that the form of the equations of conti-
nuity and motion (4), (5) does not change when the primed coordinate
system moves with the acceleration 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡)/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, i.e. when replacing

𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) − 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡)𝑡𝑡.

At this, the additional component is subtracted from the velocity vec-

tor in the primed system, which is proportional to the acceleration

𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′) 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡′)

= 𝐮𝐮′ �𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫′(𝑡𝑡 ′ )� − 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡′) − 𝑡𝑡′ ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′

37
because

𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑(𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡)𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡)

= = + 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡) + 𝑡𝑡 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Thus, the equations of continuity and motion of the ether (4), (5)
remain unchanged also in the considered non-inertial frame of reference.
The proven statement is of the fundamental methodological sig-
nificance. At least two important conclusions follow from it:
1. The objects of the ether can be studied using equations (4), (5)
in any coordinate system, the radius vector of the beginning of which
moves according to the law 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡)𝑡𝑡. This allows, for example, to sim-
plify tasks by considering the object and the ether around it without
taking into account their motion relative to other bodies.
2. In the reference [45], and also in a more general case, further
in sec. 2.1, it is shown that the generalized and classical Maxwell equa-
tions are a mathematical consequence of the Galileo-invariant equa-
tions of the continuity and motion of the ether, but due to the use of
the Galileo-non-invariant transformation, they lose the Galileo invari-
ance, see sec. 2.5.3, 2.5.4. It is known that the classical Maxwell equa-
tions are invariant under the Lorentz transformation [14, p. 306; 87;
92]. However, the magnetic (20) and electric (21) fields are expressed
in terms of the density and velocity of the ether and, as shown in 2.5.3,
are Galilean invariant. This circumstance removes the need to involve
the Lorentz transformations and the relativistic theory based on them
to explain electromagnetic and other phenomena of the nature.
Note that in the case of a more general coordinate transformation
′ (𝑡𝑡)
𝐫𝐫 = 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) − 𝐯𝐯�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝑡𝑡 the condition 𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉′ = 𝐢𝐢𝜉𝜉 , generally speaking,
is violated, the formula for the spatial derivative over 𝜉𝜉 ′ becomes
more complicated and additional terms appear in the equations in the
primed coordinate system.

38
 1.4. Ether energy density and power density. Ether pressure.
The equation of the ether state

Involving the equation of state can be interpreted as describing

the dynamics of a medium using a sequence of quasi-equilibrium
states. Such an approach is often used in modeling evolutionary pro-
cesses (see, for example, sec. 1.1 in [57, 58]). This interpretation is
not mandatory here.
We first establish the energy characteristics of the ether, based on
Newton's second law. Let staying at rest Lagrangian particle of the
ether acquire a velocity 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)� during a time ∆𝑡𝑡 under
the influence of a volume force density ∆𝐅𝐅 and travel a distance ∆𝐥𝐥 =
𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)�∆𝑡𝑡. Then according to Newton's second law

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)�

= ∆𝐅𝐅.
∆𝑡𝑡

Herewith, the volume density of work done is 𝒜𝒜 = ∆𝐅𝐅∆𝐥𝐥.

Then

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)�∆𝐥𝐥

= ∆𝐅𝐅∆𝐥𝐥,
∆𝑡𝑡
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮2 �𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)�∆𝑡𝑡
= 𝒜𝒜,
∆𝑡𝑡
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮2 �𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)� = 𝒜𝒜.

Taking the limit ∆𝑡𝑡 → 0 at a constant density of work 𝒜𝒜, we get

the expression

𝒜𝒜�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮2 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�, (12)

39
which can be interpreted as the volume density of the kinetic energy
of the ether, which has the velocity 𝐮𝐮.
The main difference from the usual method of introducing the
density of kinetic energy in general physics, as the density of the work
force for the displacement of elementary volume between points (see,
for example: [26, p. 131–133]), is in using here the transition limit
under the condition of constant 𝒜𝒜 = ∆𝐅𝐅∆𝐥𝐥, that is, under the action of
the force density ∆𝐅𝐅, having the form of the 𝛿𝛿-function. Such a limit
transition means that the energy content of the Lagrangian particle is
determined by a given fixed transmitted energy density 𝒜𝒜. In addi-
tion, the proposed approach immediately takes into account the pos-
sibility of changing the ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑡𝑡) due to transfer of energy
density 𝒜𝒜 to the Lagrangian particle.
Note also that consideration of the impulsive (instantaneous) gen-
eration of motion from a state of rest is a generally accepted technique
in the continuous mechanics (see, for example: [17, sec. 3.3, 3.7, 4.1;
16, p. 636]).
In the case of 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 and 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑐𝑐, where 𝑐𝑐 is the speed of free
propagation of a wave in the ether from a disturbance (see p. 95 in
sec. 4, devoted to the waves in the ether, as well as sec. 2.1, where 𝑐𝑐
is introduced as the etherodynamic constant and it is shown that it is
equal to the speed of light), the result is

𝒜𝒜 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐 2 ,

which is similar in appearance to the so-called relativistic formula for

the energy density of rest.
Let's determine the power density of the ether flow as a full time
derivative of the kinetic energy density (12)
2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�� (13)
𝑤𝑤�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� ≡ = .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

40
 In the Lagrangian variables we have

𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮2 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��

𝑤𝑤�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮2 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
+ �𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) � �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮2 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�� =
𝜕𝜕 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮2 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��
+ 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝐮𝐮2 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��,

or in the Eulerian variables

𝜕𝜕�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)𝐮𝐮2 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)�

𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) = + 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) (14)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)𝐮𝐮2 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)�.

Currently, there are no experiments to determine the equation of

state of the ether. Therefore, one has to use one or another hypothesis
and check their adequacy by comparing the consequences of these
hypotheses with the facts known from the experiment.
We obtain the equation of the ether state using the assumption
that the pressure of the ether (the value of the diagonal element of the
internal tension tensor with the opposite sign, see p. 26), which we
denote by 𝓅𝓅 in this section, is a function of the ether energy density

𝓅𝓅 = 𝓅𝓅(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 ).

This representation includes the barotropy 𝓅𝓅 = 𝓅𝓅(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ) as a special

case at |𝐮𝐮| ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

41
 Applying the Taylor formula in the neighborhood of some char-
acteristic value 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 , we find

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝜉𝜉)
𝓅𝓅(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 ) = 𝓅𝓅�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ � + � �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ � +
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜉𝜉=𝜌𝜌 2
𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮∗
2
𝑂𝑂�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ � ,

𝓅𝓅�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ � − 𝓅𝓅(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 )

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ = + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 +
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝜉𝜉)
�
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜉𝜉=𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗𝐮𝐮2
∗
2
𝑂𝑂�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ � .
2

Denoting the pressure of the ether, at the deviation from the char-
acteristic state 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ , by

𝓅𝓅�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ � − 𝓅𝓅(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 )

𝑝𝑝 ≡ ,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝜉𝜉)
�
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜉𝜉=𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗𝐮𝐮2
∗

discarding the terms of the second order of smallness and adding the
energy density of external sources 𝛱𝛱, we arrive to the following equa-
tion of state:

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 = 𝑝𝑝 + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 + 𝛱𝛱,

or in the electromagnetic units of measurement of the ether density

(see sec. 1.1 and 20.1):

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 = 𝑝𝑝 + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 + 𝛱𝛱. (15)

42
 The equation (15) means that the sum of the energy densities
stored in the ether tension and its motion, and the energy of external
sources remains constant.
The values of the characteristic parameters 𝜌𝜌∗ , 𝑢𝑢∗ can be esti-
mated from the experimental data, see sec. 2.1, 20, and 𝑢𝑢∗ – also the-
oretically on the basis of an analogy with the molecular kinetic theory,
see sec. 21.1–21.3.
In the case of 𝜌𝜌∗ = 𝜌𝜌0 , |𝐮𝐮∗ | = 𝑐𝑐, 𝛱𝛱 = 0, the equation of state (15)
means that at the speed |𝐮𝐮| = 𝑐𝑐 and 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌∗ the pressure 𝑝𝑝 (the internal
tension) is absent in the ether, and at low speed |𝐮𝐮| ≪ 𝑐𝑐 (at rest) the
pressure reaches the maximum value 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐 2, and the ra-
tio of the pressure to the ether density becomes equal to the square of
the disturbances free propagation speed in the ether 𝑝𝑝/𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 = 𝑐𝑐 2 . In
other words, when 𝜌𝜌∗ = 𝜌𝜌0 , |𝐮𝐮∗ | = 𝑐𝑐, 𝛱𝛱 = 0, the decrease in the
speed |𝐮𝐮| in comparison with |𝐮𝐮∗ | = 𝑐𝑐, leads to increase of the ether
pressure 𝑝𝑝.
We emphasize, as will be clear further (sec. 15.1, 15.2, 16.2, 17.1,
17.2), it is the equation of state (15) without the factor 1/2 in 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 that
leads to the Coulomb law and the law of world gravity. In addition,
the formula (15) without 1/2 allows to directly find the speed of prop-
agation of small perturbations in the ether (19), as well as reproduce
the coefficient of ether thermal conductivity (251), coinciding with
the result of the molecular kinetic theory application to the ether.
The calculation of some of the forces, acting in the ether, and
other functions will be based on the use of the pressure gradient 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑝𝑝.
The equation of state allows to determine 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑝𝑝 while the specific val-
ues of the constants 𝜌𝜌∗ and 𝑢𝑢∗ fall out of the left side of the gradient
from the expression (15).
For example, for the power density of the ether flow we have
from (14) and (15)

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)
𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) = − − 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑝𝑝(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) − (16)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

43
 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)
− − 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝛱𝛱(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫).
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

In the steady state (partial derivatives with respect to time turn to

zero) and in the absence of sources 𝛱𝛱 = 0 the formula (16) is simpli-
fied.

𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) = −𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑝𝑝(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫).

Consider this expression on the trajectory 𝐫𝐫 = 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) and substitute

in it 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑝𝑝 from (5) at 𝐅𝐅 = 0

𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��

𝑤𝑤�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� ∙ .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

From here we get the representation for a power in steady state

on the solution of the equation (5) at 𝐅𝐅 = 0
2
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��
𝑤𝑤�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� = =
2𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 (17)
1 𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��
.
2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The formula (17) is the particular case of the general formula

(13), since it is valid for the functions 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮 that turn equation (5)
with 𝐅𝐅 = 0 into the equality.
The equation (15) allows to estimate the ratio of the pressure in-
crement to the density increment in the ether. Consider the case of
small perturbations of the density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 with respect to the characteristic

44
value of 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ . Differentiating (15) over 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ and taking into account
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ , we obtain at Π = 0

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝐮𝐮2∗ − 𝐮𝐮2 . (18)
𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗

If the deviations from the characteristic speed are small 𝐮𝐮2 ≪ 𝐮𝐮2∗ ,
then the formula (18) goes into

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
≈ 𝐮𝐮2∗ . (19)
𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗

The relation (19) coincides with the formula for the propagation
speed of small perturbations used in continuous media mechanics,
see, for example, formulas (57), (65) in [9, p. 101–103]. However,
here the relation (19) is introduced is a consequence of the equation
of the ether state, but not as a notation of the square of some speed
with the postulation of the non-negativity of the left hand side [9, for-
mula (57); 14, formula (6.21)] and clarifying the meaning of this
speed by solution of the simplest equation of oscillations, as in me-
chanics [9, p. 102; 15, p. 17].
The value of the characteristic velocity 𝐮𝐮∗ of free motion in the
ether is limited. It was established experimentally that the speed of
free propagation of disturbances in the ether does not exceed the speed
of light 𝑐𝑐.
At the beginning of sec.1.3, we noted that the Galilean transfor-
mation always implies the existence of an initial coordinate system in
which the sought functions 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮 are defined. Therefore, the rela-
tion (15) is determined in the initial coordinate system, including the
energy density 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 . Replacing variables in a vector, understood
as a directed segment, and introducing a new coordinate system can
lead to a change in the vector projections on the coordinate axes, but

45
not to a change in the length and direction of the vector, see, for ex-
ample, the relationship between 𝐮𝐮′ and 𝐮𝐮 on page 35: 𝐮𝐮′ �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� ≡
𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡) = 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� (in more detail the use of invariant ob-
jects in the mathematical modeling and invariant operations with
them are discussed in sec. 2.5). Thus, from the point of view of the
mathematical procedure for changing variables, the formula (15) is
the invariant with respect to the Galilean transformation. This under-
standing of the invariance is based on the a priori assignment (defini-
tion) of quantities in the original coordinate system and their invari-
ance with respect to the change of variables.
The physical interpretation of this understanding of the invari-
ance can be illustrated by the example. An observer who is in a mov-
ing coordinate system, that moves along with the medium, cannot
sense medium motion and may not notice the presence of the medium.
But, if the observer stops and is exposed by the medium impact, he
will have to conclude that the medium has some kind of a kinetic fea-
ture that needs to be reflected in its mathematical model, even if this
feature does not manifest itself in some coordinate system.

2. Derivation of Maxwell's equations from the ether

equations

The task of obtaining the Maxwell equations from the classical

approaches of mechanics was formulated long ago. For example, N.E.
Zhukovsky discussed directions of its solution in 1918 [59].
This section presents the derivation of the generalized system of
Maxwell – Lorentz equations from the equations of the ether mechan-
ics (4)–(6), consisting of the continuity equation and the second New-
ton’s law. Some properties of this system are considered. The results
of article [45] are generalized to the case of the presence in the model
of a force and pressure gradient.

46
 Derived theoretically generalized Maxwell – Lorentz equations
are valid both at the macro and micro levels. This confirms the hy-
pothesis used by Lorentz to describe micro-level electromagnetic pro-
cesses (see, for example, [37, p. 338]).
In some approaches, Maxwell's equations are derived using the
oscillation equation (see, for example: [60, p. 98], and also [61, 109,
110]). Here the derivation is based on the original system of the ether
equations, which describes not only oscillatory processes. Therefore,
the result presented here is more general.

2.1. Derivation of the generalized Maxwell – Lorentz equa-

tions from the equations of the ether

The convenience of the magnetic induction vector 𝐁𝐁 and the elec-

tric field strength vector 𝐄𝐄 consideration is due to a possibility of their
measurements in experiments. Although the technical implementa-
tion of measurements and their interpretation is a separate complex
task (see, for example: [88–90]).
Etheric definitions of vectors 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄 are given in papers [40, 46,
48, 50] as a rotor and a convective derivative (derivative along the
curve [51, sec. 5.5-3, 16.10-8]) of the ether flow density:

𝐁𝐁 ≡ 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮), (20)

1
𝐄𝐄 ≡ (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) =
𝜌𝜌
1 1 𝐮𝐮 (21)
� 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 − 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�� = |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|) − × 𝐁𝐁,
𝜌𝜌 2 𝑐𝑐

where the positive constant 𝑐𝑐 defines the units of 𝐁𝐁 measurements. If,

as in the CGS system (with the absolute Gaussian system for meas-
urement of electrical and magnetic quantities), to require that 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄
have the same units of measurements, then 𝑐𝑐 must have the dimension

47
of speed. By analogy with the general physics, the speed 𝑐𝑐 defined so
is called the etherodynamic constant. Comparison of the Maxwell
equations theoretically obtained here with those obtained experimen-
tally using the CGS set of units, allows to conclude that the constant 𝑐𝑐
should be chosen equal to the speed of light 𝑐𝑐 (the speed of free prop-
agation of the disturbance in the ether).
Recall that in the classical physics, the speed 𝑐𝑐 is also introduced
along with the concept of a magnetic field and is called the electrody-
namic constant. Its value is measured experimentally and turns out to be
equal to the speed of light in the vacuum (see, for example: [28, p. 213]).
We note once again that there are no restrictions on the magni-
tude of the velocity 𝐮𝐮 in the ether equations (4)–(6). Including the
possibility of the speed of light exceeding.
Definitions (20), (21) mean that 𝐁𝐁 describes the vortex compo-
nent of the ether flow density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮, and E, being a convective deriva-
tive, describes the acceleration of 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 due to the motion of the medium
with the velocity 𝐮𝐮 (see, for example: [9, p. 54; 14, p. 40]). These
definitions are appropriate to the ideas of Maxwell, who considered
the magnetism as a vortex motion, and the current as a translational
motion (see, for example: [39, p. 212]).
Note that in [41] a definition of 𝐄𝐄 using the time derivative was
proposed: 𝐄𝐄 ≡ −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕. This definition at 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 = 0 and 𝐅𝐅 = 0 is
equivalent to (21) by virtue of the motion equation. In this book, for
the case of 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 ≠ 0 or 𝐅𝐅 ≠ 0, the definition (21) is used, which means
matching the force, caused by a change in the flow density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 due to
the medium motion with velocity 𝐮𝐮, to the electric field; and allows
obtaining Maxwell’s equations as a consequence of Newton's second
law (5). If, at 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 ≠ 0 or 𝐅𝐅 ≠ 0 we introduce the definition of 𝐄𝐄 as
𝐄𝐄 ≡ −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 or 𝐄𝐄 ≡ −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 − (𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 )/(2𝜌𝜌), then Maxwell’s
equations do not appear as a consequence of Newton's second law,
which, for example, in the case of 𝐄𝐄 ≡ −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 − (𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 )/(2𝜌𝜌)
turns into 𝐄𝐄 + 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 + (𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃)/𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 = 0. We emphasize that

48
the introduction of various notation can change the form of the origi-
nal ether equations representation and their interpretation, but the
mathematical essence of the original problem in terms of the sough
functions 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮 is preserved.
In the geometric interpretation, the representation of the
ether flow density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 in the form (20), (21) is some special represen-
tation of it in the form of two vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁. These vectors will be
perpendicular, that is 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝐁𝐁 = 0, if (𝛁𝛁 × 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) ∙ 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 = 0. In the
general case, 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝐁𝐁 ≠ 0, which is satisfied, for example, for the vector
𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥)𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 (𝑧𝑧)𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 + 0𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , where 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 , 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 are unit basis vectors
of the Cartesian coordinates.
We show that the vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁, introduced by the definitions
(20), (21), satisfy equations that can be interpreted as the generalized
Maxwell equations.
In [46, 48], particular generalizations of the Maxwell's equations
were proposed. By analogy with [45], here we obtain from the equa-
tions of the ether the most general macro-level Maxwell’s equations.
For this purpose, it is convenient to write the system (4)–(6) in the
Euler variables

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) 1
+ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ∙ �𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)� = 𝑞𝑞�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫), 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)�, (22)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)
+ (𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 )�𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)� =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (23)
1
�𝐅𝐅�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫), 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)� + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 𝑃𝑃�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, 𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫), 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)��.
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

The transition from the Lagrangian to the Eulerian variables is de-

scribed in detail in sec. 2.5.2.
According to the equation of motion (23), the introduction of 𝐄𝐄
by the formula (21) means the interpretation of the electric field as a

49
force term in the left hand side of the equation (23), equal to the de-
rivative of the ether flow density along the trajectory (curve, direc-
tion) or part of the full time derivative, containing the differentiation
by spatial coordinates [51, p. 5.5-3, 16.10-8].
It should be noted that the relationship between 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁, which
appears in the definition of 𝐄𝐄 (21), is also a consequence of the motion
equation (23). Indeed, from the formulas (21) and (23) we have

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
= −𝐄𝐄 + . (24)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Substituting (24) into (23) and using expressions (21), (20), we obtain

𝐮𝐮
𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁 = |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|). (25)
𝑐𝑐

Thus, relation (25) is another form of expressing the law of the

ether motion amount conservation (23). The Lorentz force field 𝐄𝐄 +
𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 appears further in many laws (see also formula (84), which
establishes, using the equation of state (15), the relation 𝐄𝐄 + 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐
with the gradients of the ether pressure and density).
Note that the formula (25) does not depend on the type of the
right hand side of the equation (23), that is, it is valid at both micro
and macro levels. This formula allows one to classify the ether flows
(see sec.15). Besides, the formula (25), as well as the sources and
forces in (4), (5) can be tried to use for experimental confirmation of
the ether presence.
The left hand side of (25) is a field corresponding to the Lorentz
force, and the right – is a representation of the force influence of the
ether through its density and velocity. Therefore, the equation (25)
can be interpreted as the representation of the force, arising from the
motion of the ether, with the vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁.

50
 We emphasize that the equality (24) gives another etheric repre-
sentation for the electric field vector 𝐄𝐄 = −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + (𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃)/
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0, obtained using the equation of motion. In the case of the poten-
tial force 𝐅𝐅 = −𝛁𝛁𝑈𝑈𝐅𝐅, the electric field 𝐄𝐄 is represented as the sum of
the gradient of the scalar potential and the partial time derivative of
the vector potential: 𝐄𝐄 = −(𝛁𝛁𝑈𝑈𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃)/𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 + 𝜕𝜕(𝐀𝐀/𝑐𝑐)/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕), 𝐀𝐀 ≡
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐮𝐮. This expression theoretically substantiates the potentials intro-
duced in physics for the electric field.
The equation (23) turns on the solution into an identity that can
be subjected to various transformations.
Apply the operator 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × to (23). Taking into account 𝛁𝛁 × 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 =
0, we get

𝜕𝜕𝐁𝐁 𝑐𝑐
+ 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅. (26)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

By analogy with the classical physics we call this equation the gener-
alized Faraday equation.
Taking the divergence from (20), (21), we find

𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐁𝐁 = 0, (27)
𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, (28)
1
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ≡ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ � (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�
𝜌𝜌
= 𝛁𝛁 ∙ �|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|)� − 𝛁𝛁 ∙ �𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)��,

where 𝜎𝜎 has the meaning of the charge density determined by the flow
of the ether. In physics, the formula (28) is called the Gauss electro-
static theorem in the differential form [28, sec. 7]. Here, this formula
is obtained as the consequence of the definitions of the electric field
𝐄𝐄 and charge density 𝜎𝜎 in the ether.

51
 Apply the derivative operator along the curve (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁) to the equa-
tion (23). We get

|𝐮𝐮|2 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄
𝛁𝛁 × � 𝐁𝐁� = + 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣, (29)
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣 ≡ (𝐛𝐛 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 + 𝐮𝐮(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐛𝐛) − 𝐛𝐛(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮) −
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐚𝐚) − (𝐚𝐚 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 − 𝐚𝐚 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)�� +
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮�𝐮𝐮 ∙ (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)�� − ��(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮)𝐮𝐮 − (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮� ∙ 𝛁𝛁� 𝐚𝐚 +
𝑞𝑞 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
�� 𝐮𝐮 − � ∙ 𝛁𝛁� 𝐚𝐚 − (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁) ,
𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝐚𝐚 ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮, 𝐛𝐛 ≡ (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐚𝐚 = �𝛁𝛁|𝐚𝐚|2 /2 − 𝐚𝐚 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)�/𝜌𝜌,

where 𝐣𝐣 has the meaning of the electric current density. We call the
formula (29) the generalized Ampere equation.
At derivation of the equation (29), we used the known rules of
action with the operator 𝛁𝛁 (see, for example, table 5.5-1 in [51])

(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)�(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐛𝐛 =

(𝐛𝐛 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 + 𝐮𝐮(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐛𝐛) − 𝐛𝐛(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮) − 𝛁𝛁 × (𝐮𝐮 × 𝐛𝐛),
𝐮𝐮 × 𝐛𝐛 = 𝐮𝐮 × �(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐚𝐚� =
𝐮𝐮 × �(𝛁𝛁(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐚𝐚) − (𝐚𝐚 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮) − 𝐚𝐚 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)� − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)�,

expression for double vector product

𝐮𝐮 × �𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)� = 𝐮𝐮�𝐮𝐮 ∙ (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)� − (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐮𝐮)𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚

and an analogue of the formula (3) from [52], which is obtained by

substituting of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 from the equation (4) into the equation (5) at
𝜌𝜌 ≠ 0,

52
 𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮 𝑞𝑞 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
= 𝐮𝐮(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮) − (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 − 𝐮𝐮 + . (30)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌

The derivation of the formula (29) is described with more details

in the appendix 1 on p. 590.
Taking the divergence from the equation (29), we obtain the re-
lation between the charge density and the electric current density
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
+ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐣𝐣 = 0, (31)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

which can be given the form of the charge conservation law (see the
remark at the end of sec. 3).
Differentiating (24) over time and substituting 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 into (29),
we find another etheric representation for the density of the electric
current
1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 1 𝜕𝜕(𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃)
𝐣𝐣 = �𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐮𝐮|2 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� + 2
− �. (32)
4𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

It was noted above that the application of the operators 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × and
(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁) can be interpreted as some special decomposition of the vector
in the left hand side of the equation (23) into two vectors, leading to
the formulas (26) and (29). If as a result of this decomposition, line-
arly independent vectors are obtained, then each of the equations (26)
and (29) gives essential information about the behavior of 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁.
In the case of |𝐮𝐮| ≈ 𝑐𝑐, 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅 = 0 and the experimentally deter-
mined 𝜎𝜎and 𝐣𝐣 the equations (26)–(29) transforms to the classical sys-
tem of Maxwell’s equations

1 𝜕𝜕𝐁𝐁 1 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣

𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = − , 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐁𝐁 = + , (33)
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐
𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐁𝐁 = 0, 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋.

53
 According to [56], the introduction of the 𝐇𝐇 and 𝐃𝐃 vectors is an
artificial technique and is not necessary. All the media effects are in-
cluded in 𝜎𝜎 and 𝐣𝐣 (see equations (2.1.1) and the discussion on p. 24–
26 in [56], as well as sec. 1.1 in [57] or [58]).
The equation (25) multiplied by the charge density transforms to
the Lorentz force density 𝐅𝐅𝐿𝐿

𝐮𝐮
𝐅𝐅𝐿𝐿 = 𝜎𝜎 �𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁�.
𝑐𝑐

The derivation of this formula from Newton's second law is pre-

sented in sec. 16.1.
Derivation of expression for 𝐅𝐅𝐿𝐿 from the ether equations reveals
the physical meaning of notations (20), (21) for 𝐄𝐄 anb 𝐁𝐁 as the forces.
Thus, the system (20)–(23), (25), or (22), (23), (25)–(28), or (22),
(23), (26)–(29), where the functions 𝜌𝜌, 𝐮𝐮, 𝐄𝐄, 𝐁𝐁 are the sought, can be
interpreted as the system of the generalized Maxwell’s equations, and
together with the formula for 𝐅𝐅𝐿𝐿 – as the system of the generalized
Maxwell – Lorentz equations.
It is important to note that the original ether equations (22), (23)
are invariant with respect to the Galilean transformation (see sec. 1.3).
The reasons for the loss of such invariance in Maxwell’s equations
are the non-invariant transformation of the ether equation of motion,
the use of rather complex differential operators, the interpretation of
the fields and the electric current density in the absence of any me-
dium, the linearization of the nonlinear ether equations at |𝐮𝐮| ≈ 𝑐𝑐. The
question of the invariance of the generalized and the classical Max-
well’s equations is discussed in detail in sec. 2.5.
Conditions (27), (28), which narrow the class of feasible solu-
tions of Maxwell's equations, can be interpreted as some compensa-
tion for the expansion of the set of solutions that occurs when differ-
ential operators are applied to the ether equation of motion.

54
 In physics, the question of the presence or absence of the term
𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 in Maxwell's equations is still debated. In the ether interpreta-
tion of the electromagnetic field, this question has a simple answer.
The derivation of the equation (29), as in Maxwell’s theory, is
somewhat artificial. When the formula (29) was obtained, the vectors
𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 and 𝛁𝛁 × (|𝐮𝐮|2 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐) were isolated explicitly. Such formal oper-
ations are fair, but can make it difficult to physically interpret certain
phenomena. Each of the vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐣𝐣 is expressed in terms of 𝜌𝜌 and
𝐮𝐮. Therefore, 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐣𝐣 are not independent values. The derivative 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
in (29) can be represented through 𝜌𝜌, 𝐮𝐮, for example, using the formula
(21) 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 𝜕𝜕((𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮))/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 and can be included in the current
density 𝐣𝐣, which even without this has a complex structure and can be
different from zero, not only because of the motion of charged parti-
cles. As a result, the (29) can be written in another equivalent form

|𝐮𝐮|2 1 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄
𝛁𝛁 × � 𝐁𝐁� = 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣total , 𝐣𝐣total ≡ 𝐣𝐣 + . (34)
𝑐𝑐 4𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

The full current density 𝐣𝐣total consists of the sum of the electric
current density, associated with the charge density by the equation
(31), and the current density caused by the time-varying electric field.
The formula (34) with |𝐮𝐮| ≈ 𝑐𝑐 is usually applied in practice in
electrical engineering, when details of the current occurrence nature
are not of great importance.
In addition, the question about 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 does not arise in principle
if instead of the equation (29) we use the Lorentz force field (25),
which has a clearer physical meaning. In this case, 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 is not in-
cluded in the system of equations for 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 (see also sec. 2.2).
The expressions for 𝜎𝜎 and 𝐣𝐣 in terms of the ether velocity and
density allow to calculate 𝜎𝜎 and 𝐣𝐣 theoretically. With a help of spe-
cially excited ether motion, one can obtain the density 𝜌𝜌 and the ve-
locity 𝐮𝐮 in the vacuum, corresponding to the electric current and

55
charge density. Moreover, the presence of the charge and current car-
riers, such as elementary particles, is not necessary.
Additional conditions and terms in the functions 𝜎𝜎, 𝐣𝐣, 𝐅𝐅, 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 can
be added to the system of the generalized Maxwell’s equations de-
scribing the interaction of the ether flows with discontinuities or the
macroscopic objects.
Let’s give the simplest example of the generalized Maxwell’s
equations solution. At 𝑞𝑞 = 0, 𝐅𝐅 = 0, 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 = 0, the ether equations
(22), (23) are satisfied by the density 𝜌𝜌 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 and the velocity 𝐮𝐮 =
𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 cos (𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈/𝑐𝑐)𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 sin (𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈/𝑐𝑐)𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑐𝑐𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , where 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 – is the
amplitude of the transverse velocity. According to formulas (20),
(21), a plane monochromatic circularly polarized electromagnetic
wave corresponds to this ether velocity and density. It is known that
such a wave also satisfies the classical Maxwell’s equations (33). The
wave processes in the ether are considered in more detail in sec. 4
An advantage of the ether representation of electromagnetic
waves is the explicit presence of velocity component in the direction
of the wave propagation in addition to the transverse oscillatory com-
ponent, see also formulas (80), (220). Therefore, the etheric represen-
tation of the electromagnetic wave allows to explain a wave-particle
duality observed in experiments as the flow of ether with a nonzero
component along the direction of motion. There are no components
in the vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 in the direction of the wave propagation. This
causes difficulties in interpreting experimental data on wave motion.
In the general case, 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 carry an incomplete information about
the ether flow density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮.

2.2. Calculation of electric and magnetic fields

In the previous section, there are three forms of the ether equa-
tions expression containing 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁: (20)–(23), (25); (22), (23), (25)–
(28); (22), (23), (26)–(29). It is shown that each of these forms can be
interpreted as a generalization of the Maxwell – Lorentz equations.

56
The question arises about the most convenient method of 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 cal-
culating.
Equations (26)–(29) are obtained using differentiation. As a re-
sult, these equations can have a wider class of 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 solutions than
the original system (20)–(23). Besides, when considering a problem
in the form of (20)–(23), it is required to solve only two equations
(22), (23) with respect to the scalar function 𝜌𝜌 and the vector function
𝐮𝐮, with which vector functions 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 are then calculated using for-
mulas (20), (21). Therefore, the system (20)–(23) is more preferable
for calculating of the electric and magnetic fields.
Thus, regardless of the physical interpretation of the ether equa-
tions (1)–(6) and the generalized Maxwell – Lorentz equations, the
system (1)–(3) or the macrolevel system (4)–(6) provides an effective
mathematical tool for finding the electromagnetic field. In paper [50]
a convenient form of equations (1)–(3) for the application of numeri-
cal methods was proposed, numerical algorithm for solution of the
ether dynamics problems was presented and its application to calcu-
late the formation of hydrogen meson atoms from a proton and muon
was illustrated.
Vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 can be measured, therefore the inverse problem
of 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮 finding according to given 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 is of interest. One can
solve this problem, for example, by determining the vector 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 from
the equation (20) and substituting it into the system of the equations
(22), (23), (15) to calculate 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮 separately.

2.3. Vector potential. Physical interpretation

The possibility of the vector potential 𝐀𝐀 ≡ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐮𝐮 introducing has

already been discussed above. The vector 𝐀𝐀 is indeed the vector po-
tential, since, according to (20),

𝐁𝐁 = 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐀𝐀.

57
 The components of the vector 𝐀𝐀 when using mechanical units of
𝜌𝜌 measuring have the dimension of the energy density. A direction of
𝐀𝐀 indicates the direction of the energy density motion. In [50], for the
solution of the system (1)–(3), it was proved the conservation of
�𝐀𝐀�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�� on the trajectory of the ether point 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡), which is the an-
alogue of the energy conservation law.
Vector (|𝐮𝐮|/𝑐𝑐)𝛁𝛁|𝐀𝐀| in the electromagnetic units, according to
(25), has the dimension of the electric field strength and describes the
force effect of the ether. The value of −|𝐀𝐀| for |𝐮𝐮| = 𝑐𝑐 represents the
electric potential in the absence of the magnetic field.
Using formula (21), the vector 𝐄𝐄 is expressed in terms of the vec-
tor potential and the ether density

1 1 1
𝐄𝐄 = 2
(𝐀𝐀 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐀𝐀 = 2 � 𝛁𝛁𝐀𝐀2 − 𝐀𝐀 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐀𝐀)�.
𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 2

Another representation of 𝐄𝐄 is discussed on p. 51.

The generalized Maxwell – Lorentz equations can also be written
in various forms with respect to the functions 𝜌𝜌, 𝐀𝐀, 𝐄𝐄, 𝐁𝐁.
The real existence of the vector potential (or the ether flow) is
confirmed by direct experiments [88–90].
The definition of 𝐁𝐁 (20), which actually uses the vector potential
𝐀𝐀 ≡ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐮𝐮, allows to justify the non-potentiality of the magnetic field
𝐁𝐁 in an infinite space, that is, that 𝐁𝐁 is not representable as a gradient
of some scalar function 𝑏𝑏 ≢ 0, going to zero at infinity. Prove by con-
tradiction. Suppose that 𝐁𝐁 is representable in the form 𝐁𝐁 = 𝛁𝛁𝑏𝑏, where
𝑏𝑏 ≢ 0, 𝑏𝑏 → 0 at 𝑟𝑟 → ∞. Then 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐀𝐀 = 𝛁𝛁𝑏𝑏. Take the divergence from
this equality. We obtain the Laplace equation ∆𝑏𝑏 = 0. This equation
in the unbounded space with the condition 𝑏𝑏 → 0 at 𝑟𝑟 → ∞ has only
the zero solution (for example, as the limit of solutions to problems in
the bounded domain with zero boundary condition [62, ch. IV, sec.

58
2]). The obtained contradiction proves the statement about the non-
potentiality of 𝐁𝐁 in the unbounded space.
In the limited area, where there are no electric currents, the mag-
netic field is the potential one, and where there are – not potential,
see, for example: [28, p. 228, 233].

2.4. Generalized equations of electric and magnetic field os-

cillations

We obtain from the equations of Faraday (26) and Ampere (29)

1 𝜕𝜕𝐁𝐁 1
𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = − + 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅, (35)
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
|𝐮𝐮|2 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄
𝛁𝛁 × � 𝐁𝐁� = + 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣 (36)
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

the equations of oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields, which

generalize the equations usually considered in physics, see, for exam-
ple, [33, p. 17–22].
Apply the rotor operation to the equations (35) and (36)

1 𝜕𝜕𝐁𝐁 1
𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄) = − 𝛁𝛁 × + 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅),
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
|𝐮𝐮|2 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄
𝛁𝛁 × �𝛁𝛁 × � 𝐁𝐁�� = 𝛁𝛁 × + 4𝜋𝜋𝛁𝛁 × 𝐣𝐣.
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Let us use the vector equality in the left hand sides [51, sec. 5.5-5]

𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚) = 𝛁𝛁(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐚𝐚) − 𝛁𝛁 2 𝐚𝐚,

59
and on the right swap the rotor and the partial derivative over time
(possible in the coordinate system with time-independent local basis
vectors). We get

1 𝜕𝜕𝛁𝛁 × 𝐁𝐁 1
𝛁𝛁(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄) − 𝛁𝛁 2 𝐄𝐄 = − + 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅), (37)
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
|𝐮𝐮|2 |𝐮𝐮|2 𝜕𝜕𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄
𝛁𝛁 �𝛁𝛁 ∙ � 𝐁𝐁�� − 𝛁𝛁 2 � 𝐁𝐁� = + 4𝜋𝜋𝛁𝛁 × 𝐣𝐣. (38)
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Take the partial derivative over time from the equation (36) and
divide it by 𝑐𝑐 2

1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐄𝐄 1 𝜕𝜕 |𝐮𝐮|2 4𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝐣𝐣

2 2
= 𝛁𝛁 × � 2 𝐁𝐁� − 2 . (39)
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Multiply the formula (37) by minus one, transfer in it the term

𝛁𝛁(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄), equal to 4𝜋𝜋𝛁𝛁𝜎𝜎 (28), to the right hand side and subtract the
equation (39) from the resulting expression. We get

1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐄𝐄 4𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝐣𝐣
𝛁𝛁 2 𝐄𝐄 − 2 2
= 4𝜋𝜋𝛁𝛁𝜎𝜎 + 2 +
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕 |𝐮𝐮|2 1 (40)
�𝛁𝛁 × ��1 − 2 � 𝐁𝐁�� − 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅),
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

We now consider the equation (38). Substitute the 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 repre-

sentation (35) into it, add 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 2 𝐁𝐁 to both sides and divide by 𝑐𝑐

1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐁𝐁
𝛁𝛁 2 𝐁𝐁 − =
𝑐𝑐 2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2

60
 2
|𝐮𝐮|2 2
|𝐮𝐮|2 1 𝜕𝜕𝐅𝐅
𝛁𝛁 𝐁𝐁 + 𝛁𝛁 �𝛁𝛁 ∙ � 2 𝐁𝐁�� − 𝛁𝛁 � 2 𝐁𝐁� − 𝛁𝛁 ×
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
4𝜋𝜋
− 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐣𝐣.
𝑐𝑐

Simplify the expression using 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐁𝐁 = 0 (27)

|𝐮𝐮|2 |𝐮𝐮|2 |𝐮𝐮|2

𝛁𝛁 �𝛁𝛁 ∙ � 2 𝐁𝐁�� = 𝛁𝛁 � 2 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐁𝐁 + 𝛁𝛁 � 2 � ∙ 𝐁𝐁� =
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
|𝐮𝐮|2
𝛁𝛁 �𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝛁𝛁 � ��.
𝑐𝑐 2

Then

2
1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐁𝐁
𝛁𝛁 𝐁𝐁 − 2 2 =
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
|𝐮𝐮| 2 |𝐮𝐮|2
4𝜋𝜋
− 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐣𝐣 + 𝛁𝛁 2 ��1 − 2 � 𝐁𝐁� + 𝛁𝛁 �𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝛁𝛁 � 2 �� (41)
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
1 𝜕𝜕𝐅𝐅
− 𝛁𝛁 × .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Equations (40), (41) are generalizations of the electric and mag-

netic field oscillation equations.
When |𝐮𝐮|/𝑐𝑐 ≈ 1, 𝐅𝐅 = 0 they turn to known equations [33, p. 17–22]

1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐄𝐄 4𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝐣𝐣
𝛁𝛁 2 𝐄𝐄 − 2 2
= 4𝜋𝜋𝛁𝛁𝜎𝜎 + 2 ,
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐁𝐁 4𝜋𝜋
𝛁𝛁 2 𝐁𝐁 − 2 2
=− 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐣𝐣.
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐

61
 In the limiting case |𝐮𝐮|/𝑐𝑐 ≪ 1, the formulas (40), (41) do not
contain the Laplace operator

𝜕𝜕 2 𝐄𝐄 𝜕𝜕𝐣𝐣
2
= −4𝜋𝜋 ,
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕 2 𝐁𝐁 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝐅𝐅
2
= 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝛁𝛁 × 𝐣𝐣 + 𝛁𝛁 × .
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Here, at simplifying of the equation (40) we used the representation

for 𝜕𝜕𝐁𝐁/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 from (35).
In the other limiting case, |𝐮𝐮|/𝑐𝑐 ≫ 1, equations (40), (41) go to

2
1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐄𝐄 4𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝐣𝐣
𝛁𝛁 𝐄𝐄 − 2 2 = 4𝜋𝜋𝛁𝛁𝜎𝜎 + 2 −
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕 |𝐮𝐮|2 1
�𝛁𝛁 × �� 2 � 𝐁𝐁�� − 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅),
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

2
1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐁𝐁
𝛁𝛁 𝐁𝐁 − 2 2 =
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
4𝜋𝜋 |𝐮𝐮|2 1 𝜕𝜕𝐅𝐅
− 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐣𝐣 + 𝛁𝛁 × �𝛁𝛁 × �� 2 � 𝐁𝐁�� − 𝛁𝛁 ×
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Apply in both equations the formula (36)

2
1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐄𝐄 4𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝐣𝐣
𝛁𝛁 𝐄𝐄 − 2 2 = 4𝜋𝜋𝛁𝛁𝜎𝜎 + 2 −
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄 1
� + 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣� − 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅),
𝑐𝑐 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

62
 1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐁𝐁
𝛁𝛁 2 𝐁𝐁 − =
𝑐𝑐 2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2
4𝜋𝜋 1 𝜕𝜕𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 4𝜋𝜋 1 𝜕𝜕𝐅𝐅
− 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐣𝐣 + + 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐣𝐣 − 𝛁𝛁 ×
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Expressing in the second equation 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 from (35), we have

1
𝛁𝛁 2 𝐄𝐄 = 4𝜋𝜋𝛁𝛁𝜎𝜎 − 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅),
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝛁𝛁 2 𝐁𝐁 = 0.

Thus, at |𝐮𝐮|/𝑐𝑐 ≫ 1, the equations (40), (41) do not contain time

derivatives.

2.5. *Studying the question of the generalized and classical

Maxwell equations invariance at the Galilean transfor-
mation

2.5.1. Invariance in the mathematical modeling and physics

Let us discuss the role of the invariant with respect to the system
of coordinate concepts and quantitative relationships in the method-
ology of mathematical modeling and the methodology of physics.
When constructing adequate mathematical models of processes,
it is important to proceed from the fact that nature knows nothing
about man-made coordinate systems and methods for measuring time.
The concepts of coordinates and time are introduced to formalize the
description of the observed phenomena within the framework of

*
This section requires in-depth knowledge of the fundamental mathematical con-
cepts, differential calculus, vector analysis and systems of coordinates [51, ch. 3–6,
16]. At the first acquaintance with the book this section can be skipped.

63
available mathematical tools. These concepts are one of the baseline
when constructing a mathematical model.
Philosophical issues related to coordinate systems, space, and
time are beyond the scope of this book. Their discussion can be found
in works [102, 80, 103, 104].
From the point of view of practical application, the quantitative
relations written with the help of the mathematical apparatus should
reflect and reveal as much as possible the mechanisms of the pro-
cesses occurring in nature, and not express the abstract formalism of
some quantitative postulates. Mathematical models successfully used
in practice follow precisely this goal.
Of greatest interest in many practical tasks is the study of the
characteristics of the object relative to its previous position in space,
and not relative to some artificially selected coordinate system. For
the abstract description of such independent of the coordinate system
properties, the mathematical concept of "vector" is used.
Initially, the mathematical concept of a vector as a directed seg-
ment is not associated with any coordinate system and is invariant in
this sense [113, sec. 28]. Such vectors, as velocities and forces, are
usually defined for the first time in a geometric language as "quanti-
ties with length and direction", or, in other words, as quantities that
can be represented as directional segments, summed by the "the par-
allelogram rule" [51, sec. 5.1]. The coordinate system is introduced
for a more detailed description of the quantitative relations in which
the vectors participate. At the same time, the vector itself, as a math-
ematical concept, is invariant with respect to the coordinate system,
but its projections onto the coordinate axes may be different in differ-
ent coordinate systems.
The choice of the initial coordinate system is usually connected
with the experimental data. At the same time, if some property, for
example, the presence of the medium motion (velocity), is observed
in the original coordinate system, then a full mathematical model of
the medium that describes this experience should reflect the presence

64
of the velocity during the transition to other coordinate systems. In
other words, in the new coordinate system, the model should describe
the same process that occurs in the original coordinate system. The
concept of a vector as a directed segment allows one to construct such
models.
Substitution of variables in the system of equations using one-to-
one (bijective) sufficiently smooth functions leads to a mathemati-
cally equivalent system of equations. Therefore, the transition to such
new variables does not add any new laws (quantitative relationships)
to the relations and does not change the physical content of the pro-
cesses described by the initial system. Variable substitution is usually
used to simplify the writing of equations.
Geometrically changing of variables means moving to a new co-
ordinate system, possibly curved and movable relative to the original
coordinates.
Of particular interest is the change of variables that does not
change the form of the equation as a mathematical formula. The prop-
erty of the equation to preserve the form with some change of variables
is called the invariance of the equation relative to this change, and the
change itself is called an invariant transformation of the equation.
The physical interpretation of the equation invariance property
with respect to some transformation is that in the new coordinate sys-
tem, built according to the law of this transformation, there are no
sources, sinks and forces (additional terms) in the equation that ex-
plicitly depend on the parameters of the new system coordinates law
of motion relatively to the original system. Such an interpretation of
invariance allows one to construct a simplified local model in a mov-
ing region, to extrapolate a model confirmed by experience to condi-
tions that are not yet achievable in practice, or to take into account
some factors external to the system under study.
Consider a typical example of building a local model based on a
given initial model. Let an equation be specified in the original coor-

65
dinate system and contain some functions, including the velocity vec-
tor. Suppose that the equation is invariant with respect to some change
of variables. For the sake of brevity we call this change the "invariant
rule". Let all points of the domain 𝛺𝛺 move according to the invariant
rule, and the processes described in the original coordinate system
given by the equation begin to develop in 𝛺𝛺. Assume that 𝛺𝛺 is isolated
from the influence of an oncoming medium. We construct in the do-
main 𝛺𝛺 on the basis of the given equation a local model of processes
that does not take into account the motion of 𝛺𝛺 according to the in-
variant rule.
At each point 𝛺𝛺 we introduce a local coordinate system (gener-
ally speaking, curvilinear) moving according to the invariant rule. We
define the local velocity vector in the region 𝛺𝛺 only as the velocity of
the local coordinates change without regarding their relation to the
initial coordinates. Similarly, we define other functions included in
the original equation as functions of only local coordinates. In the
general case, the local velocity vector is not equal to the velocity vec-
tor in the original coordinates, since it does not take into account the
motion of the new coordinate system relative to the initial one. There-
fore, the introduced local functions, generally speaking, cannot satisfy
the given equation, since it is defined for the original functions. We
now draw on intuitive considerations. Since the form of the equation
in the introduced coordinate system does not change (due to its invar-
iance), we assume that it remains valid also for the local functions
introduced.
The local model constructed in this way is generally speaking not
mathematically equivalent to the original model, since inequitable
reasoning is used in its derivation, including that new functions, not
obtained by the invariant transformation from the original functions,
are substituted in the equations of the original model. Therefore, the
adequacy of this local mathematical model must be checked anew. To
do this in the methodology of mathematical modeling, it is necessary

66
to study the correspondence of the consequences of the local model
to all well established experimental facts.
In the general case, the construction of the local mathematical
model based on the invariance property of the equations of the origi-
nal model can contain non-equivalent reasoning and non-invariant
transformations leading to a violation of the invariance of the result-
ing equations. Besides, not all equations of the initial model can be
invariant, see, for example, equations (6), (11). Therefore, the formu-
lation of mathematical models only in quantitative relations invariant
with respect to the coordinate system is not obligatory, although it is
preferable. More important is the correspondence of the consequences
of the model to the phenomena observed in those areas of space where
the model should be used in practice.
The invariance of equations can take place in relatively different
transformations. First of all, the invariance with respect to the sim-
plest transformations confirmed by common practice is important.
Such a transformation is introduced by the principle of Galilean –
Newton relativity. This principle considers the simplest change of
variables, called the Galilean transformation, and states that all phys-
ical equations and laws must be invariant with respect to this trans-
formation (see, for example: [14, p. 309; 26, sec. 15]).
The general mathematical model of nature proposed in the book
confirms this principle, since all the basic laws of electrodynamics
and gravity in it follow from the invariant with respect to the Galilean
transformation equations of the continuity and motion of the continu-
ous medium (ether).
On the basis of the hypothesis that all nature’s phenomena pri-
mary cause is motion of the ether or the propagation of disturbances
in it, we can assume that the Galilean non-invariance of certain laws
(quantitative relations) is associated with non-equivalent or non-in-
variant transformations of the ether continuity and motion equations
during the transition to description of certain effects. Sections 2.5.3,
2.5.4 show that this is the case for Maxwell’s equations.

67
 As applied to the ether model studied in this book, the above de-
scribed approach to constructing the local model corresponds to replac-
ing in the system (9)–(11) of the non-Galileo-invariant equation (11)
by the equation 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ = 𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫′(𝑡𝑡′)�)) and preserving the re-
maining two equations of the system in the unchanged invariant form.
The rejection of 𝐯𝐯 in the equation (11), generally speaking, is not
the equivalent transformation and leads to the equation that is not
equivalent to the original one. As a result, the obtained local model
(without 𝐯𝐯 in (11)) is not mathematically equivalent to the initial one
and its adequacy should be checked anew. Such a check is relatively
simple in this case. The equations (9), (10), 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ =
𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫′(𝑡𝑡′)� of the local model coincide with the equations (4)–(6) of
the original model with an accuracy of notation. Therefore, all the
mathematical consequences obtained in the book for the initial model
are valid for the equations of the local model. These consequences
correspond to all reliable results of experiments in isolated volumes
moving by the Galileo law. Thus, according to the methodology of
mathematical modeling, we can conclude that the model (4)–(6) is
applicable locally in any isolated from an external influence volume,
moving according to the Galilean transformation rule.
The study of the equations invariance is usually carried out in the
whole unbounded space. However, in the experiments and in the
mathematical model, boundary conditions play an important role, but
do not always have the property of the invariance. Therefore, the cor-
rectness of constructing the local model in the isolated area, extrapo-
lation of the results of the experiments and their mathematical model
to the entire universe, the involvement of external factors in the model
can cause questions and requires special study in each individual case.
See the discussion in Appendices 2 and 3.
In the methodology of physics, which consists in the generaliza-
tion of experimental facts, the question of the invariance substantiat-
ing of physical laws with respect to a particular transformation is more
complex. In accordance with this methodology, laws in significantly

68
changed conditions should be checked anew in the experiments, es-
pecially when these laws are planned to be used in technical systems
with a high reliability requirement, and researchers take responsible
for their decisions. Rechecking of various physical laws took place,
for example, when mastering supersonic velocities and direct study-
ing of the near-Earth space.
From the end of the XIX century to the present, the issue of Max-
well's equations invariance with respect to the Galilean transfor-
mation is intensively discussed in scientific literature. Classical pub-
lications of Larmor, Lorentz, Poincaré [105–107] and other authors
on this topic are collected, for example, in the book [108].
Starting from the Larmor's work "Ether and Matter" [105], the
Galilean non-invariance of the classical Maxwell’s equations is justi-
fied by the appearance of an additional term arising from the partial
time derivative at the Galilean change of variables, see for example:
[108, p. 53]. To compensate this term and to obtain the invariant form
of the classical Maxwell’s equations, the Lorentz transformation is
used, which was introduced by Poincaré [107]. In this transformation,
not only the spatial variables are replaced, but also time [108, p. 70,
91; 29, sec. 105; 14, p. 309–318; 114, ch. 6].
The Lorentz transformation is used in the construction of the rel-
ativity theory. However, it turned out that the adoption of the Lorentz
invariance as a postulate of the general mathematical model of nature
in the special and general relativity theory (see, for example: [14, p.
312]) leads to paradoxical consequences. For example, when reaching
the speed of light, an object loses its geometrical dimensions, includ-
ing a photon, moving with the speed of light, should not has a size;
the mass, magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields turn to infin-
ity; time stops (paradox of watches), see [29, sec. 106, 111; 14, p.
317–319]. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation is not studied in the
general model of nature proposed in this book.
In [14, p. 306] it was shown that, in addition to the Lorentz trans-
formations, there are more general classes of transformations, for

69
which the invariance of the classical Maxwell’s equations also holds.
The Lorentz transformation is distinguished from them by the corre-
spondence of its metric to the postulate of the constancy of the speed
of light [14, p. 312]. However, this postulate still cannot be considered
experimentally justified, see appendix 3 on p. 597. The presence of
the set of invariant transformations of Maxwell's classical equations
means the possibility of choosing other than the Lorentz invariance as
an axiom and building on its basis a different general model of nature.
However, from the point of view of mathematical modeling, the
least complex model, the consequences of which correspond to all
well-established experimental facts, is of the greatest value. The ether
model of nature (4)–(6) satisfies this criterion for selecting models.
The question of the invariance of the generalized (22), (23), (26)–
(29) and the classical (33) Maxwell equations with respect to the Gal-
ilean transformation is described in detail below using their mechan-
ical interpretation, presented in sec. 2.1, as the mathematical conse-
quences of the ether equations (4)–(6).

2.5.2. Transformation of derivatives and operators at Gali-

lean changing of variables. Invariance of the ether
continuity and motion equations in Euler variables

The original ether equations (4)–(6) are written in the Lagrangian

variables. Let us consider in detail the full time derivative 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡))
/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 in them, where 𝐚𝐚(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)) is an arbitrary differentiable vector. Ac-
cording to the rule of differentiation of a complex function (the super-
position of functions),

𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)

= + =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(42)
𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)) 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)
+� ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) � 𝐚𝐚�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

70
 Let's make in this expression the Galilean replacement of variables

𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) − 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡, 𝐯𝐯 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. (43)

We introduce the notation 𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)�:

𝐚𝐚(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)) = 𝐚𝐚(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡) ≡ 𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ ( 𝑡𝑡)� = 𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ ( 𝑡𝑡 ′ )�.

By the definition of the partial derivative 𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡))/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕, the sec-

ond argument 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) in it is treated as fixed, and the increment is taken
in the first argument. Therefore, when replacing in this derivative
function 𝐚𝐚�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� by 𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� = 𝐚𝐚′(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) − 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡), the term 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)
in the second argument of 𝐚𝐚′ does not depend on the increment of the
first argument (is fixed), and the term 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡 depends on this increment,
which must be taken into account when calculating the derivative:

𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)�

= =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� 𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)
+ =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐫𝐫 ′ ( 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(44)
𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� 𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)�
− 𝐯𝐯 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)
𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)�
− �𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) �𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)�.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Thus, the transformation of the partial derivative over time with

the Galilean substitution (43) leads to the non-invariant expression in
which an additional term appears, containing the velocity of motion
of the primed coordinate system 𝐯𝐯. The methods for compensating of
this term in Maxwell’s equations are discussed in papers by Larmor,
Lorentz, and Poincaré [108].

71
 The convective derivative operator has the following representa-
tion through the components of vectors in an arbitrary curvilinear co-
ordinate system
3 𝑘𝑘 3
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕
� ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) � = �� � � 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 � ∙ �� 𝐞𝐞𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 � =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑛𝑛=1
3 𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕
� � � 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑘𝑘,𝑛𝑛=1

where 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 and 𝐞𝐞𝑛𝑛 are vectors of contravariant and covariant local ba-
ses, 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 = 1, see, for example: [51, p. 183, 515]. In the orthogonal
system 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑛𝑛 = 0 at 𝑘𝑘 ≠ 𝑛𝑛 and the expression for the convective op-
erator is simplified
3 𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕
� ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) � = � � � ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑘𝑘=1

Let's transfer to the moving coordinates (43) in the convective

derivative

𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)
� ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) � 𝐚𝐚�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� = � ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) � 𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3 𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)�
�� � = (45)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑘𝑘=1
3 𝑘𝑘 3
𝑑𝑑(𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡)
�� � � 𝑛𝑛 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑛𝑛=1

72
 3 𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)�
�� + 𝐯𝐯� =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑘𝑘=1
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)
�� + 𝐯𝐯� ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) � 𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)
� ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) � 𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� + �𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) �𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)�.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

It is seen that the convective derivative (45), as well as the partial

derivative over time (44), is not invariant with respect to the Galilean
substitution (43).
However, in the sum of the partial and convective derivatives, the
non-invariant terms containing 𝐯𝐯 give zero. As a result, taking into
account 𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑡𝑡, the expression of the total time derivative through par-
tial derivatives in the moving system (43) has the same form as in the
original one (42):

𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝜕𝜕𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡 ′ )

= ′
+ � ′
∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ �𝑡𝑡 ′ � � 𝐚𝐚′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡 ′ )�.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

This proves the invariance of the total derivative over time.

The gradient, divergence and rotor operations contain only space
derivatives. Applying obtained on p. 35 formula 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑡𝑡) =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡 ′ )�/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′(𝑡𝑡 ′ ), we establish that these operations are invari-
ant under the Galilean change of variables (43).
Thus, the original ether equations (4)–(6) can be represented in
the form using partial derivatives,

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�
+ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) ∙ �𝜌𝜌′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�� = (46)
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′

73
 1
𝑞𝑞′ �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′), 𝜌𝜌′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�, 𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)��,
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�
+
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)
� ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) � �𝜌𝜌′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�� =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ (47)
1
�𝐅𝐅′ �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′), 𝜌𝜌′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�, 𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)��
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
+ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) 𝑃𝑃′ �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′), 𝜌𝜌′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�, 𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)���.
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)
= 𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫′(𝑡𝑡′)� − 𝐯𝐯, (48)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′

where designations are taken

𝑓𝑓�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�� 𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡 ′ ≡ 𝑓𝑓′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�, 𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝜌, 𝐮𝐮;

𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)=𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)+𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡
𝑓𝑓 �𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡), 𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, (𝑡𝑡)�, 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��� 𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡 ′ ≡
𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)=𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)+𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡
𝑓𝑓′ �𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′), 𝜌𝜌′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�, 𝐮𝐮′�𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡′)�� , 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑞𝑞, 𝐅𝐅, 𝑃𝑃.

Equations (46), (47) are invariant with respect to the Galilean

transformation (43), since they have the same form as in the original
coordinate system. In sec. 1.3, the invariance of the ether continuity
and motion equations is proved in another way, based on the defini-
tion of the derivative.
The Lagrangian description of motion is the initial one in the con-
struction of continuous media mechanics, since it is "always implied
in the formulation of the physical laws" [14, p. 30]. The transition to
the Euler form of motion description is mainly associated with ensur-
ing the possibility of application of mathematical physics well-devel-

74
oped methods for obtaining solutions of equations in the form of an-
alytical formulas, although some problems can be more successfully
solved in the Lagrangian approach [24].
Let us pass in equations (46)–(48) from the Lagrange variables
to the Euler variables, in which 𝑡𝑡′ and 𝐫𝐫′ are considered as independ-
ent of each other quantities. Fix 𝑡𝑡′ and consider an arbitrary point 𝐫𝐫′
in the domain, where these equations are defined. Suppose that equa-
tions (46)–(48) are not satisfied at the point 𝐫𝐫′. But, according to the
assumption of the medium continuity, some trajectory 𝐫𝐫′(𝑡𝑡′) must al-
ways pass through the point 𝐫𝐫′ at the moment of time 𝑡𝑡′ and the equa-
tions at the point (𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫′(𝑡𝑡′)) must be fulfilled. The obtained contradic-
tion proves the validity of equations for independent 𝑡𝑡′ and 𝐫𝐫′. We
arrive at expressing equations (46)–(48) in the Euler variables (𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫′)

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )
+ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ ∙ �𝜌𝜌′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ )� =
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ (49)
1
𝑞𝑞′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ , 𝜌𝜌′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ ), 𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ )�,
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ ) 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′
′
+� ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ � �𝜌𝜌′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ )� =
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′
1 (50)
�𝐅𝐅′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ , 𝜌𝜌′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ ), 𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ )�
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
+ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑃𝑃′�𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ , 𝜌𝜌′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫 ′ ), 𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ )��.
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 ′
= 𝐮𝐮′(𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫′) − 𝐯𝐯. (51)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′

The converse is also true: the equations in the Lagrangian form

(46)–(48) follow from the equations in the Euler (49)–(51). Indeed,
since (49)–(51) are valid at the arbitrary point (𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫′), then they are
also valid at the points of the trajectory (𝑡𝑡′, 𝐫𝐫′(𝑡𝑡′)).
The form of the equations (49), (50) does not change with the
Galilean variables substitution, so they are invariant relative to such a

75
substitution. At that, the equation for the velocity of coordinates
change 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) is not invariant, since it goes into the equa-
tion (51), which explicitly contains 𝐯𝐯.
Thus, the Lagrangian and Eulerian forms of the ether continuity
and motion equations expressing are equivalent in the moving coor-
dinate system (43).
We emphasize two important properties. In the Galilean transfor-
mation (43), the velocity of the coordinates change 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is non-
invariant, and the velocity vector 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) is invariant. Such properties
are due to the fact that, as noted at the beginning of sec. 1.3, the Gal-
ilean transformation always implies the presence of the initial coordi-
nate system in which the velocity vector of the medium 𝐮𝐮 is defined,
and the change of variables in the vector, understood as a directed
segment, and the introduction of a new coordinate system can result
to a change in the projections of the vector on the coordinate axes, but
not to a change in the length and direction of the vector. Such under-
standing of the vector invariance is important for the construction of
the realistic mathematical model, since the absence of a change in the
point position in a moving coordinate system does not mean, gener-
ally speaking, that the medium does not have the velocity in the orig-
inal coordinate system. The adequate mathematical model must take
into account the prior presence of the velocity vector in the original
coordinate system.
These properties lead to the fact that in the Galilean transfor-
mation (43) the expression

𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫
� ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 � 𝐚𝐚(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) (52)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

is not invariant, but the expression

(𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 )𝐚𝐚(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) (53)

76
is invariant. Therefore, when transferring to a moving coordinate sys-
tem, operations (52) and (53) must be distinguished, despite the fact
that in the initial coordinate system these operations are equivalent.

2.5.3. The reason of the Galilean invariance loss in the gen-

eralized Maxwell equations is a non-invariant trans-
formation of the original ether equations. Invariance
of the generalized Maxwell equations at sublight ve-
locity of the coordinate system

The invariance of the rotor of vector and the expression (53) with
respect to the Galileo transformation (43) allows us to conclude that
the definitions of the magnetic and electric fields (20), (21) are invar-
iant with respect to this transformation

𝐁𝐁(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) ≡ 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × (𝜌𝜌′ 𝐮𝐮′ ) ≡ 𝐁𝐁′(𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ ), (54)

𝐄𝐄(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) ≡ (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = (𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′ 𝐮𝐮′ ) ≡ 𝐄𝐄′(𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝐫𝐫 ′ ). (55)

Here and further in sec. 2.5, the presence of a prime in a function will
mean that its arguments are also primed.
Let us make an important explanation for the definition of 𝐄𝐄. In
the postulated ether equation of motion (5) with the full derivative
represented through the partial derivatives, the expression (𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∙
𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) appears. In the initial coordinate system 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐮𝐮. There-
fore, in the initial coordinates, the definitions of 𝐄𝐄(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) by the expres-
sions (𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) or (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) are equivalent. However, the
formula (𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮), according to (45), is not invariant with re-
spect to the Galilean transformation: (𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = (𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫′/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ ∙
𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′) + (𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′). The definition of 𝐄𝐄 by a non-invariant
formula (𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) would lead to the introduction of a non-in-
variant concept into the mathematical model and, as a result, to a non-
invariant description of the ether in terms of such a concept. There-
fore, the electric field is determined by the invariant expression (55).

77
 The physical interpretation of the invariant definition of the elec-
tric field (55) consists in understanding of 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄 as the force density
due to the displacement of the Lagrangian volumes of the continuous
medium in the initial coordinate system. In mathematical abstraction,
such a force is described by a directed segment (vector) that is invar-
iant with respect to the Galilean transformation.
Taking the divergence from (54), (55), we find

𝛁𝛁′ ∙ 𝐁𝐁′ = 0, (56)

𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄′ = 4𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎 ′ .
′
(57)

Substitute the equation (51) into (50):

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′𝐮𝐮′ 𝐅𝐅′ + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑃𝑃′

+ (𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁 𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′) − (𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′) = . (58)
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

The equation (51) is not invariant. Therefore, such a substitution at

(𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′) ≠ 0 makes the invariant equation (50) to become non-
invariant. So, this transformation of the equation is non-invariant.
However, if for the Galilean substitution we consider not too fast
moving coordinate systems |𝐯𝐯| ≪ |𝐮𝐮′|, then the invariance property
for the equation (58) will be true approximately with an accuracy of
a term of the order |𝐯𝐯|:

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′𝐮𝐮′ 𝐅𝐅′ + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑃𝑃′

′
+ (𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′) = . (59)
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

The speed of free propagation of disturbances in the ether is equal

to the speed of light. The typical speeds of the processes in the ether
are of the same order. Therefore, this approximation will be valid for
Galilean transformations of the coordinate systems, the speed of
which is much smaller than the speed of light |𝐯𝐯| ~ |𝐮𝐮′| ≪ 𝑐𝑐.

78
 The equation (59) will be fulfilled without limitation on 𝐯𝐯 in the
case of special ether flows: (𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′) = 0.
As in sec. 2.1, we apply the operator 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × and the derivative
operator along the curve (𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ ) to the equation (59). We obtain the
generalized Faraday and Ampere equations in the primed system

𝜕𝜕𝐁𝐁′ 𝑐𝑐
+ 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × 𝐄𝐄′ = 𝛁𝛁 ′ × 𝐅𝐅 ′ , (60)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐫𝐫
𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄′ 𝐅𝐅′ + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑃𝑃′
′
+ (𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝐄𝐄′) = (𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ ) . (61)
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Using the transformations described in the appendix 1 on p. 590,

the equation (61) is reduced to the form

|𝐮𝐮′|2 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄′
𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × � 𝐁𝐁′� = + 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣′ . (62)
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′

We obtain the system of the generalized Maxwell’s equations in

the moving system (54)–(57), (60), (62), the form of which coincides
with their form in the initial coordinate system (20)–(23), (26)–(29).
Therefore, the generalized Maxwell’s equations are invariant with re-
spect to the Galilean transformation up to the value of the order |𝐯𝐯| ≪
|𝐮𝐮′| or for a special flow of the ether (𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′) = 0 without re-
strictions on 𝐯𝐯.
In the general case of an arbitrary motion velocity of the moving
coordinate system 𝐯𝐯, the generalized Maxwell’s equations obtained
from (58), generally speaking, will not be invariant with respect to the
Galilean transformation, since the term depending on 𝐯𝐯 appears in
them as a result of this transformation:

𝜕𝜕𝐁𝐁′ 𝑐𝑐
+ 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × 𝐄𝐄′ = 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × 𝐅𝐅 ′ + 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × �(𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′)�,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

79
 |𝐮𝐮′|2 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄′
𝛁𝛁𝒓𝒓′ × � 𝐁𝐁′� = + 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣′ − (𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )�(𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′)�.
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′

Thus, the calculation of 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄 from the generalized Maxwell’s

equations (60), (62) in the moving system (43) gives approximate re-
sults with an error of |𝐯𝐯|. To obtain the precise results for 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄 in
the moving system, one should use the initial equations in the Eulerian
(49)–(51) or the Lagrangian form (9)–(11) (see. p. 36), and then cal-
culate 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄 with the formulas (54), (55).
Note that the system (9)–(11) does not contain restrictions on the
magnitude of the ether velocity and allows superlight speeds. The ap-
proximation |𝐯𝐯| ~ |𝐮𝐮′| ≪ 𝑐𝑐, made in the derivation of the equations
(60), (62), is used only as a condition under which the generalized
Maxwell’s equations in the primed coordinate system have the same
form as in the initial one.
We emphasize once again that the first two equations in the sys-
tems (49)–(51) and (9)–(11) are invariant with respect to the Galilean
transformation, and the third is not. The substitution of the third equa-
tion in (50) at the derivation of the generalized Maxwell’s equations
implies their non-invariance for the Galilean change of variables.

2.5.4. Galilean non-invariance of the classical Maxwell

equations in the absence of a medium and their in-
variance in the etheric interpretation at the sublight
coordinate system motion

In the physical concepts that prevailed in the XX century, the

magnetic and electric fields are interpreted as a special form of matter
in the absence of any medium. These fields are described by the vec-
tors 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄, which characterize the force influence.
In the methodology of mathematical modeling, the vector 𝐁𝐁, 𝐄𝐄, 𝐣𝐣,
and the scalar 𝜎𝜎 functions, which enter the classical Maxwell’s equa-
tions, are set from the experience in some initial coordinate system,

80
and the transition to a moving coordinate system means the descrip-
tion in new variables of the same physical process that occurs in the
original system.
Maxwell's classical equations (33) are written in the Euler varia-
bles. The Galilean transformation in these variables is

𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) = 𝐫𝐫 − 𝐯𝐯𝑡𝑡, 𝐯𝐯 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. (63)

The equations (33) with substitution (63) go to

′
1 𝜕𝜕𝐁𝐁 ′
𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × 𝐄𝐄 = − + (𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )𝐁𝐁′ ,
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′
′
1 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄′ ′
4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣′ (64)
𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × 𝐁𝐁 = − (𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁 𝐫𝐫 ′ )𝐄𝐄 + ,
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝑐𝑐
𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ ∙ 𝐁𝐁′ = 0, 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ ∙ 𝐄𝐄′ = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋′.

Here, the formula (44) is used for the partial derivative over time and
the invariance of the rotor and the divergence operators with respect
to the Galilean substitution, see p. 73. The presence of a prime in the
function means that its arguments are also primed.
In the system (64) the new terms containing 𝐯𝐯, have appeared
from the partial derivative over time, which lead to a difference in the
form of the equations (33) and (64). Therefore, at (𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )𝐁𝐁 ′ ≠ 0 and
(𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )𝐄𝐄′ ≠ 0, in the dominant view of XX century physics about
the absence of medium, the classical Maxwell’s equations (33) are not
invariant with respect to the Galilean transformation.
The use of the condition |𝐯𝐯| ≪ |𝐮𝐮| ~ 𝑐𝑐 in the system (64) is dif-
ficult, since in the absence of a medium, the relationship between 𝐁𝐁
and 𝐄𝐄 with the ether velocity 𝐮𝐮 is not revealed.
In the ether sense, the magnetic and electric fields are character-
istics of the ether motion (20), (21). In the initial coordinate system,
the density and velocity of the ether 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮, are given, which satisfy
to the equations (22), (23), and the vectors 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄 are calculated by
the formulas (20), (21).

81
 Substitute the ether representations of 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄 (20), (21) into the
classical Maxwell’s equations (33)

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮
𝛁𝛁 × � + (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = 0,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣
𝛁𝛁 × �𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = + ,
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐
𝛁𝛁 ∙ �𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = 0, 𝛁𝛁 ∙ �(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋.

The Galilean change of variables (63) with taking into account

the formulas (44), (53) gives

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′𝐮𝐮′
𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × � − (𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′) + (𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′)� = 0,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′
𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × �𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × (𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌′ 𝐮𝐮′ )� =
𝜕𝜕(𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′)
− (𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )�(𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′)� + 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣′,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕′
𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ ∙ �𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × (𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′)� = 0, 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ ∙ �(𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ )(𝜌𝜌′𝐮𝐮′)� = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋′.

The ether representation of the classical Maxwell’s equations al-

lows us to compare the terms of the equation by the order of magni-
tude of the velocities 𝐯𝐯 and 𝐮𝐮′. In the case of not too fast, compared
with the speed of light, motion of the coordinates |𝐯𝐯| ≪ |𝐮𝐮′ | ~ 𝑐𝑐,
terms containing 𝐯𝐯 can be neglected. Then, returning to the electric
and magnetic fields (54), (55), we obtain

1 𝜕𝜕𝐁𝐁 ′ 1 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄′ 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣′

𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × 𝐄𝐄′ = − , 𝛁𝛁 𝐫𝐫 ′ × 𝐁𝐁′ ≈ + , (65)
𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝑐𝑐
𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ ∙ 𝐁𝐁′ = 0, 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ ∙ 𝐄𝐄′ = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋′.

The form of the equations (33) and (65) is the same. Therefore,
at |𝐯𝐯| ≪ 𝑐𝑐, the classical Maxwell’s equations are invariant with re-
spect to the Galilean transformation.

82
 Note that the system (65) can also be obtained directly from the
generalized Maxwell’s equations in the primed system (54)–(57),
(60), (62), assuming, as in derivation of (33), that |𝐮𝐮′| ≈ 𝑐𝑐, 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ′ × 𝐅𝐅′ =
0, and 𝜎𝜎′ and 𝐣𝐣′ are determined experimentally.
From the point of view of the continuous mechanics methodol-
ogy considered in the book, the Galilean non-invariance of the gener-
alized and classical Maxwell’s equations in the case of an arbitrary
velocity 𝐯𝐯 of coordinates motion (63) is a drawback of describing
electromagnetic processes by such equations, and not the law of na-
ture. The initial equations of the ether continuity and motion (9), (10)
are invariant with respect to the Galilean transformation. The vectors
𝐁𝐁′ and 𝐄𝐄′ (54), (55), calculated using the solution of the system (9)–
(11), do not use restrictions on the velocities values 𝐯𝐯 and 𝐮𝐮. The
equations (9)–(11) allow the motion with the superlight speed.
We emphasize once again that in the methodology of mathemati-
cal modeling, of the most interest is the direct construction of a model,
including quantitative relationships, in such a local coordinate system,
where it is necessary to use the model for solving practical problems.

2.6. General remarks

Analyses of the ether mathematical model fundamentals at micro

and macro levels shows that the principle difference between the ether
equation of motion and the equation of motion of the continuous me-
chanics, including gas and hydrodynamics, is the presence in the ether
motion equation of the force term associated with the media density
change in time. The presence of such a term makes the Maxwell –
Lorentz equations be a natural consequence of the ether equations.
Moreover, the equations for the density and velocity of the ether are
invariant with respect to the Galilean transformation. The loss of this
invariance in Maxwell’s equations arises due to the non-invariant
transformation of the ether equation of motion.

83
 The mathematical model of the ether as a continuous medium al-
lowed to obtain a generalization of the Maxwell – Lorentz equations;
explain the absence of their invariance with respect to the Galilean
transformation; to reveal the single nature of the electric field strength
and the magnetic field induction origin from the speed and density of
the ether; find an interpretation of the Lorentz field force appearance
as a natural motion of the ether; get the ether expressions for the
charge density and the electric current density; give a concise mathe-
matical description of the vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁; explain the wave-particle
duality as a flow of the ether with a non-zero component along the
direction of motion; establish the physical interpretation of the mag-
netic field vector potential as the energy density.
It is shown that the ether equations give an effective mathemati-
cal tool for the practical calculation of the electric and magnetic fields.
Note that one of the most appropriate methods for the numerical so-
lution of the ether equations is the method of integral approximations
(the method of smoothed particles). This method is consistently de-
scribed in the form adopted in computational mathematics and is
strictly justified in sec. 2.1.15 of the book [58]. The application of the
method for solution of the ether dynamics problems is illustrated in
the reference [50].
The studies performed allow us to make a fundamental conclusion
that the ether equations (4)–(6) must be taken into account when con-
structing detailed self-consistent mathematical models of electrodynam-
ics, gas and hydrodynamics, since in the general case the vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁
do not contain all the information about the ether density flow 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮.

3. Charge, its electric field. Gauss theorem. Coulomb's law.

Electric potential. Relation between the potential electric
field and the ether pressure gradient. Charge conservation

We define the amount of charge 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 as the volume integral of the

volumetric density of charge 𝜎𝜎, introduced in the equation (28) and

84
expressed through the density and velocity of the ether. According to
the formula (28), we have

1
𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 ≡ � 𝜎𝜎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , 𝜎𝜎 = 𝛁𝛁 ∙ �(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�, (66)
𝑉𝑉 4𝜋𝜋

where 𝑉𝑉 – is the region in which the flow of the ether is considered.

In accordance with the definition (66), there are three possibilities
for the 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 sign: 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 > 0, 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 < 0, 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 = 0.
The etheric interpretation of the charge is broader than the clas-
sical one. According to definition (66), the charge in the ether is as-
sociated with a certain flow of the ether, at that the presence of charge
carriers, for example, charged elementary particles, is not necessary.
Therefore, the creation of a charge, for example, by rubbing different
materials against each other, in the etheric interpretation means the
creation in the ether the appropriate flow, and the possible motion of
charged particles in this flow is a secondary effect.
The volumetric integral of the equation (28) and the Ostrograd-
sky – Gauss theorem allows us to associate a charge with the second
kind surface integral of the electric field strength vector 𝐄𝐄, that is, the
electric field flux through the surface 𝑆𝑆 , limiting the volume in which
the charge density is distributed:

1 1
𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 = � 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬.
4𝜋𝜋 𝑉𝑉 4𝜋𝜋 𝑆𝑆

In physics the formula

1
𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 = � 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 (67)
4𝜋𝜋 𝑆𝑆

85
is called the Gauss electrostatic theorem in the integral form [28, p.
30, 38]. In the class of continuous functions, the Gauss theorem in the
differential and the integral forms (formulas (28) and (67)) are equiv-
alent [28, p. 40].
Coulomb's law in physics is regarded as a particular case, that is,
a consequence, of the Gauss electrostatic theorem. The validity of the
Gauss theorem in electrodynamics, dealing with time-varying elec-
tromagnetic fields, is taken as a hypothesis, whose validity is verified
by a generalization of the experimental facts. Relevant arguments
about the relation between the Coulomb law and the Gauss electro-
static theorem and the Gauss theorem in electrodynamics are given,
for example, in [28] on p. 40.
In the theory of the ether, the Gauss theorem was obtained as a
consequence of the definitions of the electric field 𝐄𝐄 (21) and the
charge density 𝜎𝜎 (28). Therefore, the ether theory does not require the
adoption of the Gauss theorem as a hypothesis with verification in the
experiments. Coulomb's law, as a consequence of the Gauss electro-
static theorem, also does not require experimental verification in the
ether theory. Instead, the ether equations (4)–(6) and the equation of
its state (15), require experimental verification, and all other laws con-
sidered in the electricity and magnetism, including electrodynamics,
are, as shown in this book, the consequences of the ether equations.
In this sense, the logical construction of the theory of ether is much
more transparent than that commonly used in physics.
The etheric representation of the Gauss theorem is obtained by
substituting the definition of the electric field strength (21) in (67)

1
𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 = � (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬.
4𝜋𝜋 𝑆𝑆

In the simplest cases, the electric field 𝐄𝐄 can be calculated directly

from the equation (28). For example, if the charge density 𝜎𝜎 is dis-
tributed in the ball and the vector 𝐄𝐄 has only the normal to the surface

86
of the ball component 𝐄𝐄 = 𝐸𝐸𝐧𝐧, and 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, then outside the ball,
according to (67),
𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸 = , 𝐄𝐄 = 𝐸𝐸𝐧𝐧, (68)
𝑟𝑟 2

where 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 is the ball charge, 𝐧𝐧 is the unit normal vector. This formula
is identical to the well-known formula (see, for example, relation (6.3)
in [28]).
In the classical physics, the formula (68) is considered as the
Coulomb law for the force acting on a unit charge in the field of
charge 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 . It has already been noted above that the formula (68) is the
consequence of the etheric definitions of the electric field and the
charge density. It remains to be shown that (68) is indeed a force in
the ether. This is done quantitatively in general form in sec. 16.1,
when considering the etheric interpretation of the Lorentz force, and
in sec. 17.1 in the case of two charged objects. The qualitative de-
scription of the ether mechanism for the interaction of charged objects
is given in sec. 18.13.
The electric field, the strength vector of which is a potential one,
can be described by one function 𝜑𝜑

𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁𝜑𝜑. (69)

The function 𝜑𝜑 is called the electric potential (see, for example: [28,
sec. 18 and 22–25]).
Substituting the expression (69) in (67), we obtain the relation
between the charge and the potential 𝜑𝜑

1 1
𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 = − � 𝛁𝛁𝜑𝜑 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = − � (𝛁𝛁𝜑𝜑) ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (70)
4𝜋𝜋 𝑆𝑆 4𝜋𝜋 𝑆𝑆

87
 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
− � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
4𝜋𝜋 𝑆𝑆 𝜕𝜕𝐧𝐧

where 𝐧𝐧 is the unit normal external to the closed surface 𝑆𝑆. The po-
tentials of some charged bodies are calculated, for example, in [28,
sec. 19].
The Helmholtz expansion theorem (formulas (5.7-7), (5.7-8)
from [51])) allows us to find, up to the term 𝐄𝐄0 , such that 𝛁𝛁 2 𝐄𝐄0 = 0,
the potential of the potential vector field for given divergence (see
[51, p. 178, 173]). In our case, for the given charge density 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, one can find 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁𝜑𝜑 + 𝐄𝐄0 , where

𝜎𝜎(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫′) ′
𝜑𝜑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 . (71)
𝑉𝑉 |𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫′|

In the Helmholtz expansion theorem some arbitrariness remains

in the definition of the function 𝐄𝐄0 . When describing the ether, the
function 𝐄𝐄0 should ensure the fulfillment of the ether equations (22),
(23) in addition to the equation 𝛁𝛁 2 𝐄𝐄0 = 0.
We emphasize that the ether equations (22), (23) allow the exist-
ence of the electric field 𝐄𝐄 even in the absence of a charge density
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 = 0. That is, the term 𝐄𝐄0 can play a significant role.
Taking into account the definition of 𝜎𝜎, the formula (71) in the
ether representation has the form

1 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫′ ∙ �(𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫′) ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫′ )�𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫′)𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫′)��

𝜑𝜑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 ′ .
4𝜋𝜋 𝑉𝑉 |𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫′|

The equation (24) allows expressing the electric field strength as

follows:

88
 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
𝐄𝐄 = − + .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

In the case of 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 (see p. 26) in the steady state (partial
derivatives with respect to time go to zero) in the absence of the ex-
ternal volumetric force, this expression relates the electric field
strength and the ether pressure 𝑝𝑝 gradient

𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
𝐄𝐄 = − . (72)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

The etheric representation of the electric field (72) corresponds to the

electric field considered in the electrostatics.
Formulas (69), (72) allow to find the relation between the electric
potential and the ether pressure

𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
𝛁𝛁𝜑𝜑 = . (73)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Then, up to the additive constant, we have

𝑝𝑝
𝜑𝜑 = . (74)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

From here for the potential difference we get

𝑝𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑝1
𝜑𝜑2 − 𝜑𝜑1 = . (75)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Accounting the equation of the ether state (15) in the absence of

external forces, we find the relationship of the potential difference and
the density and velocity of the ether

89
 𝜑𝜑2 − 𝜑𝜑1 = (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 )1 − (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 )2 . (76)

Thus, the potential difference in the steady state flow of the ether
is determined by the ether pressure difference or the difference of the
energy densities of its flow.
The formula (74) at the known 𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚,0 (229) allows finding the cor-
respondence of the voltage and pressure values. For example, the
pressure of 1 [atm] corresponds to the voltage of ≈ 45.4 [kV].
If the distribution of the electric potential 𝜑𝜑 in space is calculated,
see for example: [34, sec. 24, 26; 28, sec. 19; 36 p. 353–356], then,
according to (74), the corresponding distribution of the ether pressure
𝑝𝑝 differs only by a constant factor. Thus, the problem of finding the
ether pressure of an electrostatic field is reduced to solving the elec-
trostatic problem [62, p. 396–401]. Electrostatic problems are formu-
lated for equations with the Laplace operator. Analytical and numer-
ical methods for solving them are well developed, see, for example:
[62, ch. IV; 115, ch. IV]. The ether density and velocity are deter-
mined by the known pressure using the equations of state (15) and
continuity (22).
We write the formula (70) taking into account the equality (73)

1 1
𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 = − � 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = � 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬. (77)
4𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑆𝑆 4𝜋𝜋 𝑆𝑆

We obtain that the electrostatic charge is determined by the ether pres-

sure gradient flow or the steady flow of the ether energy density gra-
dient through the surface 𝑆𝑆, limiting the charge.
Therefore, the presence of the charge in the object means partial
retention of the elevated or reduced ether pressure by the boundary of
the object or the creation of the pressure gradient due to the orienta-
tion of the electrically polarized structural elements of the object. The

90
electrostatic field of the charged object, according to (72), is formed
by associated with it ether flow, which has a pressure gradient.
In [189, p. 57–64] experiments in the high vacuum, carried out
independently by different authors, are presented. It is shown that be-
fore the significant electric current occurs, the luminescence starts
from the cathode (negatively charged electrode), that is, the current
flow (the ether current, see sec. 12) starts from the cathode (see also
the reasoning in sec. 23.9.1 on p. 499). According to the equation of
motion (5) in the absence of the external forces 𝐅𝐅 = 0, the ether flows
in the direction of the lower pressure. This means that the negative
charge of a certain region must correspond to the increased pressure
of the ether in it compared to the pressure in the surrounding ether.
The anode (the positively charged electrode) receives an electrical
current. Therefore, the positive charge of a certain region corresponds
to a reduced pressure in it with respect to the pressure outside this
region, otherwise the current (the ether) could not flow into the anode.
The direction of the electrostatic field outside the charged region
is determined by the pressure gradient of the ether, see formulas (72),
(15). For example, if going beyond the boundary of a negatively
charged object the flow of the ether accelerates (as when a gas moves
through small holes in a balloon), the speed of the ether decreases as
the distance from the object increases and the ether density changes
slightly, then according to (15), (72), the pressure gradient in the ex-
ternal to the object area is directed from the object, and the electric
field is directed to it. That is, in this case, the electric field from the
side external to the negatively charged object is directed to the object.
Similarly, if around the outside of a positively charged object, the
ether flow stagnates, then in this region the electric field is directed
from the object.
The directions of the electric field obtained from the ether inter-
pretation of the positively and negatively charged object coincide
with those accepted in physics, see, for example: [28, p. 19, 20].

91
 Sec. 18.13, 18.14 discuss the etheric interpretation of the behav-
ior of the potential and the electrostatic field on the surface of the
conductor, the transfer of a charge at contact of objects, guidance of
the induction charge, and the principles of electrostatic devices oper-
ation. A detailed study of these processes requires the construction of
the etheric model of a solid body, which is the direction of further
research.
The ether has a number of kinetic properties, for example, vis-
cosity and self-diffusion, determined by the behavior of its structural
elements – newtonians, see sec. 21. This imposes certain restrictions
on the properties of objects formed by the ether. Therefore, in the
etheric interpretation of natural phenomena, it is easy to explain the
accepted in physics hypothesis about the existence of a minimal indi-
visible charge. The minimum negative charge can be interpreted as
the minimum excess pressure, which can be kept for a long time by
the ether object, for example, a vortex one, while reducing its size.
Similarly, the minimum positive charge is a minimal underpressure,
which can persist in an object for a long time while reducing its size.
Perhaps such charges are the charges of the electron and proton.
In conclusion, we note that equation (31) can be written in the form
of a conservation law. Define the velocity of the charge density flow as

𝐣𝐣
𝐯𝐯𝜎𝜎 ≡ .
𝜎𝜎
Then (31) takes the form

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
+ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜎𝜎𝐯𝐯𝜎𝜎 ) = 0,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

which expresses the conservation law of charge density 𝜎𝜎 in the ether.

The concept of charge is widely used in electrical engineering.
Its etheric interpretation allows deeper understanding of the phenom-
ena occurring in technical devices, see sec. 18.5, 18.6, 18.13.

92
 4. Wave processes in the ether

Let us begin the consideration of wave processes in ether from

the study of small perturbations propagation by analogy with the me-
chanics of the continuous media (see, for example: [9, sec. 32]). The
unexcited state of some quantity will be denoted by an asterisk, and
its small perturbations will be indicated by a prime:

𝐮𝐮 = 𝐮𝐮′ , 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌∗ + 𝜌𝜌′ , 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝∗ + 𝑝𝑝′ .

In this section, to shorten the discussion, we will consider the den-

sity of the ether in the mechanical units 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 , omitting the index “𝑚𝑚”.
Substitute these representations into the ether equations (22),
(23). In the absence of the sources and external forces 𝑞𝑞 = 0, 𝐅𝐅 = 0,
𝛱𝛱 = 0 we have

𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌∗ + 𝜌𝜌′ )
+ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ �(𝜌𝜌∗ + 𝜌𝜌′ )𝐮𝐮′ � = 0,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌∗ + 𝜌𝜌′ )𝐮𝐮′
+ (𝐮𝐮′ ∙ 𝛁𝛁)�(𝜌𝜌∗ + 𝜌𝜌′ )𝐮𝐮′ � = −𝛁𝛁(𝑝𝑝∗ + 𝑝𝑝′ ).
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Taking into account 𝜌𝜌∗ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑝𝑝∗ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 and neglecting the val-
ues of the second order of smallness, we get

𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌′ 𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮′
+ 𝜌𝜌∗ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮′ = 0, 𝜌𝜌∗ = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝′ .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Assuming that the process is barotropic 𝑝𝑝′ = 𝑝𝑝′ (𝜌𝜌′ ), we express

the pressure gradient through the density gradient

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝′ ′
𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝′ = 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌
𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌′

93
and use the formula (19)

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝′ 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= ≈ ≈ 𝐮𝐮2∗ ,
𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌′ 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌∗

following from the ether equation of state. Then

𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌′ 𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮′
= −𝜌𝜌∗ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮′ , 𝜌𝜌∗ = −𝐮𝐮2∗ 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌′ .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

We differentiate the first equation over 𝑡𝑡 and substitute 𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮′ /𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

into it from the second equation. Similarly, we proceed with the sec-
ond equation. As a result, the original system splits into two equations

𝜕𝜕 2 𝜌𝜌′ 2 ′
𝜕𝜕 2 𝐮𝐮′
= 𝐮𝐮∗ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 ), = 𝐮𝐮2∗ 𝛁𝛁(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮′ ).
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2

In the first equation, the Laplace operator ∆≡ 𝛁𝛁 2 ≡ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝛁𝛁 ap-

pears. We transform the right hand side of the second equation using
formula (5.5-19) from [51, p. 173] and get

𝜕𝜕 2 𝜌𝜌′ 2 ′
𝜕𝜕 2 𝐮𝐮′
= 𝐮𝐮∗ ∆𝜌𝜌 , = 𝐮𝐮2∗ �∆𝐮𝐮′ + 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮′ )�.
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2

The first equation is the hyperbolic equation, which is called the

wave equation or an equation of oscillations. The second equation be-
comes the wave equation at 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮′ ) = 0; for example, in the
case of the vortexless flow 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮′ = 0 or the vortex flow with the-
vortex-free vorticity 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮′ ) = 0:

𝜕𝜕 2 𝜌𝜌′ 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐮𝐮′
2 ′
= 𝐮𝐮∗ ∆𝜌𝜌 , = 𝐮𝐮2∗ ∆𝐮𝐮′ . (78)
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2

94
 The wave equation is well studied (see, for example: : [62, ch. II,
V; 33, p. 17–22]). This equation describes different kind of waves
including plane, spherical, longitudinal and transverse waves.
The initial system of ether equations (22), (23) has wave solutions
even without the assumption of small perturbations of the sought
functions.
For example, when 𝑞𝑞 = 0, 𝐅𝐅 = 0, 𝛱𝛱 = 0 one of the solutions of
equations (22), (23), (15)

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
⎧ + 𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = 0
⎪ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮 (79)
⎨ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
⎪
⎩𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = −𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 )
at 𝜌𝜌 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 are plane waves

𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑧𝑧)𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑧𝑧) 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧,0 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ,

2
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑧𝑧) = ± �𝐶𝐶1 − �𝑓𝑓1 �𝑧𝑧 − 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧,0 𝑡𝑡�� , (80)
𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑓𝑓1 �𝑧𝑧 − 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧,0 𝑡𝑡�,

having components transverse and longitudinal to the z axis. Here 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 ,

𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 are the unit basis vectors of the Cartesian coordinate system,
and 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧,0 is the constant speed. An arbitrary differentiable function 𝑓𝑓1
and an arbitrary constant 𝐶𝐶1 must satisfy the existence condition of
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑧𝑧): 𝐶𝐶1 − (𝑓𝑓1 )2 ≥ 0.
It is interesting to note that 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = 0 for the considered wave, that
is, this wave satisfies both the macrolevel (4)–(6), and microlevel (1)–
(3) ether equations.
According to the formulas (20) and (21), this solution is appro-
priate to flat electromagnetic waves. Herewith, the longitudinal com-
ponent of the velocity 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧,0 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 drops out of the electromagnetic wave in

95
differentiation of 𝐮𝐮 with respect to spatial variables. As a result, when
describing waves in terms of vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁, the motion component
in the direction of the wave propagation drops out.
The etheric representation of the electromagnetic waves allows
to explain the wave-particle duality observed in the experiments. The
corpuscular influence can be attributed to the manifestation of the
wave velocity longitudinal component (the components 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧,0 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 in the
considered example and 𝑐𝑐𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 in the formula (220), and the wave effects
to the manifestation of the transverse component of the velocity.
Let us give an example of the wave solution of the system (79), in
which the assumption 𝜌𝜌 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is not used. In the spherical coordinate
system (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜑𝜑) with the unit basis vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 , 𝐢𝐢𝜃𝜃 , 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 one of the approx-
imate solutions of the equations (79) for large 𝑟𝑟 is a spherical wave

𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟 − 𝐶𝐶2 𝑡𝑡), 𝐮𝐮 = 𝐶𝐶2 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 + 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 (𝑟𝑟 − 𝐶𝐶2 𝑡𝑡)𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 ,

𝐶𝐶3 (81)
𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 (𝑟𝑟 − 𝐶𝐶2 𝑡𝑡) = ±� − 𝐶𝐶22 ,
𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟 − 𝐶𝐶2 𝑡𝑡)

where 𝐶𝐶2 and 𝐶𝐶3 are arbitrary constants that ensure the expression un-
der the root to be nonnegative.
Having calculated the wave density and velocity of the ether, it is
possible to find the corresponding electric and magnetic fields 𝐄𝐄 and
𝐁𝐁 using the formulas (20) and (21). Vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 will remain the
wave ones, since the differentiation operation does not change the
wave character of the function. However, in the general case, the de-
scription of the electromagnetic waves only with the help of the vec-
tors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁, without taking into account their etheric origin, leads to
difficult-to-perceive paradoxes, such as the wave-particle duality.
Note that by specifying sources 𝑞𝑞 and external forces 𝐅𝐅 in the
equations (22), (23), one can obtain ether waves of a rather complex
structure, including those described in terms of 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 as the longi-

96
tudinal electromagnetic waves. A detailed review and analysis of ex-
perimental observations of the longitudinal electromagnetic waves is
given in the book [63].
It is known from the experiments that the speed of free propaga-
tion of waves in the ether is equal to the speed of light 𝑐𝑐. Therefore,
in the wave equations for small perturbations (78) and in the solutions
(80), (81) of the more general system (79), one can put |𝐮𝐮∗ | = 𝑐𝑐,
�𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧,0 � = 𝑐𝑐, |𝐶𝐶2 | = 𝑐𝑐. In the most general case, for example, with
strong disturbances or the presence of obstacles, sources or sinks, ex-
ternal forces, the velocity 𝐮𝐮 and the ether density 𝜌𝜌, including for
wave processes, must be calculated using the original ether equations
(4)–(6), (15) or (22), (23), (15).
At 𝑞𝑞 ≠ 0, 𝐅𝐅 ≠ 0, effects of the type of leading and lagging shock
waves can occur [81, 96]. Shock waves in the ether can also be formed
spontaneously, see sec. 6.1.
It is important to emphasize that the whole variety of processes
in the ether is not exhausted only by the wave processes, since the
ether equations have not only wave solutions.

5. Energy of the electromagnetic field

In the classical macroscopic theory of electricity, the energy den-

sity of the electromagnetic field is introduced as a postulate (see, for
example: [28, p. 346]). In the etheric interpretation, the energy density
of the electromagnetic field, as well as any other motions of the ether,
is calculated by the formula (12), derived from Newton's second law
(see sec. 1.4).

5.1. General formulas for the energy density and power of

the electromagnetic field

The most general etheric representation for the energy density of

the electromagnetic field is obtained by converting the formula (12) to
the form containing vectors 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄, introduced in sec. 2.1.

97
 For the vector 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮, we use the Helmholtz theorem (5.7-7), (5.7-8)
from [51], which allows decomposing, up to a term 𝐀𝐀 0 , such that
𝛁𝛁 2 𝐀𝐀 0 = 0, a sufficiently arbitrary vector into the potential and vortex
components by given divergence and rotor (see: [51, p. 178, 173]).
For the vector 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 in accordance with formulas (24), (28), (20) we
have
𝑡𝑡
𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = � 𝛁𝛁 ∙ �−𝐄𝐄 + � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑡𝑡0 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝑡𝑡
𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
� �−4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 𝛁𝛁 ∙ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝑡𝑡0 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

𝐁𝐁
𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = ,
𝑐𝑐

where 𝑡𝑡0 is some initial moment of time.

In the case of steady state flow (the partial derivatives over time
go to zero) one can use the continuity equation (22) instead of equa-
tion (24)
𝑞𝑞
𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Then the vector 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 is represented using the scalar potential 𝛷𝛷 and
the vector potential 𝚿𝚿

𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 = −𝛁𝛁𝛷𝛷 + 𝛁𝛁 × 𝚿𝚿 + 𝐀𝐀 0 . (82)

Here
∞
1 𝐁𝐁(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ ) ′
𝚿𝚿 = � 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 −∞ |𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫 ′ |

98
 ∞
1 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫′ × �𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )� ′
� 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 ,
4𝜋𝜋 −∞ |𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫 ′ |

in the unsteady case

𝑡𝑡 𝐅𝐅(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ ) + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )
∞ ∫𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫′ ∙ �−𝐄𝐄(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ ) + � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 0 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝛷𝛷 = � 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 ′ =
4𝜋𝜋 −∞ |𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫 ′ |
′ 𝐅𝐅(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ ) + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )
𝑡𝑡 ∞ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫′ ∙ �−𝐄𝐄(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ) + �
1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
� � 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
4𝜋𝜋 𝑡𝑡0 −∞ |𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫 ′ |
′ 𝐅𝐅(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ ) + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ )
𝑡𝑡 ∞ �−4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ) + 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫′ ∙ �
1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
� � 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
4𝜋𝜋 𝑡𝑡0 −∞ |𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫 ′ |

and in the steady one

∞
1 𝑞𝑞(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫 ′ ) ′
𝛷𝛷 = � 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 .
4𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 −∞ |𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫 ′ |

There is some arbitrariness in the choice of the vector function

𝐀𝐀 0 . However, so far the equations of the ether have not been taken
into account in the expansion (82). Therefore, to determine 𝐀𝐀 0 , the
equations (22), (23), (15) should be added to the equation 𝛁𝛁 2 𝐀𝐀 0 = 0.
For example, if we substitute (82) into (22), (23), then we obtain the
system with respect to 𝐀𝐀 0 and 𝜌𝜌 (accounting of 𝐮𝐮 = (−𝛁𝛁𝛷𝛷 +
𝛁𝛁 × 𝚿𝚿 + 𝐀𝐀 0 )/𝜌𝜌).
We emphasize that the ether equations (22), (23) can have non-
zero solutions even at 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 = 0 and 𝐁𝐁 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = 0.
That is, the accounting of the function 𝐀𝐀 0 can be essential.

99
 In the general case, for the energy density of the electromagnetic
field we obtain from (12)

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝒜𝒜 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 = (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 =
𝜌𝜌
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 (83)
(−𝛁𝛁𝛷𝛷 + 𝛁𝛁 × 𝚿𝚿 + 𝐀𝐀 0 )2 .
𝜌𝜌

In this formula, the functions 𝛷𝛷 and 𝚿𝚿 are expressed in terms of

𝐄𝐄 (or 𝜎𝜎) and 𝐁𝐁, and direct information about the ether enter only
through the factor 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 /𝜌𝜌 and the force 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 or the source 𝑞𝑞, pre-
sent in 𝛷𝛷.
This formula is rather cumbersome, however, when studying par-
ticular processes, it is possible to obtain simpler expressions for the
electromagnetic field energy 𝒜𝒜 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 .
For example, the energy density of the ether flow at 𝐀𝐀 0 = 0 in
the absence of the source 𝑞𝑞 = 0 is determined only by the magnetic
field 𝐁𝐁 (vortices in the ether)

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝒜𝒜 = (𝛁𝛁 × 𝚿𝚿)2 .
𝜌𝜌

In this case, the dependence of 𝒜𝒜 of 𝐁𝐁 is quadratic.

The general expression of the power density through the poten-
tials can be obtained by taking the full time derivative of the energy
density (83),

𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝑤𝑤 = � (−𝛁𝛁𝛷𝛷 + 𝛁𝛁 × 𝚿𝚿 + 𝐀𝐀 0 )2 �.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌

100
 Another general expression for the energy density in terms of
fields and currents can be found by transformation of the formula (16)
to the form containing the vectors 𝐄𝐄, 𝐁𝐁, 𝐣𝐣. Let’s get this expression.
We have

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑤𝑤 = − − 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 − − 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 − 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 − − 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Consider the partial derivative over time in the coordinate sys-

tem, the local basis vectors of which do not depend on time,

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮2 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 /𝜌𝜌 1 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 𝜕𝜕1/𝜌𝜌

= = + (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 ∙ − (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 2 = 2𝐮𝐮 ∙ − 𝐮𝐮2 .
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Apply the formulas (23) and (21)

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮2 𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

= 2𝐮𝐮 ∙ �−(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) + � − 𝐮𝐮2 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2𝐮𝐮 ∙ �−𝐄𝐄 + � − 𝐮𝐮2 .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Then

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑤𝑤 = 2𝐮𝐮 ∙ �−𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄 + 𝐅𝐅 − 𝑝𝑝� − 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 − 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 −
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
− 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

101
 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
−2𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 − 3𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 − 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 + 2𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐅𝐅 − − 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Calculate 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 using the equation (15)

𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱 (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱

− = 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ) + = 𝛁𝛁 � �+ =
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
1 1 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱
𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 + (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 𝛁𝛁 + =
𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
1 1 1 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱
𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 − (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 2 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 = 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 − 𝐮𝐮2 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 + .
𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Use the formula for the scalar product gradient from the table 5.5-
1 in [51]

𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 1 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱
− = 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) − 𝐮𝐮2 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 + =
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱
2(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) + 2𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� − 𝐮𝐮2 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 + =
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝐮𝐮 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱
2 �𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁� − 𝐮𝐮2 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 + .
𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

We note on the side that this formula establishes a relation between

the Lorentz force (25) and the gradients of pressure and density of the
ether, which takes into account the equation of the ether state (15):

𝐮𝐮 1 1 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱
𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁 = �𝐮𝐮2 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 − �. (84)
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

In particular, the Lorentz force field can create the pressure gradient
in the ether.

102
 Substitute 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 in 𝑤𝑤

𝐮𝐮
𝑤𝑤 = −2𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 + 6𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 ∙ �𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁� −
𝑐𝑐
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
3𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌) − 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 + 2𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐅𝐅 − + 2𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Take into account that 𝐮𝐮 ∙ (𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁) = 0.

So, from the formula (16) we get the following general represen-
tation for the power density of the ether flow

𝑤𝑤 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (85)
2𝐮𝐮 ∙ �2𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄 + 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱� − 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 �3(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌) + �− .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

The direction of the energy density motion in the ether is de-

scribed by the vector potential, see sec. 2.3.
The electric and magnetic energies and the power of the electrical
circuit are discussed in sections sec. 18.2, 18.7–18.9.

5.2. Electromagnetic wave energy density

Let us consider the volume energy density of the electromagnetic

wave using a simple example.
One of the wave solutions of the ether equations is a plane mon-
ochromatic harmonic wave
𝜈𝜈𝑧𝑧 𝜈𝜈𝑧𝑧
𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 cos �𝜈𝜈𝑡𝑡 − � 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 sin �𝜈𝜈𝑡𝑡 − � 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑐𝑐𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ,
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌0 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,

where 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 is the amplitude of transverse oscillations, 𝑐𝑐 is the speed of

light, 𝜌𝜌0 is the density of the unperturbed ether in the electromagnetic

103
units of measurement. According to the formulas (20), (21), such an
ether wave is appropriate to the flat monochromatic circularly polar-
ized electromagnetic wave
𝜈𝜈 𝜈𝜈
𝐄𝐄(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) = 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 sin �𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝑧𝑧� 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 − 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 cos �𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝑧𝑧� 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 ,
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝜈𝜈 𝜈𝜈
𝐁𝐁(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) = 𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 cos �𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝑧𝑧� 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 sin �𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝑧𝑧� 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 ,
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 ≡ 𝜌𝜌0 𝜈𝜈𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 , 𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 ≡ 𝜌𝜌0 𝜈𝜈𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 .

Using (12) we find the energy density of this wave

𝒜𝒜 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌0 (𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 ).

Expressing 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 through the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic

fields, we can write out three equivalent for the considered wave rep-
resentations of 𝒜𝒜

𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 2 2
𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 2
𝒜𝒜 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌0 �� � + 𝑐𝑐 � , 𝒜𝒜 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌0 �� � + 𝑐𝑐 2 �,
𝜌𝜌0 𝜈𝜈 𝜌𝜌0 𝜈𝜈
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎2 + 𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎2
𝒜𝒜 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌0 � + 𝑐𝑐 2 �.
2(𝜌𝜌0 𝜈𝜈)2

Let us compare the etheric representation of the energy density

of an electromagnetic wave with a classical one (see, for example:
[28, p. 348])

𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎2 + 𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎2
𝒜𝒜𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = .
8𝜋𝜋

It is important to emphasize that the classical formula has not been

confirmed experimentally and does not follow from the reference

104
[41]. In physics, this formula is adopted as a postulate representing
the sum of expressions for the electric and magnetic energy of a cir-
cuit, see sec. 18.9.
The vectors of the electric and magnetic fields 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 of a plane
wave are missing the components along the direction of the wave
propagation. Therefore, it makes sense to compare 𝒜𝒜𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 only with the
energy of the transverse component of the ether wave

𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎2 + 𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎2
𝒜𝒜⊥ = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � �.
2𝜌𝜌0 𝜈𝜈 2

The equality 𝒜𝒜𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ≈ 𝒜𝒜⊥ is satisfied only for a definite range of

plane wave frequencies

𝜈𝜈 ≈ �4𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 /𝜌𝜌0 .

At 𝜌𝜌0 ≈ 3 ∙ 10−13 [s 𝑔𝑔1/2 /cm3/2 ], 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 6.7 ∙ 103 [𝑔𝑔1/2 /(s

cm3/2 )] (see sec. 20.7) we have: 𝜈𝜈 ~ 108 − 109 [1/s]. This fre-
quency range can be interpreted as the region of applicability of the
formula for 𝒜𝒜𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , in which it can give, in the general case without tak-
ing into account the speed of light 𝑐𝑐, acceptable quantitative values
for the energy density of a plane monochromatic circularly polarized
electromagnetic wave. The range of 𝒜𝒜𝑐𝑐𝑙𝑙 applicability for other phe-
nomena or with accounting 𝑐𝑐 may be wider.

5.3. Interpretation of the light quantum energy, Planck's

constant and de Broglie wave

In the considered mathematical model of the ether, the energy

density of any ether motion is calculated by formula (12), following

105
from Newton's second law (see sec. 1.4). In quantum physics in ex-
periments with light the following relation was established for the en-
ergy of a light quantum (see, for example: [30, p. 10]):

ℰ𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 = ℎ𝜈𝜈,

where ℎ is the Planck constant, 𝜈𝜈 is the frequency of the light wave.

Denote the volume of the light quantum by 𝑉𝑉𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 . Then for the en-
ergy density in the quantum of light we get

𝐴𝐴𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 = ℎ𝜈𝜈/𝑉𝑉𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 .

Equating 𝐴𝐴𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 to the energy density of the ether (see formula

(12)) we find

ℎ𝜈𝜈
= 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 .
𝑉𝑉𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞

From this it immediately follows that in the light quantum the

sum of the ether pressure gradient and the external sources energy
density is absent, since from (15): 𝛁𝛁(𝑝𝑝 + 𝛱𝛱) = −𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ) =
−𝛁𝛁�ℎ𝜈𝜈/𝑉𝑉𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 � = 0.
Besides, we find that the following combination of the ether den-
sity and velocity should be constant in the quantum of light:

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 𝑉𝑉𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞

= ℎ.
𝜈𝜈

This formula expresses the relationship of the ether parameters with

the energy quantization parameter ℎ and allows to give a clear inter-
pretation of Planck’s constant as a quantity proportional to the ether

106
kinetic energy in the quantum of light 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 𝑉𝑉𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 with the propor-
tionality coefficient 1/𝜈𝜈, corresponding to the typical time of the pro-
cess. Let us now recall that the kinetic energy multiplied by the period
of the process is called the action, more precisely, “the least expendi-
ture of resources with the greatest action” [66, p. 242]. Therefore,
Planck's constant ℎ has the meaning of action.
We now consider the etheric interpretation of the de Broglie
wavelength. In physics, the wavelength is the ratio of the magnitude
of the velocity to the frequency of the wave process

𝜆𝜆 = |𝐮𝐮|/𝜈𝜈.

Singling out |𝐮𝐮|/𝜈𝜈 in the last but one formula, we get

ℎ
𝜆𝜆 = .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 |𝐮𝐮|

The denominator is the ether impulse. Therefore, this relationship

has the meaning of the de Broglie wave. Thus, the de Broglie wave-
length is inversely proportional to the momentum of the ether with a
proportionality coefficient equal to the Planck constant.
We obtain that for any periodic process in the ether, whose en-
ergy is ℎ𝜈𝜈, one can introduce the de Broglie wave as a spatial scale
corresponding to the action.
De Broglie’s hypothesis (concept) on the transfer of the formula
ℰ𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 = ℎ𝜈𝜈, obtained for photons, onto particles has a clear etheric ra-
tionale as the representation of a particle by means of a periodic process
in the ether with the momentum of 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 |𝐮𝐮| and the energy ℎ𝜈𝜈.

6. Discontinuities in the ether. Quantization effects

Different approaches to the construction of mathematical models

of processes with discontinuous characteristics of motion are de-
scribed in detail, for example, in [14, ch. VII, sec. 4]. Here we use the

107
method of obtaining conditions on the surface of the discontinuity,
based on integral relations, in which the continuity of the sought func-
tions is not implied. Discontinuity surfaces can be introduced as spec-
ified surfaces with given laws of their motion or as the sought surfaces
when their shape and motion must be found at solving of a problem.

6.1. Spontaneous formation of discontinuities

It is important to emphasize that in the considered mathematical

model of the ether (4)–(6), even at the micro level (1)–(3), the discon-
tinuities can be formed spontaneously. For example, in the divergence-
free velocity field, such as the velocity field of an electromagnetic wave
and the velocity field of the photon (see [46] or sec. 4, 20.3) have, the
equation for the velocity (30) at 𝑞𝑞 = 0, 𝐅𝐅 = 0, 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 = 0 has the form

𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.

This is the three-dimensional Burgers – Hopf equation. In the

one-dimensional case, the Burgers – Hopf equation is well studied. In
particular, it was shown that at the intersection of the characteristics
a sharp discontinuity can be formed in its solution, for example, in the
form of the shock wave (fig. 1), which then propagates in the usual
way (see sec. 51 in [64]).

Fig. 1. An example of the shock wave formation at the solution of

the one-dimensional Burgers - Hopf equation.

108
 It should be noted that the formation of such a discontinuity al-
lows us to hope that a substance (matter) can be created by the special
system of high-frequency electromagnetic radiation receivers. It is not
excluded that a similar process is realized during the photosynthesis.

6.2. Conditions on the discontinuity surface

Equations in the differential form on the discontinuity surface are

not satisfied, since there are no derivatives at its points. In the classical
continuous media mechanics equations near the discontinuity surface
are considered in the integral form in some special selected fixed vol-
ume 𝑉𝑉 with the surface 𝛴𝛴 and the moving liquid volume 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑡𝑡) with
the surface 𝛴𝛴 ∗ (𝑡𝑡), arising at time moment 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 from the volume 𝑉𝑉
as a result of the medium motion [14, p. 393–395] (see also [21, p.
147] about the liquid volume). Then 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑡𝑡) are pinched to the
point on the discontinuity surface to obtain conditions at that point.
The pinching to the point means that the volume 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑡𝑡) is taken arbi-
trarily small (infinitely small).
For the infinitely small time 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, the particles (carriers) of the
ether in the infinitely small volume of the ether 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑡𝑡) move for small
distances. Therefore, the infinitesimal volume 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑡𝑡) in the process of
such a deformation can be considered as consisting of the same parti-
cles and having a boundary, also consisting of the same particles. That
is, an infinitely small volume of the ether 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑡𝑡) at the infinitely small
time interval [𝑡𝑡, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑] can be considered as the liquid volume.
This remark justifies the possibility of the method [14, p. 393–
399] application for obtaining the conditions on the discontinuity sur-
face, despite the fact that significant volumes of the ether over a large
period of time with the non-isotropic density do not have an interpre-
tation of the liquid volume (see sec. 1.2).
Taking into account this remark, by analogy with the theory of
the continuous media mechanics [14, p. 393–399], we can derive from

109
the ether density and velocity equations in the integral form condi-
tions that must be fulfilled in the ether on the surface of the functions
discontinuity in any inertial or non-inertial frame of reference

𝑄𝑄 + 𝜌𝜌1 �(𝐮𝐮𝑏𝑏 − 𝐮𝐮1 ) ∙ 𝐧𝐧� = 𝜌𝜌2 �(𝐮𝐮𝑏𝑏 − 𝐮𝐮2 ) ∙ 𝐧𝐧�,

1 (86)
𝑄𝑄 ≡ lim � 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝜏𝜏,
ℎ→0 ∆𝑠𝑠
∆𝑠𝑠→0 𝑉𝑉

𝓡𝓡 − 𝑝𝑝1 𝐧𝐧 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝐮𝐮1 �(𝐮𝐮𝑏𝑏 − 𝐮𝐮1 ) ∙ 𝐧𝐧�

= −𝑝𝑝2 𝐧𝐧 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝐮𝐮2 �(𝐮𝐮𝑏𝑏 − 𝐮𝐮2 ) ∙ 𝐧𝐧�,
(87)
1
𝓡𝓡 ≡ lim � 𝐅𝐅𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏.
ℎ→0 ∆𝑠𝑠
∆𝑠𝑠→0 𝑉𝑉

Here, the index indicates the limit on the corresponding side of the
discontinuity surface, 𝑝𝑝 is the pressure (the value with the opposite
sign of the diagonal element of the simplest internal tensions tensor,
p. 26), 𝐧𝐧 = 𝐧𝐧(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) is the normal to the discontinuity surface in the
direction of the transition from the side 2 to the side 1, 𝐮𝐮𝑏𝑏 = 𝐮𝐮𝑏𝑏 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)
is the velocity of the discontinuity surface displacement. ∆𝑠𝑠 is the area
of the discontinuity surface element, ℎ is the length of the segment
along the normal to the discontinuity surface [14, p. 393], 𝑄𝑄 and 𝓡𝓡
are the external surface densities of the source (in the unit area per
unit time) of the ether and the force on the discontinuity surface. If
the sources 𝑞𝑞, 𝐅𝐅 are finite in the volume 𝑉𝑉, then 𝑄𝑄 = 0, 𝓡𝓡 = 0.
The given system of the differential equations can be associated
with various systems of the integral relations, which for continuous
motions are equivalent between themselves and with this system of
the differential equations. For motions with strong discontinuities,
different systems of such integral relations can be nonequivalent. The
choice of integral laws that are true not only for continuous motions,
but also in the case of the presence of strong gaps inside the medium,

110
is associated with the additional hypotheses, the applicability of
which must be tested in experiments [14, p. 390]. Therefore, along
with relations (86), (87), alternative conditions at the discontinuity
can be considered in the ether.
The equation of the ether motion differs from the motion equation
of the continuous medium classical mechanics (see sec. 1.2). The
principle difference is the presence of the velocity divergence in the
equation of the ether motion (30). In order to take this circumstance
directly into account at the discontinuity condition, we map some in-
tegral equation with the equation (30) and reduce it to the form that
allows applying the result on the discontinuity surface known from
the classical continuous media mechanics.
In [21], p. 151, the general formula was derived

𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝐀𝐀
� 𝐀𝐀 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � − (𝐀𝐀 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐕𝐕 + (𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐕𝐕)𝐀𝐀� ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, (88)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

where the surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) limits the moving volume, the points 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡)
move with the velocity 𝐕𝐕 = 𝐕𝐕(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫). A concise proof of this formula
is given in [21] on p. 152 using the derivative of the integral over the
liquid circuit.
We use the formula (88) for 𝐀𝐀 = 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫), 𝐕𝐕 = −𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫), 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) =
𝛴𝛴 ∗ (𝑡𝑡):

𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮
� 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � + (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 − (𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮)𝐮𝐮� ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, (89)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛴𝛴 ∗(𝑡𝑡) 𝛴𝛴 ∗ (𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

where the vector 𝐧𝐧 = 𝐧𝐧(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) is the external with respect to 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑡𝑡) nor-
mal to the surface 𝛴𝛴 ∗ (𝑡𝑡). This choice of 𝐀𝐀 and 𝐕𝐕 can be interpreted as
consideration of the surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) which is fixed relatively to the ve-
locity field 𝐀𝐀 = 𝐮𝐮. The left hand side of the formula (89) is the time

111
derivative of the velocity vector 𝐮𝐮 flux through the surface of the liq-
uid volume.
By virtue of the equation (30) from (89) we have

𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
� 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �− 𝐮𝐮 + � ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (90)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛴𝛴 ∗(𝑡𝑡) 𝛴𝛴 ∗ (𝑡𝑡) 𝜌𝜌 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌

The expression (90) can be interpreted as the integral form of the

equation (30), which remains valid in the more general case, for ex-
ample, for the discontinuous functions.

By the Ostrogradsky – Gauss theorem we have

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
� 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛴𝛴 ∗(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 ∗(𝑡𝑡)

Then

𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
� 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 = � �− 𝐮𝐮 + � ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (91)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 ∗(𝑡𝑡) 𝛴𝛴 ∗ (𝑡𝑡) 𝜌𝜌 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌

The left hand side of this formula coincides with the left hand
side of the formula (4.8) from [14, p. 395], if the integrand in (4.8) is
replaced by 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮.
For the right hand side, using the formula (4.7 ′) from [14, p.
395], considered for the surface 𝛴𝛴 ∗ (𝑡𝑡), we have

1 𝑞𝑞 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
lim � �− 𝐮𝐮 + � ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐔𝐔1 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 − 𝐔𝐔2 ∙ 𝐧𝐧,
ℎ→0 ∆𝑠𝑠 𝛴𝛴 ∗(𝑡𝑡) 𝜌𝜌 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌
∆𝑠𝑠→0

where 𝐔𝐔 is the source of the velocity:

112
 𝑞𝑞 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
𝐔𝐔 ≡ − 𝐮𝐮 + .
𝜌𝜌 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌

Taking the limit from the equality (91), we obtain by analogy

with the derivation of the formula (4.20) from [14, p. 399], that in any
inertial or non-inertial frame of reference the relation is valid

𝐔𝐔1 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 + (𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮)1 �(𝐮𝐮𝑏𝑏 − 𝐮𝐮1 ) ∙ 𝐧𝐧�

(92)
= 𝐔𝐔2 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 + (𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮)2 �(𝐮𝐮𝑏𝑏 − 𝐮𝐮2 ) ∙ 𝐧𝐧�.

The condition (92) contains one equation, while the condition (87)
is the vector one and has three components. In this sense, using of (92)
imposes fewer restrictions on the sought functions than using of (87).
Both conditions contain not only the normal component of the
velocity, but also its other components. Therefore, all velocity com-
ponents can participate in the formation of a discrete set of the me-
dium states arising due to a discontinuity, for example, in the effect
of quantizing the frequencies of the medium oscillations.

6.3. Quantization example

Let us demonstrate the emergence of the quantization effect of

the ether flow parameters on a simple example. Consider the steady
state electrical flow of ether (see sec. 15.1). In the cylindrical coordi-
nate system (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑, 𝑧𝑧) with the unit basis vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 , 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 one of the
solutions of the system (160), (15) is
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 −𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢0 sin(𝜆𝜆 ln(𝑟𝑟)) 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 + 𝑢𝑢0 cos(𝜆𝜆 ln(𝑟𝑟)) 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝑒𝑒 ,
𝑟𝑟
where 𝑢𝑢0 , 𝜆𝜆, 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 are constants characterizing the ether motion. This
solution is distinguished from the set of all solutions of the system by
specifying the corresponding additional conditions.

113
 In the process under consideration, the frequency of the velocity
oscillation is determined by the value of 𝜆𝜆. In the case of 𝜆𝜆 ≠ 0 there
is a discontinuity of the ether density at 𝜑𝜑 = 2𝜋𝜋. We assume that this
discontinuity is not internal, for example, it is supported by the bound-
ary conditions for density on the sides of the impenetrable wall lo-
cated at 𝜑𝜑 = 2𝜋𝜋.
Investigate the ether flow in the presence of the inner surface of
the discontinuity having the shape of a cylinder of the radius 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 ,
inside which the ether moves with the parameter 𝜆𝜆 = 𝜆𝜆1, and outside
– with 𝜆𝜆 = 0, that is, outside the cylinder 𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢0 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 /𝑟𝑟.
Conditions at the discontinuity (86), (92) give the equations for deter-
mining of the parameter 𝜆𝜆1

sin(𝜆𝜆1 ln(𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 )) = 0,
sin(𝜆𝜆1 ln(𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 ))(𝜆𝜆1 cos(𝜆𝜆1 ln(𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 )) + sin(𝜆𝜆1 ln(𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 ))) = 0.

Thus, considered steady state motion of the ether inside the cyl-
inder is possible only at the discrete set of values of the parameter 𝜆𝜆1 :
𝜆𝜆1 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋/ ln(𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 ), where 𝑘𝑘 is the integer. In other words, only quantum
steady states of the given ether flow exist.
The considered example also allows us illustrating the nonequiv-
alence of conditions (87) and (92). When using relations (87) instead
of (92), it is not possible to choose the value of the parameter 𝜆𝜆1 , un-
der which the condition (87) would turn into the identity. That is, in
the mathematical model of this discontinuous flow with the condition
(87) even the quantum steady states are impossible.

6.4. Etheric representation of the discontinuity conditions of

the magnetic and electric fields

Section 2 shows that Maxwell's equations are consequences of

the continuity equations and Newton's second law (the ether equa-

114
tions). Maxwell's equations written in the differential form corre-
spond to Maxwell's equations in the integral form. Thus, there is a
correspondence between the ether equations and the Maxwell equa-
tions in the integral form.
Maxwell's equations in the integral form allow us obtaining rela-
tions that the magnetic and electric fields from different sides of the
discontinuity surface must satisfy (see, for example: [14, ch. VII, sec.
4; 28, p. 338]):

(𝐁𝐁1 − 𝐁𝐁2 ) ∙ 𝐧𝐧 = 0,

(𝜀𝜀1 𝐄𝐄1 − 𝜀𝜀2 𝐄𝐄2 ) ∙ 𝐧𝐧 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋,

4𝜋𝜋
(𝐁𝐁1 /𝜇𝜇1 − 𝐁𝐁2 /𝜇𝜇2 ) ∙ 𝛕𝛕 = 𝐢𝐢 ∙ (𝐧𝐧 × 𝛕𝛕),
𝑐𝑐

(𝐄𝐄1 − 𝐄𝐄2 ) ∙ 𝛕𝛕 = 0,

where 𝐧𝐧 and 𝛕𝛕 are the unit vectors of the normal and tangent to the
discontinuity surface, 𝜀𝜀 and 𝜇𝜇 are the dielectric and magnetic perme-
abilities of the medium, 𝛾𝛾 is the surface density of electric charges, 𝐢𝐢
is the surface current density.
From the point of view of the continuous media mechanics meth-
odology, applied systematically in the book; it is important to empha-
size that the conditions at the discontinuity of the electromagnetic
field correspond to the second Newton’s law in the sense of matching
the Maxwell equations in the integral form.
From these conditions, using the etheric representation of the
magnetic and electric fields (20), (21), we obtain the following rela-
tions for the velocity and density of the ether on the surface of the
discontinuity:

115
 ��𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�1 − �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�2 � ∙ 𝐧𝐧 = 0, (93)

�𝜀𝜀1 �(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�1 − 𝜀𝜀2 �(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�2 � ∙ 𝐧𝐧 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, (94)

4𝜋𝜋
��𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�1 /𝜇𝜇1 − �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�2 /𝜇𝜇2 � ∙ 𝛕𝛕 = 𝐢𝐢 ∙ (𝐧𝐧 × 𝛕𝛕), (95)
𝑐𝑐 2

��(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�1 − �(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�2 � ∙ 𝛕𝛕 = 0. (96)

Thus, in the ether, the conditions on the surface of the disconti-

nuity of the magnetic and electric fields correspond to the conditions
on the rotor and the derivative along the trajectory (curve, direction)
of the ether flow density (the derivative with respect to the trajectory
is equal to the part of the full time derivative containing the differen-
tiation over the spatial coordinates [51: 5.5-3, 16.10-8]).
More accurate formulas for conditions on the discontinuity sur-
face can be obtained from the integral form of the generalized Max-
well equations, corresponding to the generalized Maxwell equations
in the differential form (20)–(23), (26)–(29).

7. Derivation of the Biot – Savart law from the ether equa-

tions

Consider the problem of the magnetic field calculation using the

electric current. Such a problem in the case of the ether constant den-
sity was considered in [41–44]. In this section, a generalization of the
results is carried out [41–44].
We use the formula for determining the vector field 𝐯𝐯 at 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐯𝐯 =
0 by the given distribution of the vector field of vortices 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐯𝐯 = 2𝛚𝛚
in the volume 𝑇𝑇 (see, for example [15, p. 280–284; 19, p. 90–95; 51,
sec. 5.7-3]):

116
 1 𝛚𝛚(𝛾𝛾, 𝜂𝜂, 𝜉𝜉) × 𝐫𝐫(𝑥𝑥 − 𝛾𝛾, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝜂𝜂, 𝑧𝑧 − 𝜉𝜉)
𝐯𝐯(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, (97)
2𝜋𝜋 𝑇𝑇 𝑟𝑟 3 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝛾𝛾, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝜂𝜂, 𝑧𝑧 − 𝜉𝜉)

where 𝐫𝐫 is the radius vector drawn from the variable integration point
(𝛾𝛾, 𝜂𝜂, 𝜉𝜉) to the considered point with the coordinates (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧). This
formula is a purely mathematical statement, not based on any con-
cepts of the continuous media mechanics. But it is usually proved in
the literature on the continuous media mechanics and is called a gen-
eralization of the Biot – Savart formula for the vortical volume of an
incompressible medium (see, for example: [19, p. 93]). The field 𝐯𝐯 is
called an induced field.
The formula for one infinitely thin cord (thread or filament), not
necessarily coinciding with the vortex thread, is obtained by passing
to the limit in (97)

𝐯𝐯(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)

1 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 × 𝐫𝐫�𝑥𝑥 − 𝛾𝛾(𝑙𝑙), 𝑦𝑦 − 𝜂𝜂(𝑙𝑙), 𝑧𝑧 − 𝜉𝜉(𝑙𝑙)�
= � Γ�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� 3 ,
4𝜋𝜋 𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟 �𝑥𝑥 − 𝛾𝛾(𝑙𝑙), 𝑦𝑦 − 𝜂𝜂(𝑙𝑙), 𝑧𝑧 − 𝜉𝜉(𝑙𝑙)�

Γ�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� = lim � 2𝛚𝛚 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = (98)

𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�
|𝛚𝛚|→∞

lim � 𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥𝑐𝑐 ,
𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝐶𝐶�𝐫𝐫 (𝑙𝑙)�
𝑳𝑳
|𝛚𝛚|→∞

where 𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙) ≡ �𝛾𝛾(𝑙𝑙), 𝜂𝜂(𝑙𝑙), 𝜉𝜉(𝑙𝑙)� is a parametric representation of

points of a curve 𝐿𝐿, defining the infinitely thin cord, 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 is the elemen-
tary segment of the curve 𝐿𝐿 with the direction 𝛚𝛚/|𝛚𝛚|, 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 is the ele-
ment of the cross sectional area 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� of the cord, having the di-

117
rection 𝛚𝛚/|𝛚𝛚|, 𝐶𝐶�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� is the contour of the section bound-
ary 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�, Γ�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� is circulation (tension) of the infinitely thin
cord. The limit is taken under the condition of a finite circulation
Γ�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� = 2𝛚𝛚𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 [15, p. 285].
If the thread (or cord) coincides with the vortex thread (or vortex
tube), then the circulation Γ is constant and can be taken out from the
integral sign [15, p. 285; 19, p. 93].
Consider the formulas (97), (98) for the vector field of the form

|𝐮𝐮|2
𝐯𝐯 = 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮). (99)
𝑐𝑐

The condition of incompressibility of such a field, that is, the condi-

tion of the formulas (97), (98) applicability is

|𝐮𝐮|2
𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐯𝐯 = 𝛁𝛁 ∙ � 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�
𝑐𝑐
|𝐮𝐮|2 |𝐮𝐮|2
= 𝛁𝛁 ∙ �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� + 𝛁𝛁 � � �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
|𝐮𝐮|2
= 𝛁𝛁 � � �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = 0
𝑐𝑐

is satisfied if 𝛁𝛁|𝐮𝐮| = 0. We emphasize that, in this case, the incom-

pressibility of the field 𝐮𝐮, that is, the condition 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮 = 0, is not re-
quired.
For the volume 𝑇𝑇 and the thread 𝐿𝐿, according to the ether defini-
tion of the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮), we have

1 𝑐𝑐 2 1 |𝐮𝐮|2
𝐁𝐁 = � �𝛁𝛁 × � 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�� × 𝐫𝐫 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑; (100)
4𝜋𝜋 |𝐮𝐮|2 𝑇𝑇 𝑟𝑟 3 𝑐𝑐

118
 1 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 × 𝐫𝐫
𝐁𝐁 = � Γ𝐁𝐁 ,
4𝜋𝜋 |𝐮𝐮| 𝐿𝐿 2 𝑟𝑟 3
|𝐮𝐮|2
Γ𝐁𝐁 ≡ lim � 𝛁𝛁 × � 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌)� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 =
𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫 (𝑙𝑙)�
𝑳𝑳
𝑐𝑐
�𝛚𝛚𝐣𝐣 �→∞
(101)
|𝐮𝐮|2
lim � 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥𝑐𝑐 ,
𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝐶𝐶�𝐫𝐫 (𝑙𝑙)� 𝑐𝑐
𝑳𝑳
�𝛚𝛚𝐣𝐣 �→∞
|𝐮𝐮|2
2𝛚𝛚𝐣𝐣 ≡ 𝛁𝛁 × � 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�.
𝑐𝑐

The expressions (100) and (101) are the ether analogs of the Biot
– Savart formula for the volume and the thread. As noted above, if the
curve 𝐿𝐿 coincides with the vortex thread of the field (99), the circula-
tion Γ𝐁𝐁 can be taken out from the integral sign. The formulas remain
valid also in the case of time-dependent 𝑇𝑇 and 𝐿𝐿.
In sec. 2 the relation (34) is obtained from the ether equations

|𝐮𝐮|2 4𝜋𝜋
𝛁𝛁 × � 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = 𝐣𝐣 ,
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 total (102)
1 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄
𝐣𝐣total ≡ 𝐣𝐣 + .
4𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

This expression also follows from the representation (32).

Then

1 𝑐𝑐 2 𝐣𝐣total × 𝐫𝐫
𝐁𝐁 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑; (103)
𝑐𝑐 |𝐮𝐮| 2
𝑇𝑇 𝑟𝑟 3

119
 1 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 × 𝐫𝐫 𝑐𝑐Γ𝐁𝐁
𝐁𝐁 = � Γ𝐁𝐁 , = lim � 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬.
4𝜋𝜋 |𝐮𝐮|2 𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟 3 4𝜋𝜋 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� total
�𝛚𝛚𝐣𝐣 �→∞

Denoting the total current in the thread

𝑐𝑐Γ𝐁𝐁
𝐼𝐼total ≡ lim � 𝐣𝐣total ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = ,
𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� 4𝜋𝜋
�𝛚𝛚𝐣𝐣 �→∞

we find

1 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 × 𝐫𝐫
𝐁𝐁 = � 𝐼𝐼total . (104)
𝑐𝑐 |𝐮𝐮|2 𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟 3

If the current 𝐼𝐼total is constant along the curve 𝐿𝐿, then it can be taken
out from the integral sign. This situation occurs, for example, if the
curve 𝐿𝐿 coincides with the vortex thread of the field (99), since
𝐼𝐼total = 𝑐𝑐Γ𝐁𝐁 /(4𝜋𝜋), and the circulation Γ𝐁𝐁 of the vortex thread is con-
stant.
For |𝐮𝐮| ≈ 𝑐𝑐 and the steady state process 𝐼𝐼total = 𝐼𝐼 (the partial de-
rivatives over time go to zero) formulas (103), (104) express the Biot
– Savart law known from the experiment for the constant currents
(see, for example: [28, p. 215])

1 𝐣𝐣 × 𝐫𝐫
𝐁𝐁 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑;
𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑇 𝑟𝑟 3

1 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 × 𝐫𝐫
𝐁𝐁 = � 𝐼𝐼 .
𝑐𝑐 𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟 3

120
 It is important to emphasize that here the formulas (103), (104)
are obtained theoretically on the basis of the ether equations. That is,
these formulas, like Maxwell's equations, are consequences of the
general laws of the ether motion (4)–(6). At that, (103), (104) gener-
alize the classical Biot – Savart law to the case of time-varying cur-
rents and the ether speeds other than the speed of light and.
Expressions (102)–(104) in the region of their applicability
(𝛁𝛁|𝐮𝐮| ≈ 0) can be used to calculate the magnetic field from the den-
sity 𝜌𝜌 and the velocity 𝐮𝐮 of the ether given in the volume 𝑇𝑇 or the
thread 𝐿𝐿. One can use the results from [19, p. 93–95; 15, p. 284–298;
28, p. 216–220; 18, ch. 2].
In the particular case of the straight line 𝐿𝐿 and the straight current
𝐼𝐼, we obtain the Oersted law [28, p. 216; 31; 41]

2𝐼𝐼
𝐁𝐁 = 𝐢𝐢 (105)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜑𝜑

as the consequence of the ether motion equations (4)–(6). Here 𝑅𝑅 is

the distance from the straight line 𝐿𝐿 to the considered point; 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 is the
unit vector in the cylindrical coordinate system (𝑅𝑅, 𝜑𝜑, 𝑧𝑧) with the 𝑧𝑧
axis coinciding with the straight line 𝐿𝐿. Inside the wire, the magnetic
field has a different dependence on radius (296), which does not con-
tain singularity.
Note that the knowledge of the field 𝐁𝐁, calculated, for example,
by the formula (105) or similar to it, allows using (20) to find the
product 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮. To determine 𝐮𝐮 and 𝜌𝜌 separately, it is necessary to addi-
tionally involve equations (22), (23), (15).
The Maxwell equation (102) and the Biot – Savart law (103),
(104) establish a close relationship in the ether between the magnetic
induction vector 𝐁𝐁 and the current density 𝐣𝐣total , namely: at presence
of 𝐁𝐁 with 𝛁𝛁 × (|𝐮𝐮|2 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 2 ) ≠ 0, according (102), some current 𝐣𝐣total
must flow through the ether, and if 𝐣𝐣total is present, then according to

121
(103), (104), the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 has to be present in the ether. It is
important to emphasize that the presence of charged particles is not
required.
The entire relationship between 𝐁𝐁 and the current density 𝐣𝐣total is
determined only by the corresponding density 𝜌𝜌 and velocity 𝐮𝐮 of the
ether.

8. The inductance of a geometric object creating a magnetic

field

In the formulation of the problem with a constant ether density,

there is a simple relation between the magnetic flux through the con-
tour bounding the surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) [41]. We establish this relation in the
general case.
The flow Φ of the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 through the surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) is
determined by a surface integral of the second kind

Φ(𝑡𝑡) ≡ � 𝐁𝐁(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) ∙ 𝐧𝐧(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (106)

𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡)

Here we consider the unclosed surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡), since for the closed 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡)
the magnetic flow Φ is equal to zero due to the Ostrogradsky – Gauss
theorem and the solenoidality of the field 𝐁𝐁 (27).
The shape of an unclosed surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡), based on the same con-
tour, does not influence the value Φ. This statement follows from the
equality

Φ(𝑡𝑡) − Φ1 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝐧𝐧𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =

𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) 𝑆𝑆1 (𝑡𝑡)

� 𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝐁𝐁 ∙ (−𝐧𝐧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) 𝑆𝑆1 (𝑡𝑡)

122
 � 𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐁𝐁 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 = 0,
𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡)∪𝑆𝑆1 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡)

where 𝑆𝑆1 (𝑡𝑡) is an arbitrary surface stretched on the same contour as

𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡). The normal in the integral over 𝑆𝑆1 (𝑡𝑡) is taken from the same
side of the surface as in the integral over 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡). Therefore, the normal
in the integral over 𝑆𝑆1 (𝑡𝑡) changes its sign when it goes to the external
normal figuring in the integral over 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) ∪ 𝑆𝑆1 (𝑡𝑡).
Let the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 be induced by the current 𝐼𝐼total , flowing
along the curve 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡). At this stage of reasoning, the curve 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) has
nothing to do with the surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡). Besides, in the etheric interpreta-
tion, the 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) curve does not have to coincide with some material car-
rier, for example, with a metallic conductor.
Substitute the ether analog of the Biot - Savart formula for the
thread (104) in the definition (106)

1 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 × 𝐫𝐫
Φ=� � � 𝐼𝐼total � ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) 𝑐𝑐 |𝐮𝐮| 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡)
2 𝑟𝑟 3

In the case when at the points of the curve 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) the current is the
same 𝐼𝐼total = 𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡), we get

1
Φ(𝑡𝑡) = ℒ(𝑡𝑡)𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡),
𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 × 𝐫𝐫 (107)
ℒ(𝑡𝑡) ≡ � � 2 � � ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) |𝐮𝐮| 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) 𝑟𝑟
3

If we select the contour bounding the unclosed surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡), as

the curve 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) and consider |𝐮𝐮| ≈ 𝑐𝑐, then ℒ(𝑡𝑡) will depend only on
the geometry of the curve 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) (as shown above, Φ does not depend

123
on the form of 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡)). Therefore, ℒ(𝑡𝑡) in the formula (107) can be con-
sidered as an etheric generalization of the classical concept of induct-
ance of the thin closed current. ℒ(𝑡𝑡) is also called the self-induction,
or self-induction coefficient (see, for example: [28, p. 271]).
Applying the expression (100) in the definition of the magnetic
flux (106), one can similarly introduce the concept of the inductance
of the volume 𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡), creating the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁.
9. The basic law of the electromagnetic induction. An elec-
tromotive force. The Lenz rule

9.1. The basic law of the electromagnetic induction

Consider the time derivative of the magnetic flux (106) in the

general form, in contrast to the simplified approach [41],

𝑑𝑑Φ 𝑑𝑑
= � 𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡)

In accordance with the etheric representation of the magnetic

field (20) and the Stokes formula, one has

𝑑𝑑Φ 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
= � 𝛁𝛁 × (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐮𝐮) ∙ 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥, (108)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡)

where the contour 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) limits the surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡), the direction of the
𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) bypass is determined by the vector 𝐧𝐧 with the right screw.
In [21] on p. 152 or in [35] on p. 43 the integral identity was
derived

𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝐀𝐀
� 𝐀𝐀 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = � � − 𝐕𝐕 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐀𝐀)� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

124
where 𝐕𝐕 = 𝐕𝐕(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) is the motion velocity of the points of the contour
𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡), bounding the surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡).
Apply this formula for 𝐀𝐀 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐮𝐮:

𝑑𝑑Φ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮
=� � − 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐮𝐮)�� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

We use the equation (24) and the definition (20)

𝑑𝑑Φ 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃
= � �𝑐𝑐 �−𝐄𝐄 + � − 𝐕𝐕 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐁𝐁)� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Taking into account that the term 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 does not contribute to the
integral (since (𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃) = 0)), we obtain

1 𝑑𝑑Φ
= −ℰ(𝑡𝑡),
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐕𝐕 𝐅𝐅 (109)
ℰ(𝑡𝑡) ≡ � �𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁 − � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

The function ℰ(𝑡𝑡) is called the electromotive force of the induc-

tion (emf of the induction), and the formula (109) is called the basic
law of the electromagnetic induction (see, for example: [28, p. 258]).
In contrast to the classical physics, here this law was obtained not as
the generalization of experiments, but as a formal mathematical con-
sequence of the ether motion equations (4)–(6), that is, the continuity
equation and Newton's second law.
The basic law of the electromagnetic induction is invariant under
the Galilean transformation. The proof is given in sec. 9.2.

125
 We emphasize that the formulas (108) and (109) show that emf
of the induction appears in the circuit when the magnetic field or the
circuit varies with time, as well as in the presence of the electric field.
Moreover, the contribution to ℰ(𝑡𝑡) is made only by the non-potential
component of the vector 𝐄𝐄, since the integral over the closed contour
of the potential component is zero.
The physical interpretation of the second (magnetic) term under
the integral in the formula (109) is given in sec. 18.11.
Considered emf of the induction is just one of the ways to excite
emf. There are some other ways of emf generating not related to a
change in the magnetic field or a change in the contour. For example,
emf may occur when creating the potential difference in the motion-
less circuit section due to an electric battery or the action of the exter-
nal force. Each method of emf generating is described, in general, by
its own quantitative relations.
The Lenz rule in physics is established by generalization of the
experimental facts: the induction current always has such a direction
that it weakens the effect of the reason that excites this current (see,
for example: [28, c. 260]). In the ether interpretation, this rule is also
a formal consequence of the ether equations, namely, the formula
(109).
Using the formulas (20), (21) emf of the induction ℰ is expressed
through the density 𝜌𝜌 and the velocity 𝐮𝐮 of the ether. Therefore, the
formula (109) can be interpreted as the occurrence of emf induction
as a result of the ether motion in the closed contour 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡), caused by a
change in the magnetic flux through the surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡) bounded by this
contour. It follows that, for example, if 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) coincides with a conduc-
tor, then the electric current in this conductor is primarily caused by
the ether motion in it, and not the motion of charged particles. The
motion of charged particles is caused by the ether flow. This result
allows us to make an important conclusion for practice: emf can be
excited using the existing ether motion in nature of velocity 𝐕𝐕.

126
 The electrical current in the conductors is discussed in more de-
tail in sec. 12 and 18.
In general physics, the excitation and flow of the electric current
at a conductor motion in the magnetic field is associated exclusively
with the motion of electrons in it [28, 31, 34], and the mechanism of
the Lorentz force action on them is explained by the relativistic effect
[32, v. 3, p. 72; 28, p. 16]. In this case, big problems arise with the
interpretation of many experiments. For example, the experiments
show that in the long wire the direct (constant) current excited at one
of its ends appears at the other end much faster than the typical time
of the directed motion of charged particles in it (if any). It is difficult
to explain the high transmission speed of signals through a conductor
using electrons; the speed of motion for metals is no more than a few
centimeters per second, and even lower for electrolytes (see, for ex-
ample: [28, p. 214]). Moreover, the analysis of the experiments with
the explosion of wires by the electric current (sec. 18.10) and other
experiments (sec. 12.2, 12.3, 21.11, 23.2.1, 23.2.2, 23.3, 23.6.1,
23.6.2) shows that not the electrons are the main carrier of the electric
current energy.
Mechanical (etheric) interpretation of the emf induction, based
on deriving of the formulas (107) and (109) from Newton's second
law, provides a clear mechanism for the excitation and flow of the
electric current in the conductor.
From (107), (109) one has

1 𝑑𝑑ℒ(𝑡𝑡)𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡)
= −ℰ(𝑡𝑡). (110)
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Expressions (107), (109), (110) do not include the electric charge of

the particles, and all the quantities appearing in them are expressed in
terms of the density 𝜌𝜌, the velocity 𝐮𝐮 of the ether, and the geometry of
the conductor. Therefore, the primary cause and basis of the electric
current is the ether flow density induced in the conductor, which leads

127
to various effects, including the motion of charged particles in the con-
ductor. Moreover, in some cases, for example, at superconductivity
(sec. 12.5) or in the magnetic phenomena (sec. 19), the ether flow may
not excite appreciable motion of charged particles in conductors, on
the contrary, charged particles can interfere the superconductivity.

9.2. Galilean invariance of the basic law of electromagnetic

induction

The operability of devices, that use the law of electromagnetic

induction, has been tested by experiments in systems moving not only
at a constant speed, but also with acceleration, for example, in air-
planes and rockets.
Let us show theoretically the invariance of the electromagnetic
induction law with respect to the Galileo transformation. The proof
given here is proposed by F.S. Zaitsev.
The initial expression in the very beginning of sec. 9 is invariant
with respect to the Galilean transformation, since it includes only quan-
tities invariant with respect to the Galilean substitution and invariant
operations with them. Contour 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) and surface 𝑆𝑆(𝑡𝑡), as well as veloc-
ity (see p. 46), are understood in mathematical modeling as objects in-
variant with respect to the coordinate system, which, like a vector, can
be specified without introducing a coordinate system, for example, by
a set of tangent vectors.
It remains to check whether there were no non-invariant Galilean
transformations in the process of deriving formula (109). Only the in-
tegral identity, obtained in [21, p. 152], requires attention, since it is
clear that all other transitions are invariant.
By directly checking the calculations on p. 151, 152 in [21], one
can make sure that they are standard and do not contain errors. The
only thing worth explaining is the phrase "let's introduce notation" on
p. 150 in [21]. Mathematically, it would be more correct to formulate
in this way: if the surface integral over the surface 𝜎𝜎 converges, then

128
the limit of partial sums exists for any partition of this surface into
elementary areas, including the partition proposed in [21, p. 150].
In the first limit, after the first equality in the formula on the 8-th
line in [21, p. 152], the integral depending on the parameter 𝑡𝑡 appears
under the limit sign. According to the theorem on differentiation of a
parameter-dependent integral, when a derivative is placed under the
integral sign, all other arguments of the functions included in it are
considered fixed. Therefore, it is the partial derivative with respect to
time that appears under the integral sign, not the full derivative. Here-
with, the full derivative over 𝑡𝑡 is written before the sign of the integral,
since the integral itself is a function of only one variable – time.
The partial time derivative in the integral identity is not invariant
with respect to the Galileo transform and gives an additional term, see
formula (44).
In the general case, to study the invariance of the integral identity,
it is necessary to check that the closed-loop integral of this additional
term is equal to zero.
However, in the case of the ether motion, which is of interest to
us, it is possible to avoid the solution of the general problem. For 𝐀𝐀 =
𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 the partial derivative over 𝑡𝑡 is expressed through invariant quan-
tities by the formula (24) (see p. 77), that is, on the solution of the
ether motion equation the partial derivative of such function is invar-
iant, in spite of the fact that the formula for it changes under the Gal-
ilean substitution. Therefore, in the case of 𝐀𝐀 = 𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮, the integral
identity is invariant with respect to the Galilean transformation on the
solution of the ether motion equation.
Thus, when deriving the law of electromagnetic induction (109),
only transitions invariant with respect to the Galileo transformation
were used for the ether motion. Therefore, this law is invariant with
respect to the Galileo transformation on the solution of the equation
of the ether motion.

129
 10. Vortex impulse of the ether. The law of the vortex im-
pulse conservation. Preservation of the magnetic field
moment

Let us stop at the important question of the medium vortex im-

pulse which allows one to proceed to the analysis of such a complex
phenomena as the Zhukovsky force.
Consider the ether motion throughout the space in the absence of
internal boundaries. Suppose that at infinity the speed of the ether and
the external forces limit to zero, and the vortex region 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) ≠
0 is bounded or 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) decreases rapidly at infinity.
If one defines the momentum of the medium as the integral over
some volume of 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 (here 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌 is the ether density in the me-
chanical units, see sec. 1.1 and 20.1), then this integral may depend
on the shape of the surface, over which the volume of integration lim-
its to infinity [18, p. 71]. Therefore, in the mechanics of a continuous
medium, the concept of the fluid impulse is introduced as the impulse
which must be applied by an instantaneous force to the instantane-
ously bringing of the medium into the given motion from the state of
rest [17, p. 71; 16, p. 636].
We introduce the concepts of the ether impulse and the ether vor-
tex impulse by analogy with the continuous media mechanics tech-
nique [17, sec. 3; 18, sec. 1.7.2; 13, sec. 152]. Herewith, in contrast to
the listed works, we consider the general case of a compressible me-
dium with non-constant density. Besides, in the derivation of the mo-
mentum change law, we take into account the difference between the
equation of motion of the ether and the equation of motion of the con-
tinuous media mechanics, consisting in the fact that the density of the
ether stands inside the total time derivative, but not in front of it (see
sec. 1.2).
In [18, p. 71] the following integral identity was proved:

130
 1
� 𝐚𝐚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐫𝐫 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
2 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 (111)
1
� 𝐫𝐫 × (𝐚𝐚 × 𝐧𝐧) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
2 𝑆𝑆

valid in the three-dimensional space (in the two-dimensional case,

1/2 should be replaced by 1). Here 𝐧𝐧 – is the outward normal to the
surface 𝑆𝑆, bounding the region 𝑇𝑇.
Let us apply the equality (111) for 𝐚𝐚 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮

1
� 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
𝑇𝑇 2 𝑇𝑇
1
� 𝐫𝐫 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐧𝐧) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2 𝑆𝑆

We get that the ether momentum in the volume 𝑇𝑇, standing on the
left side of the equality, is represented as a half-sum of the volume
integral of the component containing the vortex, and some surface in-
tegral. From this it is seen that if the second term in the right part tends
to zero when extending 𝑇𝑇 to the entire space, then the first term in the
right part is the impulse (amount of motion or momentum) of the un-
limited space of the ether.
By analogy with continuous media mechanics we call the vector

1
𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) ≡ � 𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (112)
2 𝑇𝑇

the vortex impulse of the ether and show that for the unlimited volume
of the ether it satisfies the analogue of the second law of Newton. The
existence of the integral over the whole space is ensured by the con-
dition of the boundedness of the vortex region 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) ≠ 0 or by

131
the requirement of the corresponding behavior of 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) at infin-
ity.
We emphasize that the factor 1/2 arises in 𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) in a natural way
as a result of using the integral equality (111).
We calculate the time derivative of 𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) with the formula for dif-
ferentiating of the integral depending on the parameter 𝑡𝑡, taking into
account that the consided volume 𝑇𝑇 is constant over 𝑡𝑡

𝑑𝑑𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) 1 𝑑𝑑
= � 𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇
1 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮
� 𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2 𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Express the partial derivative over time from the equation of the
ether motion (23) and take into account that 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃) = 0

𝑑𝑑𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) 1
= � 𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × �𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 − (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑇𝑇
1
� 𝐫𝐫 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −
2 𝑇𝑇
1
� 𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × �(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2 𝑇𝑇

We used the vector identity (111) at 𝐚𝐚 = 𝐅𝐅 and 𝐚𝐚 = (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)

𝑑𝑑𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) 1
= � 𝐅𝐅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝐫𝐫 × (𝐅𝐅 × 𝐧𝐧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑆𝑆
𝑇𝑇 (113)
� (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
𝑇𝑇

132
 1
� 𝐫𝐫 × ��(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� × 𝐧𝐧� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2 𝑆𝑆

Let us transform the third term in the right hand side of (113)
using the mean value theorem [51, sec. 4.7-1]

� (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =

𝑇𝑇
3 3 ∂
� � �� 𝐢𝐢 � (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐢𝐢𝑙𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑢𝑢𝑘𝑘 𝐢𝐢𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙=1 𝑘𝑘=1 ∂𝑥𝑥𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
3 3 ∂𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙
� 𝐢𝐢𝑙𝑙 � � 𝑢𝑢𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (114)
𝑙𝑙=1 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑇𝑇 ∂𝑥𝑥𝑘𝑘
3 3
∗
∂𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙
� 𝐢𝐢𝑙𝑙 � 𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑙𝑙=1 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑇𝑇 ∂𝑥𝑥𝑘𝑘
3
� 𝐢𝐢𝑙𝑙 �𝐮𝐮∗𝑙𝑙 ∙ � 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�,
𝑙𝑙=1 𝑇𝑇

where 𝐢𝐢𝑘𝑘 are the unit vectors of the Cartesian coordinate system, 𝑘𝑘 =
1,2,3, 𝐮𝐮∗𝑙𝑙 ≡ 𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙1
∗ ∗
𝐢𝐢1 + 𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙2 ∗
𝐢𝐢2 + 𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙3 𝐢𝐢3.
The last equality reduces by the gradient theorem [51, p. 175] to
the surface integral. Then

3
� (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐢𝐢𝑙𝑙 �𝐮𝐮∗𝑙𝑙 ∙ � 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� =
𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙=1 𝑆𝑆
3
� � (𝐮𝐮∗𝑙𝑙 ∙ 𝐧𝐧) 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐢𝐢𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑆𝑆 𝑙𝑙=1

133
 Thus, all the terms on the right hand side of (113), except the first
one, are the surface integrals. These integrals, vanish when the do-
main 𝑇𝑇 is expanded to the entire space, since, by assumption, the func-
tions 𝐅𝐅 and 𝐮𝐮 rapidly decrease at infinity. Therefore, in the limit, we
obtain the following law of the ether vortex impulse change:

𝑑𝑑𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡)
= � 𝐅𝐅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (115)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∞

Comparing the expression (115) with Newton's second law, we

conclude that 𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) can indeed be interpreted as the impulse of unlim-
ited volume of the ether in the presence of the non-potential force 𝐅𝐅.
From the derivation of formula (115), it is clear that the potential
forces do not change the vortex impulse of the ether.
If 𝐅𝐅 = 0, then the ether momentum 𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) is preserved in time.
Taking into account the definition (20) of the magnetic field in-
duction 𝐁𝐁, we obtain from (112), that the ether vortex impulse is the
moment of the magnetic field present in the volume 𝑇𝑇:

1 𝐁𝐁
𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � 𝐫𝐫 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (116)
2 𝑇𝑇 𝑐𝑐

Then the formula (115) gives the law of the magnetic field moment
variation, including the law of the magnetic field moment conserva-
tion in the absence of the external non-potential forces.
It is important to emphasize that the law (116) in the ether inter-
pretation is obtained as a consequence of Newton's second law, and
not as a generalization of the experimental facts or relativistic as-
sumptions. An experimental verification of this law can serve as yet
another confirmation of the ether theory. Besides, direct measurement
of 𝐈𝐈 and 𝐮𝐮 will allow to estimate the density of the ether using the

134
formula (116), in which instead of the field 𝐁𝐁, its ether representation
(20) is substituted.
The law of the magnetic moment conservation can explain the
so-called gyromagnetic effect [14, p. 150], the physical interpretation
of which is not convincing, as well as the phenomena observed in the
experiments of de Palma and Aspden, see sec. 23.3.
We emphasize once again that the factor 1/2 in the formulas
(112), (116) arises naturally as the result of the integral identity (111)
applying.
Note that, by analogy with the vortex impulse momentum of con-
tinuous media mechanics [17, sec. 3.5; 18, sec. 1.7.2], one can intro-
duce the concept of the vortex impulse momentum of the ether and
consider the law of its change. The vortex impulse momentum of the
ether corresponds to the momentum of the magnetic field momentum.

11. An external force acting from the medium on the ether

vortex flow. Generalization of the Zhukovsky force for
the case of the three-dimensional partially or fully per-
meable object

11.1. Generalization of the Zhukovsky force

Denote the volume, occupied by the vortex, 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 . Let the ether flow
outside 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 be vortexless 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = 0 or 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) decreases rap-
idly, and, moreover, at infinity the speed of the ether and external
forces limit to zero so that the corresponding improper integrals con-
verge.
According to the definition (112), the vortex impulse of the ether
is

1
𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (117)
2 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣

135
 Let us calculate the force acting in the volume 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 of the vortex
flow due to the driven external velocity 𝐕𝐕 = 𝐕𝐕(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) at points of 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 .
We assume that 𝐕𝐕 is specified relatively to 𝐮𝐮 (complementary to 𝐮𝐮)
and that 𝐕𝐕 leads to a displacement of the medium particles (Lagrange
particles). Outside 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 and at infinity, we require from 𝐕𝐕 to satisfy the
condition 𝐕𝐕 = 0 and to behave ensuring the convergence of the cor-
responding improper integrals.
In such a formulation of the problem, to obtain the law of change
𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡), the increment of 𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡), arising in a short time ∆𝑡𝑡, should be con-
sidered in the presence of the given velocity 𝐕𝐕. Using formula (117)
with 𝐮𝐮 replaced by 𝐮𝐮 + 𝐕𝐕 and subsequent time differentiation of the
integral depending on the parameter 𝑡𝑡, would be insufficient, since it
would not take into account the effect of medium particles displace-
ment as a result of velocity 𝐕𝐕 applying.
At the moment of time 𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡 for the vortex impulse ∆𝐈𝐈 of the
elementary volume ∆𝜏𝜏, we have

1
∆𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡) = 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡) × (𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡+∆𝑡𝑡 )∆𝜏𝜏.
2

Let's apply Taylor's formula

1 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫
∆𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡) = �𝐫𝐫 + ∆𝑡𝑡 + 𝑂𝑂(∆𝑡𝑡 2 )� ×
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮
�𝛁𝛁 × �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 + ∆𝑡𝑡 + 𝑂𝑂(∆𝑡𝑡 2 )�� ∆𝜏𝜏 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (118)
1 1 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮
𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�∆𝜏𝜏 + 𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × � ∆𝑡𝑡∆𝜏𝜏 +
2 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫
× �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�∆𝑡𝑡∆𝜏𝜏 + 𝑂𝑂(∆𝑡𝑡 2 ).
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

136
 According to the formulation of the problem, the displacement is
considered as a result of giving to the Lagrangian particle of velocity
𝐕𝐕 relative to the existing velocity 𝐮𝐮 (additional to 𝐮𝐮). Besides, accord-
ing to the meaning of the calculated force during the time ∆𝑡𝑡, the dis-
placement is taken into account only due to the instantaneous appli-
cation of the velocity 𝐕𝐕, that is, the displacement relative to the cur-
rent position. Therefore, in the formula (118) we have 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐕𝐕.
In the equation of the ether motion (23) (Newton's second law),
the additional acceleration 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 due to the external velocity 𝐕𝐕 is de-
scribed by the convective derivative, the interpretation of which con-
sists in acceleration caused by the motion of the medium with velocity
𝐕𝐕 (see, for example: [9, p. 54]) (that is, the acceleration relative to the
current state is considered due to the instantaneous application of the
velocity 𝐕𝐕)

𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮
+ (𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Then, taking into account 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝) = 0:

∆𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡) − ∆𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡)

=
∆𝑡𝑡
1
𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × �𝐅𝐅 − (𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�� ∆𝜏𝜏 +
2
1
𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�∆𝜏𝜏 + 𝑂𝑂(∆𝑡𝑡).
2

Letting ∆𝑡𝑡 → 0, summing over the whole volume and notating

the change of the vortex impulse in time due to giving the external
velocity 𝐕𝐕 to points of the volume 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 by the symbol

𝑑𝑑𝐈𝐈 𝑑𝑑∆𝐈𝐈
� � ≡� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐕𝐕 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

137
we get

𝑑𝑑𝐈𝐈 1
� � = � 𝐫𝐫 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐕𝐕 2 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣
1
� 𝐫𝐫 × �𝛁𝛁 × �(𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
2 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣
1
� 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣

Apply in the first two terms of the right hand side the vector iden-
tity (111) with 𝐚𝐚 = 𝐅𝐅 and 𝐚𝐚 = (𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)

𝑑𝑑𝐈𝐈 1
� � = � 𝐅𝐅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝐫𝐫 × (𝐅𝐅 × 𝐧𝐧) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐕𝐕 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆𝑣𝑣
1
� (𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝐫𝐫 × ��(𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� × 𝐧𝐧� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆𝑣𝑣
+
1
� 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣

We use for (𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) the last equality from the table 5.5-1 in
[51]

(𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) =

1
�𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐕𝐕) + 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐕𝐕) − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 ∙ (𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐕𝐕) + 𝐕𝐕 ∙ �𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�
2
− 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕) − 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)��.

138
 On the right hand side of this expression the volume integral of the
first and second terms is reduced to the surface one by the rotor theorem
and the gradient theorem respectively. The volume integrals from the
third and fourth terms are transformed to surface integrals using the
mean theorem and the divergence theorem (functions 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 and 𝐕𝐕 are
taken out at the midpoint by analogy with the calculations in (114)).
As the volume 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 limits to the volume of the whole space, all the
surface integrals vanish, since, by assumption, the functions 𝐅𝐅, 𝐮𝐮 and
𝐕𝐕 rapidly decrease at infinity. Therefore, in the limit we get

𝑑𝑑𝐈𝐈
� � = � 𝐅𝐅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐕𝐕 ∞ 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣
(119)
1
� 𝜌𝜌 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 𝑚𝑚

I Integration in the third and fourth terms is left over the region of
nonzero vorticity 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 , since according to the problem formulation the
integrands are zero or decrease rapidly outside 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 .
In the case 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕 = 0, considered in [17, sec. 3.7], the formula
(119) goes to the formula (14) from [17, p. 77].
As shown above, the amount of the ether motion in the limit
throughout the entire space is equal to the vortex impulse. On the
other hand, according to Newton's second law, the change in the
amount of motion is equal to the force applied. Therefore, the right
hand side of the formula (119) has the meaning of the force 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 (𝑡𝑡),
acting on the ether flow in the volume 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 when the external velocity 𝐕𝐕
is driven at points of 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 :

𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝐅𝐅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (120)

∞ 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣

139
 1
� 𝜌𝜌 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
2 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 𝑚𝑚

where 𝐅𝐅 is the non-potential external force.

The force 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 (𝑡𝑡) in the formula (120) can be interpreted as the
generalization of the Zhukovsky force to the case of a three-dimen-
sional object, outside and inside of which the density of the medium
flow 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 is present. An example of the use of this force in electrical
engineering is given in sec. 18.11.
Expression (120) allows one to determine the generalized Zhu-
kovsky force in the volume element 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1
𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 = �𝐅𝐅 + 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (121)
2

and its volume density as the ratio of 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 to 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

The vortex impulse and the law of its change in the case of the
application of 𝐕𝐕 to one isolated thread 𝐿𝐿 (not necessarily coinciding
with the vortex thread), specified parametrically 𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙) ≡
�𝛾𝛾(𝑙𝑙), 𝜂𝜂(𝑙𝑙), 𝜉𝜉(𝑙𝑙)�, is obtained using the limit transition in the integrals
(112), (119), (120), considered for the region representing a cord with
the cross section 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� [17, sec. 3.8],

1
𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) = � Γ �𝐫𝐫 (𝑙𝑙)� 𝐫𝐫 × 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥,
2 𝐿𝐿 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝐮𝐮 𝑳𝑳

𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝐅𝐅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � Γ𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝐮𝐮 �𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� 𝐕𝐕 × 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 + (122)

∞ 𝐿𝐿
1
� Γ �𝐫𝐫 (𝑙𝑙)�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥,
2 𝐿𝐿 𝐕𝐕 𝑳𝑳

140
 Γ𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝐮𝐮 �𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� ≡ lim � �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 =
𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�
|𝛚𝛚𝐁𝐁 |→∞

lim � 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥,

𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝐶𝐶�𝐫𝐫 (𝑙𝑙)�
𝑳𝑳
|𝛚𝛚𝐁𝐁 |→∞

Γ𝐕𝐕 �𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� ≡ lim � (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 =

𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�
|𝛁𝛁×𝐕𝐕/2|→∞

lim � 𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥,
𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝐶𝐶�𝐫𝐫 (𝑙𝑙)�
𝑳𝑳
|𝛁𝛁×𝐕𝐕/2|→∞

where 2𝛚𝛚𝐁𝐁 ≡ 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮), 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 is the elementary segment of the curve
𝐿𝐿 with the direction 𝛚𝛚𝐁𝐁 /|𝛚𝛚𝐁𝐁 |, 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 is the element of the cross-sectional
area 𝑆𝑆 of the cord having the direction 𝛚𝛚𝐁𝐁 /|𝛚𝛚𝐁𝐁 |, 𝐶𝐶�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� the bound-
aries 𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�, Γ𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝐮𝐮 �𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� are Γ𝐕𝐕 �𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� are the circulation (strength)
of the infinitely thin cord. The limits are taken under the condition of
the finite circulations Γ𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝐮𝐮 �𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� = 2𝛚𝛚𝐁𝐁 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬, Γ𝐕𝐕 �𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)� = (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕)𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬
[15, p. 285].
If the thread (or cord) coincides with the vortex thread (or vortex
tube) of the field 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮, then the circulation Γ𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝐮𝐮 is constant and can
be removed from the integral sign [15, p. 285; 19, p. 93]

1
𝐈𝐈(𝑡𝑡) = Γ𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝐮𝐮 � 𝐫𝐫 × 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥,
2 𝐿𝐿
(123)
1
𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝐅𝐅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + Γ𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝐮𝐮 � × 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 + � Γ𝐕𝐕 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
∞ 𝐿𝐿 2 𝐿𝐿

141
 The last formula for 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 (𝑡𝑡) in the particular case 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝐅𝐅 =
0, 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕 = 0 takes the form

𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 Γ � 𝐕𝐕 × 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥,

𝐿𝐿
(124)
Γ≡ lim � 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 , 2𝛚𝛚 ≡ 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮,
𝑠𝑠�𝐫𝐫𝑳𝑳 (𝑙𝑙)�→0 𝐶𝐶�𝐫𝐫 (𝑙𝑙)�
𝑳𝑳
|𝛚𝛚|→∞

which corresponds to the result of [19, sec. 5.8].

The force 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 (𝑡𝑡) in formulas (122)–(124) can be considered as a
generalization of the Zhukovsky force in the case of the velocity 𝐕𝐕
applying to a wing having the shape of a curve 𝐿𝐿 in the direction per-
pendicular to the plane of the wing profile.
The direction of the force in the formula (124) is determined by
the sign of the velocity circulation Γ and the orientation of the applied
external velocity 𝐕𝐕.
According to the third Newton's law, an oppositely directed force
−𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 (𝑡𝑡) acts on the medium from the 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 (or 𝐿𝐿) region. Therefore, the
formulas (120)–(124) allow to calculate the force acting from the re-
gion 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 (or 𝐿𝐿) with given 𝐮𝐮 and 𝜌𝜌 in it on the surrounding medium as
a result of the instantaneous application of the external velocity 𝐕𝐕 to
the points of region 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 .
In the most general case, for a detailed calculation of the ether
flows interaction, a numerical solution of the original equations (4)–
(6) is necessary. However, the analytical results obtained already al-
low us to make an important conclusion that the effect of the ether
flow on the object can be carried out not only locally near its surface,
but also at a distance from the object, including a significant one, by
affecting the vortex, surrounding the object, with the oncoming flow,
which has velocity 𝐕𝐕. For example, if the object is frozen into a large-

142
sized vortex region 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 , then it can immediately feel the influence of
the external ether flow before this flow reaches the object itself.
We emphasize that the effect of the vortex flow force influence
on an object also takes place in an incompressible medium when there
is no drag to the oncoming flow (d’Alembert paradox [26, sec. 100;
15, p. 172, 303]).

11.2. Motion of the ether elementary volume in strong

external magnetic and electric fields. Larmor radius of
the ether elementary volume rotation. Cyclotron ether
resonance

In this section, a technique is proposed that opens up broad pro-

spects for the creation and application of etheric technologies based
on controlling the ether motion and increasing its kinetic energy. The
results given here were obtained by F.S. Zaitsev.
Let's show that in the strong external magnetic 𝐁𝐁ext and electric
𝐄𝐄ext fields, the equation of the elementary ether volume motion in the
simplest case has the same form as the equation of a charged particle
motion, but with different coefficients at 𝐁𝐁ext and 𝐄𝐄ext .
Consider the equation of motion (5) of the ether elementary vol-
ume, having velocity 𝐕𝐕 and density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 , under the action of the exter-
nal force density 𝐅𝐅 = 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄ext , where 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the density
of the generalized Zhukovsky force (121), 𝐄𝐄ext is the external electric
field. We emphasize that the field 𝐄𝐄ext enters the right hand side of
equation (5) exactly with "+" sign by the analogy with 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 in
formula (5), since, for example, in the steady state external flow
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄ext = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝ext (72).
If the force due to the ether flow pressure gradient −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 =
𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕 2 ) (15) is much smaller than 𝐅𝐅 (component by component),
then equation (5) takes the form

143
 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕
= + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄ext .
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The generalized Zhukovsky force density 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅ж /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is calculated

by the formula (121)

𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅ж 1
= 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮ext )� + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮ext × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕),
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

where 𝐮𝐮ext is the velocity of the ether external flow, which determines
the magnetic and electric fields 𝐁𝐁ext and 𝐄𝐄ext (21).
We have

𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕 1
= 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × �𝜌𝜌𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮ext �� + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮ext × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕) + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄ext ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕 𝐁𝐁ext 1
= 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐕𝐕 × + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮ext × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕) + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄ext .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐 2

The equation is simplified if the second term in the right hand

side can be neglected:

𝑑𝑑𝐲𝐲 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐁𝐁ext

= 𝐲𝐲 × + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄ext , 𝐲𝐲 ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕. (125)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚

The trajectory of the ether elementary volume is found by the ve-

locity

𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫
= 𝐕𝐕.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Let us compare equation (125) with the description of the charged

particle motion.

144
 Consider known equations for the trajectory of a particle with
charge 𝑒𝑒 and mass 𝑚𝑚 moving in the fields 𝐁𝐁ext and 𝐄𝐄ext under the
action of the Lorentz force [55, p. 19],

𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒
= 𝐯𝐯 × 𝐁𝐁ext + 𝐄𝐄ext , (126)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫𝑝𝑝
= 𝐯𝐯.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Compare equations of motion (125) and (126).
The acceleration in the left part of (125) when using the Lagran-
gian description of the medium (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫0 ), where 𝑡𝑡 is variable and 𝐫𝐫0 is
constant radius vector of the elementary volume initial position point,
is determined by differentiating in time the function of one variable
𝐲𝐲(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫0 ), see, for example [21, p. 144].
The description of a material point motion (126) is always carried
out in the Lagrangian approach, since the motion of this point is always
traced rather than the passage of different points through a given one.
Therefore, the acceleration is also calculated by differentiating the func-
tion of one variable 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫0 ) over time [68, p. 62, 22].
So the left parts of equations (125) and (126) have the same def-
inition. Vectors and vector product in the right parts of equations
(125) and (126) are also defined identically. Thus vectors and all op-
erations with them have the same mathematical meaning both in the
Lagrangian form of equation (125) and in equation (126).
Equation (126) for function 𝐯𝐯 transforms into equation (125) for
the function 𝐲𝐲 in the Lagrangian description if in (125) the positive
constant 𝑒𝑒/(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) for 𝑒𝑒 > 0 is replaced by the positive constant 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 /𝑐𝑐,
𝐁𝐁ext by 𝐁𝐁ext /𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 and (𝑒𝑒/𝑚𝑚)𝐄𝐄ext by 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄ext . Herewith, as noted, all
operations with vectors appearing in the equations are defined in the
same way. Therefore, the solution 𝐲𝐲 = 𝐲𝐲(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫0 ) of equation (125), and
hence the function 𝐕𝐕 = 𝐲𝐲/𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 , can be obtained from the solution 𝐯𝐯 =
𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫0 ) of equation (126) using the same replacement.

145
 The equations for the trajectories 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) and 𝐫𝐫𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡) are identical up
to the notation. Therefore, the solution 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) can be obtained from the
solution 𝐫𝐫𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡) by replacing 𝐯𝐯 with 𝐕𝐕.
Thus, the substitution

𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐁𝐁ext
at 𝑒𝑒 > 0 by , 𝐁𝐁ext by ,
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (127)
𝑒𝑒
𝐄𝐄 by 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄ext , 𝐯𝐯 by 𝐕𝐕
𝑚𝑚 ext

allows to use all known information about the motion of a positively

charged particle in arbitrary external magnetic 𝐁𝐁ext and electric 𝐄𝐄ext
fields to describe the motion of the ether elementary volume in such
fields, provided that the generalized Zhukovsky force (magnetic
force) or electric force arising in them is greater than the force due to
the pressure gradient of ether moving with speed 𝐕𝐕 and that the term
~𝐮𝐮ext × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕)/2 in the generalized Zhukovsky force is small.
According to equation (125), each elementary volume in strong
magnetic and electric fields moves independently of other elementary
volumes. Herewith, the ether current lines do not intersect if the ether
velocity vector, which is tangent to the current line, is uniquely de-
fined at each point of space.
In the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁ext , weakly dependent on time and coordi-
nates, in the absence of electric field 𝐄𝐄ext = 0, the charged particle
makes translational motion along 𝐁𝐁ext and rotation in the plane trans-
verse to 𝐁𝐁ext along a circle [28, v. 3, p. 237, 365] with the Larmor radius

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚|𝐯𝐯⊥ |
𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝐿𝐿 = .
|𝑒𝑒||𝐁𝐁ext |

Assuming a weak dependence of |𝐁𝐁ext |/𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 on time and coordi-

nates and performing the substitution (127) in 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝐿𝐿 , we obtain the radius
of the circle along which the elementary volume of the ether moves

146
 𝑐𝑐|𝐕𝐕⊥ | 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐|𝐕𝐕⊥ | 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐|𝐕𝐕⊥ |
𝑟𝑟э,𝐿𝐿 = = = .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 |𝐁𝐁ext |/𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 |𝐁𝐁ext | |𝐁𝐁ext |

By analogy with the Larmor radius of a charged particle we call

𝑟𝑟э,𝐿𝐿 the Larmor radius of the elementary volume of the ether.
For example, with 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228), |𝐕𝐕⊥ | = 105 [cm/s], 𝐵𝐵 =
0.02 ∙ 104 [Gauss] = 0.02 [T] we obtain 𝑟𝑟э,𝐿𝐿 ≈ 4.5 [cm]. For com-
parison, the Larmor radii of the electron and proton moving with the
same speed in the same magnetic field are 𝑟𝑟elctr,𝐿𝐿 ≈ 2.8 ∙ 10−5 [cm]
and 𝑟𝑟prot,𝐿𝐿 ≈ 0.052 [cm].
Frequencies of the ether and charged particle oscillations are

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 |𝐁𝐁ext | |𝐁𝐁ext | |𝑒𝑒||𝐁𝐁ext |

𝜈𝜈э,𝐿𝐿 = = and 𝜈𝜈𝑝𝑝,𝐿𝐿 = . (128)
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

With the same values of the parameters we have: 𝜈𝜈э,𝐿𝐿 ≈ 2.2 ∙ 104 ,
𝜈𝜈elctr,𝐿𝐿 ≈ 3.5 ∙ 109 , 𝜈𝜈prot,𝐿𝐿 ≈ 1.9 ∙ 106 [1/s].
The correspondence between the motion of the ether elementary
volume and the positively charged particle allows to propose the fol-
lowing fairly general scheme of pumping kinetic energy into the ether.
Let the ether elementary volume be periodically affected by a
pulsed magnetic field with a pulse duration ∆𝑡𝑡st .
The number of revolutions of the elementary volume per pulse is
calculated as the ratio of the path traveled to the length of the Larmor
circle (circumference)

|𝐕𝐕⊥ |∆𝑡𝑡st |𝐕𝐕⊥ |∆𝑡𝑡st ∆𝑡𝑡st |𝐁𝐁ext |

𝑛𝑛э = = = .
2𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵ext 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐|𝐕𝐕⊥ | 2𝜋𝜋𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌
2𝜋𝜋
|𝐁𝐁ext |

The number of turns 𝑛𝑛э can be fractional.

147
 Let at each pulse of the magnetic field the elementary volume
acquire an increment Δ𝐕𝐕⊥ in velocity under the action of some exter-
nal impulsive force, for example, the electric field 𝐄𝐄ext . If, by select-
ing the frequency of this force in accordance with the number of rev-
olutions 𝑛𝑛э , the increment Δ𝐕𝐕⊥ in the direction of velocity 𝐕𝐕⊥ is
achieved at each impulse, then the value of velocity of the ether ele-
mentary volume will begin to grow, and in the ideal case unlimitedly.
Herewith, the velocities of all elementary volumes of the ether will
increase at once, regardless of their current velocities, since the num-
ber 𝑛𝑛э and, consequently, the frequency of the external force set by it,
do not depend on the ether elementary volume velocity |𝐕𝐕⊥ |.
The effect of increasing the ether kinetic energy in such a scheme
we will call the cyclotron ether resonance (CER) by the analogy with
electron and ion cyclotron resonances (ECR and ICR), see, for exam-
ple: [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_cyclotron_resonance].
According to (128), CER can be initiated at audio frequencies,
the value of which is significantly smaller than the gigahertz excita-
tion frequencies of the ECR, and the megahertz frequencies required
for the ICR. This opens up wide opportunities for applications, since
the equipment for obtaining oscillations in the audio frequency range
is much simpler and cheaper than the equipment for gigahertz and
megahertz bands. Besides, the observations of CER in different ex-
periments at sound frequencies will provide another argument for the
existence of the ether, if such experiments do not include the excita-
tion frequencies of ECR or ICR.
We emphasize that the CER effect can already be considered ex-
perimentally confirmed. For example, this conclusion can be reached
with the quantitative etheric interpretation of the Corums experiments
on the ball lightning creation, described in sufficient detail in [247]. At
the qualitative level, these experiments are analyzed in section 24.4.
There is no description of the details of many of Tesla's experi-
ments, but, judging by the available data, he used the CER to increase
the ether kinetic energy (pumping energy into the ether) in obtaining

148
ball lightning (sec. 24.4) and in experiments with the tower to
transport energy and receive it from the ionosphere.
Modern theoretical physics, which operates with "empty" space,
loses the CER effect and therefore can neither explain nor propose
technologies based on it.
In conclusion, we note that in the Euler approach of describing
the medium with the variables (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫), where 𝑡𝑡 and 𝐫𝐫 are independent,
the formulas for the acceleration of the medium elementary volume
and the acceleration of a material point differ by the presence of the
derivative of the velocity component over the coordinates [68, p. 62,
22–27; 14, v. 1, p. 144; 9 (2003), p. 55, 56; 21, p. 144–146]:

𝑑𝑑𝐲𝐲(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) 𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖

� � = 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 𝑘𝑘
+ 𝑦𝑦 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 + Γ𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 , (129)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫0 ) 𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣 𝑖𝑖
� � = 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 𝑘𝑘
+ Γ𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 . (130)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖
where Γ𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 is the Christoffel symbol of the second kind [51, p. 513].
𝑖𝑖
The term with Γ𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 arises in the curvilinear coordinate system due to
differentiation of basis vectors. This term contains nonlinearity, so the
expediency of transition to curvilinear coordinates, even the simplest
ones, such as cylindrical, should be studied in each case. Accounting
of symmetry in the problem can reduce the number of functions
sought, but lead to the necessity of solving nonlinear equations.
The difference of the left side of equation (125) in the Eulerian
description of the medium (129) from the left side of equation (126)
in the description of the point (130) makes it difficult to compare these
equations in the Eulerian approach. Besides, the solution 𝐲𝐲(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) of
equation (125) in Eulerian variables is difficult to compare directly
with the solution 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫0 ) of equation (126) because the functions
𝐲𝐲(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) and 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫0 ) have different number of variables and different
dependence on them.

149
 However, the Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches to the medium
description are equivalent in the sense that under some constraints on
the functions it is possible to establish a one-to-one correspondence
between these descriptions, see, for example, p. 75 and [14, v. 1, p.
36]. Therefore, the results obtained in the Eulerian variables reflect
the same laws of the medium motion as the results obtained in the
Lagrangian variables. In particular, the Euler approach describes the
same regularities of the ether behavior in external strong electric and
magnetic fields as the Lagrange one. That is, in such fields, the motion
in Eulerian variables can be interpreted as a description of the medium
behavior consisting of elementary volumes, each of which moves ac-
cording to the law similar to the law of motion of a positively charged
material point.

12. Electric current in conductors

A close relationship in the ether of a magnetic field having the

non-zero rotor, and the current is discussed in sec. 7–9. It is shown
that the electric current is caused, first of all, by the flow of the ether,
and the possible directional motion of charged particles is the second-
ary effect.
In accordance with the etheric representation of Maxwell's equa-
tion (34), the presence of the electric current means the ether flow
with a non-zero rotor of rotor:

𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐮𝐮|2 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� ≠ 0. (131)

In sec. 7–9 only some definite behavior of the ether density and
velocity was required, and the presence of any material structures
holding the electric current was not supposed.
In this section, we consider the etheric (gas-hydrodynamic or me-
chanical) interpretation of the current flow in the material carrier,

150
providing a conductor for the electric current. Exploration of the char-
acteristics of the ether flow in the conductor requires detailed experi-
mental and theoretical studies. Here we focus only on the general anal-
ysis of this process. Of the variety conductors properties, we discuss
one of the most important – the ability to hold and direct the ether flow.
First of all, we note that the existence of the steady vortex motion
can be provided by a pressure gradient under reduced pressure at its
center (see, for example: [15, p. 299]).
The inner part of a good conductor usually has an ordered (regu-
lar) structure consisting, for example, of atoms. It is natural to assume
that this structure does not impede or even contributes to the vortex
flow of the ether flow (131), appropriate to the electric current. Near
the boundary, the regular structure of the conductor is inevitably dis-
torted. Therefore, it becomes more difficult for the ether to flow di-
rectly on the boundary, at least in the longitudinal direction. In the
ether flow, a boundary (skin) layer appears. If there was no such a
layer, then a significant part of the ether current could have emerged
at the bend of the conductor, which is not observed in the experiment.
Thus, the ability of the conductor to hold and direct the ether flow
can be associated with its internal regular structure and the formation
of the skin layer.
In the general case, the skin layer does not completely isolate the
flow of ether inside the conductor, since outside the conductor there
is a magnetic field, that is, a stream of ether. Moreover, according to
the law of Biot – Savart (100), (101), the magnetic field at a given
point is formed as a contribution from all parts of the conductor, alt-
hough with different weight. In the ether interpretation, a magnetic
field around a conductor arises as a vortex ether flow (20), induced
by a stream of ether with a non-zero rotor of rotor (131) flowing
through a conductor.
If the internal structure of the material accelerates the motion of
the ether inside the conductor while preserving the ether density, then,
in accordance with the equation of state (or Bernoulli's theorem), the

151
pressure of the ether inside the conductor decreases as compared with
the external pressure and the ether flow is compressed on the outside.
An additional effect to the reduced pressure in the vortex appears,
contributing to the confinement of the ether flow inside the conductor.
The alternating electric current differs from the constant one by
presence of the ether flow density dependence of over time.
At the macro level, the atomic or molecular properties of the con-
ductor are described by the dielectric and magnetic permeability of the
medium and its electrical conductivity (see, for example: [28, p. 339]).
Depending on the properties of the material, the externally gener-
ated flow of the ether (110) may be weakened or amplified inside the
conductor. This effect is described by conditions on the surface of the
discontinuity (93)–(96). The current induced in the conductor begins
itself to create a magnetic field that affects the applied field. In partic-
ular, the self-induction effect occurs (see, for example: [28, p. 273]).
The ether interpretation of the electric current flow in the conduc-
tors leads to a very important conclusion. From the ether point of
view, the magnetic and electric fields are derivatives of the ether flow
density (20), (21). Therefore, consideration of only the electromag-
netic field inside the conductor does not take into account the effects
associated with a constant flow of the ether, which can be large, but
does not contribute to the magnetic or electric field due to zero (or
small) spatial derivatives. However, by analogy with gas and hydro-
dynamics, it is natural to assume that, for example, at deceleration of
the spatially isotropic ether flow, noticeable effects should arise.
Methods for generating of vorticities in the continuous medium
are considered, for example, in [17, sec. 6; 23, ch. 5].
The common origin of electric, magnetic and gravitational phe-
nomena disclosed in sec. 15 and other sections of this book, allows us
to hope that technical devices can be created that convert a non-elec-
tromagnetic (for example, constant) flow of the ether into the electro-
magnetic one, which scientists have already learned how to use for
solving practical challenges.

152
 12.1. Currents outside and inside conductors. Ampere's
Laws

Ampere's law determines the force acting from the magnetic field
on the elementary element of current (see, for example: [28, p. 211]).
This law is established empirically. In physics, Ampere's law is ex-
plained equally for free space and for conductors as the motion of
charged particles under the influence of the Lorentz force.
The etheric interpretation of the charged particle motion in the
electromagnetic field under the action of the Lorentz force is given in
sec. 16.1 as a result of the generalized Zhukovsky force influence
from the part of the ether flow on the vorticity around the charged
particle. We show that Ampere's law for the conductors can also be
explained by the appearance of the generalized Zhukovsky force in
the vortex flows of the ether.
We use the results of sec. 11, namely, the formula (120) for the
interaction force of two ether flows. We will show that Ampere's law
is the consequence of the formula (120), and, therefore, the conse-
quence of Newton's second law. Immediately, we note that in deriving
of the formula (120), the presence of a conductor was not assumed.
Therefore, an explanation of Ampere's law for conductors can be
given without the involvement of charged particles. The motion of
charged particles in the conductor, if it occurs, should be considered
as the secondary effect.
Suppose that the conductor number 1 of the volume 𝑇𝑇1 has a ve-
locity field 𝐮𝐮2 , created by the source number 2, which can be anyone,
including a conductor or a magnet (see Fig. 2). Consider the force 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 ,
acting the volume 𝑇𝑇1 , that is, the conductor 1, when creating a velocity
𝐕𝐕1 , in the volume 𝑇𝑇1 . It is assumed that outside 𝑇𝑇1 the velocity 𝐕𝐕1 is
not applied: 𝐕𝐕1 = 0 or low.
According to the formula (120), the force 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 in the absence of
non-potential forces is

153
 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 = � 𝐕𝐕1 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 )� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
𝑇𝑇1
(132)
1
� 𝜌𝜌 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕1 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2 𝑇𝑇1 𝑚𝑚 2

Fig. 2. Scheme of two conductors.

The directions of 𝐁𝐁1 and 𝐁𝐁2 are shown near the axes of the
conductors in accordance with the Biot – Savard law (sec. 7) and
the formula (133). Directions of 𝐕𝐕1 (142) and 𝐮𝐮2 (138) away from
the axes can change to the opposite, which means that, according to
(133) and sec. 7, directions of 𝐁𝐁1 and 𝐁𝐁2 can also change to the op-
posite. In physics, the choice of the current density vector direction 𝐣𝐣
in the definition of 𝐣𝐣 (see p. 155) is not justified, but is adjusted to
the measurement data away from the conductor axis.

154
 Taking into account the definition of the magnetic field (20), the
relation 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌 (see. sec. 1.1 and 20.1) and the vector identity
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕1 ) = 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕1 ) − 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 × 𝐕𝐕1 , the formula (132) can be
written as

𝐁𝐁2
𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 = � 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐕𝐕1 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
𝑇𝑇1 𝑐𝑐
1 𝐁𝐁1
� 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 × � + 𝐕𝐕1 × 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
2 𝑇𝑇1 𝑐𝑐

where 𝐁𝐁1 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕1 ) and 𝐁𝐁2 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 ) are the magnetic
fields corresponding to the first and second conductors (fig. 2)
If the first conductor has a magnetic permeability 𝜇𝜇1 , other than
unity, then instead of 𝐁𝐁2 in this formula, one must take 𝜇𝜇1 𝐁𝐁2, since
the field 𝐁𝐁2 is considered in this formula inside the first conductor. In
front of 𝐁𝐁1, the multiplier is not required, since 𝐕𝐕1 is the velocity of
the ether inside the first conductor.
In physics, when considering the electric current and the derivation
of Ampere's law, it is postulated that the electric current density is equal
to the flow density of the charged particles 𝐣𝐣 ≡ 𝑁𝑁𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝐕𝐕, where 𝑁𝑁𝑒𝑒 is the
volume density of the charge carriers, 𝑒𝑒 is the charge (positive or neg-
ative) of one particle (carrier) (see, for example: [28, p. 174, 211]).
In the ether interpretation of Ampere's law, we assume that the
density of the electric current in the conductor in the absence of the
external influence is equal to

𝐣𝐣1 ≡ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐕𝐕1 (133)

under the condition that the Maxwell equation (34) is satisfied for the
velocity 𝐕𝐕1 : 𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐕𝐕1 |2 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕1 )� = 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣1 . An external influence can
be described in (133) by adding of a velocity source or current.

155
 In comparison with the electron-kinetic theory of the electric cur-
rent [28, sec. 42], the constant 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 is interpreted as the charge density
(229), and all the information about a particular material is included
in the flow velocity of the ether 𝐕𝐕1 inside it.
Below it is shown that the model of the current density in the con-
ductor (133) leads to Ampere's laws known from experiment. In ac-
cordance with the methodology of mathematical modeling, this justi-
fies the possibility of the model (133) applying. The same formula is
valid for the ether current density in a gas discharge, see sec. 21.16.
We have

𝐁𝐁2
𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 = � 𝐣𝐣1 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
𝑇𝑇1 𝑐𝑐
(134)
1 𝐁𝐁1 1
� 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 × � + 𝐣𝐣 × 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2 𝑇𝑇1 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 1

The force (132) can also occur for the velocity 𝐕𝐕1 , such that
𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐕𝐕1 |2 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕1 )� = 0. But such a force, according to the ether def-
inition of the electric current, we do not associate with the flow of the elec-
tric current. The following estimate is obtained below, which confirms
the correctness of this approach: it is shown that the ether velocity 𝐕𝐕1
within the region of electric current is “usually” significantly higher than
outside (see formulas (141), (142)). Therefore, the force (132) is deter-
mined namely by the velocity 𝐕𝐕1 within the region of the electric current.
According to the ether definition of the electric current, the term
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 in the formula (134) is the electric current only if Maxwell’s
equation (34) is fulfilled for 𝐮𝐮2 : 𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐮𝐮2 |2 𝛁𝛁 × (𝐮𝐮2 )� = 4𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 .
This situation occurs, for example, if the first conductor with the cur-
rent is inside the second conductor with the current.
Comparing the formula (134) with Ampere's law (see, for exam-
ple: [28, p. 211]), we conclude that it can be interpreted as an etheric
generalization of Ampere's law.

156
 The generalized Ampere law (134) is established on the basis of
the law of the magnetic field moment conservation (conservation of
the ether vortex impulse) obtained in sec. 10. Therefore, the mecha-
nism’s origin of the force acting the electric current 𝐣𝐣1 , is based on the
preventing of the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁2 moment change in the current 𝐣𝐣1
region.
It is also important to emphasize that the law of the magnetic field
moment conservation was obtained in sec. 10 as a consequence of
Newton's second law. Therefore, the law of Ampere is the conse-
quence of the second law of Newton.
We calculate now the force 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 (134) for the conductor 1, having
the shape of the cord 𝐿𝐿 with the small cross section ∆𝑠𝑠. In this case,
the formula (134) takes the form

𝐁𝐁2
𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 = � 𝐣𝐣1 ∆𝑠𝑠 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐
(135)
1 𝐁𝐁1 1
� 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 × � ∆𝑠𝑠 + 𝐣𝐣 ∆𝑠𝑠 × 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑜𝑜(∆𝑠𝑠).
2 𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 1

In Ampere's law for thin conductors, the idealized full electric

current is considered

𝐼𝐼1 = lim (𝐣𝐣1 ∆𝑠𝑠 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 ),

∆𝑠𝑠→0
𝑗𝑗1 →∞

where 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 is the unit vector of the tangent to the curve 𝐿𝐿, in which the
electric current flows.
Assuming that 𝐮𝐮2 is bounded at the points of the cord and
𝐁𝐁1 ∆𝑠𝑠 ~ 𝐁𝐁1 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅12 → 0 at ∆𝑠𝑠 → 0, where 𝑅𝑅1 is the distance from the cen-
ter of the cord in the transverse direction, we get in the limit

157
 𝐁𝐁2 (𝑙𝑙) 1
𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 = � 𝐼𝐼1 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝐼𝐼1 𝐮𝐮2 (𝑙𝑙) × ( 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . (136)
𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐 2 𝐿𝐿

Below it will be shown that the second term in expression (134)

is "usually" small. Therefore, the formula (134) can be written as

𝐁𝐁2 (𝑙𝑙)
𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 = � 𝐼𝐼1 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . (137)
𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐

Hence, for the force 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 , acting the element of length 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of a
thin conductor with the current 𝐼𝐼1 , we obtain the expression

𝐁𝐁2
𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 = 𝐼𝐼1 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝑐𝑐

coinciding with the first law of Ampere [32].

We now show that the second term in the expression (136) is
"usually" small, and obtain the expression of the second Ampere law
for the force arising between two thin conductors.
Consider the case when the velocity 𝐮𝐮2 is created by the magnetic
field of a straight thin conductor with the current (see the formula
(105))

2𝐼𝐼2
𝐁𝐁2 = 𝐢𝐢 ,
𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅2 𝜑𝜑2

where (𝑅𝑅2 , 𝜑𝜑2 , 𝑧𝑧2 ) is the cylindrical coordinate system with unit basis
vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑅𝑅2 , 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑2 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧2 and the axis 𝑧𝑧2 , coinciding with the axis of the
second conductor (see. fig. 2).
From the definition of the magnetic field (20) we have

158
 2𝐼𝐼2
𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ) = 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑅𝑅2 𝜑𝜑2

By searching for a solution of this equation in the form 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 =

𝐚𝐚(𝑅𝑅2 )𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧2 we find

2𝐼𝐼2
𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 = �− ln 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐶𝐶1 � 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧2 ,
𝑐𝑐 2

where 𝐶𝐶1 is an arbitrary constant. The logarithmic dependence over

𝑅𝑅2 is associated with the idealized representation of the second con-
ductor as the infinitely thin, but carrying the final current 𝐼𝐼2 .
The continuity equation in the case of steady state motion (partial
derivatives with respect to time go to zero) and the absence of the
source 𝑞𝑞 = 0 is fulfilled for the found vector 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 , since its third com-
ponent does not depend 𝑧𝑧2 , and the other components are absent.
Consider the case of 𝐶𝐶1 = 0. Substitute the found flow density of
the ether 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 into the equation of motion (23). For the steady state
motion and 𝐅𝐅 = 0, taking into account the equation of state (15) , we
have

|𝐮𝐮2 |𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮2 |) − 𝐮𝐮2 × 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ) = 𝛁𝛁(|𝐮𝐮2 |𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮2 |),

which makes it possible to calculate 𝐮𝐮2 and then determine 𝜌𝜌: by the
already found above 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 :

𝐶𝐶2 2𝐼𝐼2 (ln 𝑅𝑅2 )2

𝐮𝐮2 = 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧2 , 𝜌𝜌 = − , (138)
ln 𝑅𝑅2 𝑐𝑐 2 𝐶𝐶2

where 𝐶𝐶2 in 𝐮𝐮2 is an arbitrary constant. However, the condition 𝜌𝜌 >

0 imposes a restriction on the sign of this constant: 𝐼𝐼2 /𝐶𝐶2 < 0.

159
 Let us now estimate the velocity 𝐕𝐕1 inside and outside the con-
ductor with the current. The calculation of 𝐕𝐕1 based on the solution of
the initial ether equations (4)–(6) would require a detailed considera-
tion of the internal structure of the conductor, possibly taking into ac-
count non-zero sources (sinks) 𝑞𝑞 and forces 𝐅𝐅, conditioned by the
structure of the conductor material. However, the task is greatly sim-
plified if the current density in the conductor 𝐣𝐣1 is known. According
to the ether definition of the current density 𝐣𝐣1 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐕𝐕1 the velocity
𝐕𝐕1 and density 𝜌𝜌 must satisfy the Maxwell equation in the form (34)
(at each point of the medium, the velocity in the continuous velocity
field is determined by one vector, therefore, namely the velocity 𝐕𝐕1
must be considered in the differential operator in the formula (34))

𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐕𝐕1 |2 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕1 )� = 4𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐕𝐕1 . (139)

The equation (139) is obtained by taking of the rotor from the

equation of motion (23) and as a result contains only part of the infor-
mation of the original equation (23). Therefore, equations (139) and
(23) should be considered jointly.
In the case of steady state motion taking into account the equation
of state (15), the equation (23) with 𝐅𝐅 = 0 takes the form

|𝐕𝐕1 |𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐕𝐕1 |) − 𝐕𝐕1 × 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕1 ) = 𝛁𝛁(|𝐕𝐕1 |𝜌𝜌|𝐕𝐕1 |). (140)

In the considered point of space we choose the cylindrical coor-

dinate system (𝑅𝑅1 , 𝜑𝜑1 , 𝑧𝑧1 ) with unit base vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑅𝑅1 , 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑1 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧1 and axis
𝑧𝑧1 , directed along 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 , that is, 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧1 = 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 (see fig. 2), and will search for
𝐕𝐕1 and 𝜌𝜌 in the form 𝐕𝐕1 = 𝑉𝑉1 (𝑅𝑅1 )𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧1 , 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌(𝑅𝑅1 ). In this case, the
general solution of the system of equations (139), (140) is

𝐕𝐕1 = �𝐶𝐶3 𝐽𝐽0 (𝐶𝐶5 𝑅𝑅1 ) + 𝐶𝐶4 𝑌𝑌0 (𝐶𝐶5 𝑅𝑅1 )�𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧1 , (141)

160
 4𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝜌𝜌 = 2,
𝐶𝐶52 �𝐶𝐶3 𝐽𝐽0 (𝐶𝐶5 𝑅𝑅1 ) + 𝐶𝐶4 𝑌𝑌0 (𝐶𝐶5 𝑅𝑅1 )�

where 𝐽𝐽0 , 𝑌𝑌0 are the Bessel functions of the first and second kind of
zero order, 𝐶𝐶3 , 𝐶𝐶4 , 𝐶𝐶5 are arbitrary constants.
The continuity equation in the case of steady motion and the ab-
sence of a source 𝑞𝑞 = 0 is satisfied for the given vector 𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕1, since its
third component does not depend on 𝑧𝑧1 .
Thus, the velocity and density of the ether inside the electric cur-
rent vary according to the law (141).
If the first conductor is thin, long and straight, then outside of it,
as in (138), we have

𝐶𝐶6 2𝐼𝐼1 (ln 𝑅𝑅1 )2

𝐕𝐕1 = 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧1 , 𝜌𝜌 = − . (142)
ln 𝑅𝑅1 𝑐𝑐 2 𝐶𝐶6

We note that the formula (142) was obtained using the limiting
transition to an infinitely thin conductor and, therefore, is applicable
starting from the some distance from it. Besides, with the growth of
𝑅𝑅1 , the direction of the flow velocity 𝐕𝐕1 can change to the opposite,
which is similar to the Ranque – Hilsch vortex effect [en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/Vortex_tube]. See also sec. 12.4.
The constants 𝐶𝐶1 ,…,𝐶𝐶6 should be determined on the basis of ad-
ditional conditions on the boundaries of the conductor and its internal
structure. Other examples of the calculation of currents are given in
sec. 12.4, 23.2.3.
It can be seen that inside the electric current area at small 𝑅𝑅1 , the
velocity 𝐕𝐕1 is significantly higher (the formula (141)) than outside
(the formula (142))), since outside 𝐕𝐕1 behaves like 1/ ln 𝑅𝑅1 . There-
fore, the force (132) is really "usually" determined by the magnitude
of the velocity 𝐕𝐕1 namely within the region of the electric current.
For the integrand in the second term of the formula (136) we have

161
 1 1 𝐶𝐶2
𝐼𝐼1 𝐮𝐮2 × ( 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌) = 𝐼𝐼1 𝐢𝐢 ×
2 2 ln 𝑅𝑅2 𝑧𝑧2
−8𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 �𝐶𝐶3 𝐽𝐽1 (𝐶𝐶5 𝑅𝑅1 ) + 𝐶𝐶4 𝑌𝑌1 (𝐶𝐶5 𝑅𝑅1 )�
� 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × 3 𝐢𝐢𝑅𝑅1 �,
𝐶𝐶5 �𝐶𝐶3 𝐽𝐽0 (𝐶𝐶5 𝑅𝑅1 ) + 𝐶𝐶4 𝑌𝑌0 (𝐶𝐶5 𝑅𝑅1 )�

and for the integrand in the first term

𝐁𝐁2 2𝐼𝐼2
𝐼𝐼1 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × = −𝐼𝐼1 2 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑2 .
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅2

Thus, at sufficiently small transverse dimensions 𝑅𝑅1 of the first

conductor, the second term in (136) far from the singularities is "usu-
ally" small and the formula (136) for the force acting the first conduc-
tor takes the form

2𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2
𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 = � 𝐢𝐢 × 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑2 (𝑙𝑙) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (143)
𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑅𝑅2 (𝑙𝑙) 𝐿𝐿

This expression coincides with the formula known in physics for

the force acting the section of the first thin curved conductor with cur-
rent 𝐼𝐼1 from the side of the second thin rectilinear infinitely long con-
ductor with the current 𝐼𝐼2 (see, for example, [36, p. 435; 28, p. 216]).
Despite the fact that in "ordinary conditions" the second term in
the expression (136) is small, it would be important to carefully verify
its presence in the experiments and the magnitude of the contribution
to the resultant force. Such a check will provide additional confirma-
tion of the root cause mechanism of currents interaction correct un-
derstanding as the interaction of the ether flows.
A particular case of the formula for the force (134) in the form
𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐣𝐣1 × 𝐁𝐁2 /𝑐𝑐, that is, a special case of the ether vortex moment

162
variation law, is successfully used to solve complex practical prob-
lems, for example, plasma equilibrium in magnetic traps [57 or 58,
sec. 1.1] and for electrical currents in the absence of metallic conduc-
tors inside the plasma.
Note that the interpretation of Ampere's law with the help of the
Bernoulli theorem from sec. 14 is difficult due to the conversion of
𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = −𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ) to zero on each of the solutions (138), (141),
(142). The equality of the pressure gradient to zero means the isotropy
in space of the energy density during such motions.
This example shows the possibility of the force appearance (the
generalized force of Zhukovsky, p. 140) in the absence of the pressure
gradient. Besides, the reversal of the pressure gradient to zero on some
solution means that it satisfies both macro level (4)–(6) (at 𝑞𝑞 = 0, 𝐅𝐅 =
0, 𝛱𝛱 = 0), and micro level equations (1)–(3) of the ether.
The etheric understanding of Ampère's law as the interaction of
vortex flows allows us to explain the seeming paradoxical behavior
of two elementary conductors with current located on intersecting
perpendicular straight lines: one conductor acts the second with some
force, and the second does not act the first (see, for example, formu-
las in [32, p. 67; 36, p. 435]). However, the third law of Newton is
not violated in this case, since not the conductor with the conductor
participates in the force interaction, but the ether flow (magnetic
field) created by one of conductors, with the ether flow moving in
another conductor. Newton's third law is fulfilled between the over-
lap region of these flows and the external medium relative to it, and
not between the overlapping flow area and the conductor at a dis-
tance. In the case of zero force and the first conductor of infinitely
small length, the second conductor in the considered example simply
does not create a magnetic field at the location of the first conductor.
If the first conductor is not small, then, according to the formula
(143), a moment of forces arises, but not the force of pulling or push-
ing the conductors off.

163
 12.2. Ohm's law. Electrical conductivity

Consider the equation of motion of the ether (24) in the case of

the steady flow and the presence of the external force density −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝛁𝛁(𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 )
𝐄𝐄 = − . (144)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

The pressure gradient is calculated from the equation of state of

the ether (15) taking into account the external source of energy den-
sity 𝛱𝛱 = 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 . At times much longer than the relaxation time of the
directional thermal motion of the structural elements of the ether (sec.
21.5), we can consider𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. Then, introducing the coordi-
nate 𝑙𝑙 along the direction of the flow velocity 𝐮𝐮/|𝐮𝐮| at the considered
point and assuming for simplicity that the pressure depends only on 𝑙𝑙,
we have

𝐮𝐮 𝑑𝑑
−𝛁𝛁(𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ) = 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 ) = (𝜌𝜌 𝐮𝐮2 ) =
|𝐮𝐮| 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚
𝐮𝐮 𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮| 𝑑𝑑�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|
2�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮| = 2�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮.
|𝐮𝐮| 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Taking into account the formula (133), we obtain

2�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|

−𝛁𝛁(𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ) = 𝐣𝐣.
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Substituting this expression into (144), we find

−1
2 𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝐣𝐣 = � � 𝐄𝐄.
2�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

164
 Denote
−1
2 𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≡ � � . (145)
2�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

In physics, the coefficient 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 is called an electrical conductivity,

and the equation

𝐣𝐣 = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐄𝐄 (146)

Ohm's law. Depending on the sign of 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , the directions of the current
and the electric field may coincide or be opposite.
In the general case, the electrical conductivity 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 depends on the
gradient of the flow velocity |𝐮𝐮|. This can be interpreted as the de-
pendence of 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 on the electric field 𝐄𝐄 for some media, for example,
for plasma.
Thus, in the etheric interpretation, Ohm's law is a simple logical
consequence of the equation of motion and the equation of state of the
ether, that is, in fact, the consequence of Newton's second law. There-
fore, Ohm’s law (146) is a general law. However, in physics, its linear
approximation is usually considered, when 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 can be considered a
constant [28, p. 183, 184].
The electrical conductivity of the ether and substances is studied
in sec. 21.9.
Experimental confirmation of Ohm's law (146), see, for example:
[28, p. 179, 184], means confirmation of the ether theory.
Using the formula (146), in (144), we find
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐣𝐣 = − 𝛁𝛁(𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ). (147)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

165
 The relation (147) shows that in the steady state the electric cur-
rent is proportional to the pressure gradient in the ether. The propor-
tionality coefficient is the electrical conductivity 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , divided by a
constant, having the dimension of the charge density (229).
The pressure 𝑝𝑝 in (147), unlike the pressure 𝑝𝑝 in (242), is caused
by the flow of the ether as a continuous medium with the velocity 𝐮𝐮.
In the general case, the Clapeyron – Mendeleev equation cannot be
used for 𝑝𝑝 in (147), since during the flow of the electric current, the
thermodynamic equilibrium generally does not occur because of
changes in temperature and pressure over time and disturbance of the
insulation of the conductor from the environment.

12.3. Law of Joule and Lenz

Consider the power density of the ether flow (16). In the presence
of a source of energy density 𝛱𝛱 = 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 for the steady flow, the partial
derivative over time in (16) is equal to zero

𝑤𝑤 = −𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁(𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ).

In the ether model of the wire and the electrochemical cell, we

assume that the current density 𝐣𝐣 has the form (133)

𝐣𝐣 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮.

Then

1
𝑤𝑤 = − 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝛁𝛁(𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ) (148)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

or, generalizing the formula (72) in the case of the external source of
energy density 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 presence,

166
 𝑤𝑤 = 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝐄𝐄. (149)

Note that this formula, taking into account the expression (17),
can be rewritten as

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑑𝑑(𝜌𝜌2 𝐮𝐮2 )

= 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝐄𝐄. (150)
2𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Substituting (146) into (149), we obtain the Joule – Lenz law [28,
p. 185] in the form

1 𝟐𝟐
𝑤𝑤 = 𝐣𝐣
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

or in the form

𝑤𝑤 = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐄𝐄𝟐𝟐 .

Thus, in the etheric interpretation, the Joule – Lenz law is also a

logical consequence of the equation of motion and the equation of
state of the ether, that is, the consequence of Newton's second law.
The experimental confirmation of this law is another confirmation of
the ether theory.

12.4. Influence of the ether velocity distribution inside the

wire on the magnetic field and electric current density
created in it

Consider a cylindrical wire with a cross section radius 𝑅𝑅0 . We

introduce a cylindrical coordinate system (𝑅𝑅, 𝜑𝜑, 𝑧𝑧) with unit basis
vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑅𝑅 , 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 and axis 𝑧𝑧 directed along the axis of the wire.

167
 We show that with the velocity of the ether, directed along 𝑧𝑧, de-
pending on its distribution inside the wire 0 ≤ 𝑅𝑅 ≤ 𝑅𝑅0 , different di-
rections of the magnetic field, density of the electric current and dif-
ferent signs of the full current can be obtained.
Consider the case 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌0 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑅𝑅)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 . The ether con-
tinuity equation is satisfied for such functions at 𝑞𝑞 = 0. The equation
of the ether motion can be turned into the equality by choosing the
appropriate external force 𝐅𝐅.
Magnetic and electric fields, current density and the full current
are calculated using formulas (20), (21), (34)

𝐁𝐁 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮), 𝐄𝐄 = (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮),

1
𝐣𝐣total = 𝛁𝛁 × (|𝐮𝐮|2 𝐁𝐁), 𝐼𝐼total = � 𝐣𝐣total 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬,
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑆𝑆

where S is the cross section of the wire, the vector 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 is directed along
the 𝑧𝑧 axis.
In the case of 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌0 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑅𝑅)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , the electric field is
absent, 𝐄𝐄 = 0.
If the ether velocity distribution in the wire has a form

𝑅𝑅 2
𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑅𝑅)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢0 �3 − � � � 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ,
𝑅𝑅0

then for 𝑢𝑢0 > 0 the magnetic field is unidirectional with the vector
𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , the current density is unidirectional with the vector 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 and the full
current in the wire is positive:

2𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢0 𝑅𝑅
𝐁𝐁 = 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 ,
𝑅𝑅02

168
 𝑅𝑅 2 𝑅𝑅 2
3𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢03 �3 − �𝑅𝑅 � � �1 − �𝑅𝑅 � �
0 0
𝐣𝐣total = 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , 𝐼𝐼total = 4𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢03 .
𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅02

Note that there is no contradiction with the equation (133), since

in the general case (133) may contain an external source of the veloc-
ity, leading to the difference between 𝐣𝐣 and 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮.
For the ether velocity in the wire
𝑢𝑢0
𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑅𝑅)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 = 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧
𝑅𝑅 2
2 − �𝑅𝑅 �
0

when 𝑢𝑢0 > 0, the magnetic field and current density are directed
against 𝒊𝒊𝜑𝜑 and 𝒊𝒊𝑧𝑧 respectively, and the full current is negative:

2𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢0 𝑅𝑅
𝐁𝐁 = − 2 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 ,
𝑅𝑅 2
𝑅𝑅02 �2
− �𝑅𝑅 � �
0
2
2 𝑅𝑅
3𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢03 � + �𝑅𝑅 � �
3 0
𝐣𝐣total =− 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , 𝐼𝐼total = −𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢03 .
2 5
𝑅𝑅
𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅02 �2 − �𝑅𝑅 � �
0

That is, 𝒋𝒋𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 and 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 flow against the velocity of the ether flow.
At

𝑅𝑅 4
𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑅𝑅)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢0 exp �− � � � 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧
𝑅𝑅0

169
for u0 > 0, the magnetic field is co-directed with 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , the current den-
sity depending on 𝑅𝑅 has different directions relative to 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , but the full
current is positive:

4𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢0 𝑅𝑅 3 𝑅𝑅 4
𝐁𝐁 = exp �− � � � 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 ,
𝑅𝑅04 𝑅𝑅0
2 4
4 3
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 2
𝐣𝐣total = 𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢0 � � �1 − 3 � � � exp �−3 � � � 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ,
𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅02 𝑅𝑅0 𝑅𝑅0 𝑅𝑅0
−3 3
𝐼𝐼total = 2𝑒𝑒 𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢0 .

These examples show that, depending on the distribution of the

ether flow velocity inside the wire, different directions of the mag-
netic field, current density and the full current sign are obtained. At
the same time, as already noted, information about charged particles
was not used anywhere. Therefore, the basis of conduction, supercon-
ductivity, dielectric and magnetic properties of wires is the ether flow
distribution in them, and not the motion of charged particles. The na-
ture of the ether flow inside the wire is defined by its internal struc-
ture.
Another example of the ether velocity distribution, current den-
sity and magnetic field in a wire is discussed in sec. 23.2.3.

12.5. Superconductivity

In the sec. 12.1 it is shown that the electric current in the conduc-
tors can be interpreted as a strongly vortical in the sense of (131) the
ether (continuous medium) current. Herewith, the presence of charged
particles in the conductor is not required. If free charged particles are
present in the conductor, then their motion is determined by the inter-
action with the ether flow and in this sense it is a secondary effect.

170
 In physics, there is still no comprehensive explanation of the
causes of the superconductivity appearance, especially the high-tem-
perature, which would satisfy the data of all available experiments
(see, for example: [70; 27, p. 469]).
The etheric interpretation of the electric current in conductors al-
lows to give a generally relatively simple interpretation of the super-
conductivity effect: the special structure of the superconductor
weakly prevents or even supports the ether motion along the conduc-
tor as the temperature decreases. As a result, the ether begins to cir-
culate through the superconductor with almost no losses.
Let us briefly review the etheric interpretation of the supercon-
ductivity model proposed by V.A. Chizhov in books [70; 116,] and
developed in collaboration with the authors of the work [117–119].
The model is based on a hypothesis about processes arising on an
ideal crystal lattice defect, called the twinning boundary (MSC-TB).
This model explains all types of the superconductivity by the capture
of electrons by the conduction channels (TB), directed outside the
conductor, by the emission of electrons to the conductor surface with
the formation of near-surface eddy currents and magnetic field. With
the help of MSC-TB, it is possible to explain relatively new experi-
ments on the superconductivity of 1993–2016, as well as to determine
the direction of superconducting materials creation with more effi-
cient characteristics.
The brightest experimental facts observed in superconductivity
include (see, for example [28, p. 320; 70]): pushing of a magnetic
field from a type 1 superconductor to the surface as the temperature
decreases (Meissner – Ochsenfeld effect); an increase in the number
of domains with ring electric currents on the surface of a supercon-
ductor with a decrease in temperature; the Abrikosov whirlwinds.
Domains in the superconductors are similar to domains in a fer-
romagnet [28, p. 325]. The flow of ether occurring in the domain of a
ferromagnet is discussed in sec. 19.1. It is shown that the vortex mo-
tion of the ether occurs around the domain.

171
 In accordance with MSC-TB, domains appear on crystal lattice
defects. In the etheric interpretation, the electric current in the domain
is due to the flow of ether, and motion of electrons (if any) in the
domain is a secondary effect.
The component of the magnetic induction vector 𝐁𝐁, normal to the
surface of the superconductor, must be close to zero, since there is no
magnetic field inside the conductor in the superconducting state, and
the normal components of 𝐁𝐁 are continuous at the discontinuity.
Therefore, in the domains, the axes of the ring currents, along which
the magnetic field is directed, must be oriented in the superconductiv-
ity mode along the surface of the superconductor.
Thus, in the superconductivity state, the domains create a vortex
layer of ether near the surface of the conductor. Such a layer facilitates
the flow of the induction current due to its isolation from the surface
of the superconductor, irregularities of which interfere with the flow
of the ether. In practice, in order to further improve the superconduc-
tivity, the conductor is covered with a film, which leads to additional
isolation of the ether flow, including from the environment. Strength-
ening of the ether flow in TB and the domain can be attempted by
using elements with widely differing electronegativity, sec. 21.15.
Increasing of the conductor temperature disrupts the ether flow
in the domains and translates the conductor into the normal phase of
the conduction.
The equations of the ether motion (4)–(6) or (22), (23) give an
effective mathematical tool for the detailed quantitative analysis of
the superconductivity effects and the development of new materials
with a higher transition temperature to the superconducting state and
an increased service life.
In conclusion, we note that superfluidity is closely related to su-
perconductivity, which is manifested in the absence of helium viscos-
ity at a certain temperature (see. [27, p. 469]).

172
 13. Force effect of the ether on an object, caused by the
presence of a pressure gradient

Consider the general case of an arbitrary object motion in the

ether. The object can be solid, liquid, gaseous or plasma. It is im-
portant that it is distinguished somehow in the ether surrounding it.
A moment of forces acts on the asymmetric object placed in the
stationary flow, which rotates the object until the moment of forces
turns to zero and the flow becomes stationary again (see, for example:
[26, p. 522]). We will study the behavior of an object in the steady
state in the stationary flow, when the partial derivatives over time are
equal to zero.
Choose the coordinate system in which the object is stationary,
and the ether moves with the velocity 𝐮𝐮. The internal tension of the
ether will be described by the pressure 𝑝𝑝 (see p. 26).
In the ether at least two types of forces can affect an object:
caused by the preservation of the vortex impulse and the presence of
the pressure gradient. The forces associated with the vortex impulse
(for example, acting from the magnetic field on the conductor with
current) are studied in sec. 11, 12.1. These forces can also occur when
𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = 0 (see. p. 163). Here we consider the forces caused by the pres-
sure gradient. In general, such forces can occur both in the absence
and in the presence of vortices. In the presence of vortices, according
to the formula (20), a magnetic field can be observed.
The main vector of the pressure force 𝐑𝐑 of the medium on the
object in the two-dimensional case is studied in detail analytically, for
example, in [9, p. 81, 177]. Three-dimensional problems usually re-
quire a numerical solution due to the complex motion of the medium
around the object.
Consider the force 𝐑𝐑 in the three-dimensional case for an object
of arbitrary shape. Let 𝑉𝑉 be some volume envelops the object. Denote
the surface of this volume by the letter 𝑆𝑆. The force 𝐑𝐑 is determined
by the surface integral of the second kind from pressure 𝑝𝑝

173
 𝐑𝐑 = − � 𝑝𝑝𝐧𝐧𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, (151)
𝑆𝑆

where 𝑝𝑝 is the pressure of the ether, 𝐧𝐧 is the unit normal vector to the
surface 𝑆𝑆, directed outside the volume 𝑉𝑉.
Using the gradient theorem [51, sec. 5.6.1; 55, formula (27)] the
force 𝐑𝐑 can be written through the volume integral

𝐑𝐑 = − � 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (152)

𝑉𝑉

For steady state motion of the ether (partial derivatives over time
turn to zero), the equation of motion (23) with the accounting of the
formula (21) has the form

1 1
� 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)2 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�� = 𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 2

or

|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|) − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� = 𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝. (153)

Inserting (153) to (152), we find

𝐑𝐑 = � �|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|) − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� − 𝐅𝐅�𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (154)

𝑉𝑉

The pressure force of the ether 𝐑𝐑 differs in principle from the

generalized Zhukovsky force (120) in that one and the same velocity
𝐮𝐮 appears in (154), whereas (120) contains in addition the instantane-
ously created velocity 𝐕𝐕.

174
 Note that if 𝐅𝐅 depends on |𝐮𝐮|: 𝐅𝐅 = 𝐅𝐅(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫, |𝐮𝐮|), then the formula
(154) does not change when 𝐮𝐮 is replaced by – 𝐮𝐮. That is, the magni-
tude and direction of the force 𝐑𝐑 do not change.
In sec. 2 from the equation of motion, the following general ether
representation (25) for the electric and magnetic fields was obtained
𝐮𝐮
𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁 = |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|), (155)
𝑐𝑐
which is also true for non-stationary processes, and in the presence of
external forces in the equation of motion. Representation (155) also
follows from the definitions of 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁. Here 𝜌𝜌 is the ether density in
the electromagnetic units (see sec. 1.1 and 20.1). The left hand side of
(155) is the Lorentz force field (25).
Considering the relation (155), we arrive at another representa-
tion of the formula (153)

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄 = 𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 (156)

and the force (154)

𝐑𝐑 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � (𝐄𝐄 − 𝐅𝐅)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, (157)

𝑉𝑉

where 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 is the conversion coefficient of the electromagnetic units of

the ether density measurement into mechanical (see. sec. 1.1 and 20.1).
The expression (156) can also be obtained from the formula (24).
This shows that with 𝐅𝐅 = 0 the force 𝐑𝐑, caused by the pressure
gradient of the ether, is only due to the presence of the electric field.

14. The ether analogue of the Bernoulli theorem

The difference between the ether mechanics and the mechanics of

liquid and gas is that the density 𝜌𝜌 enters the equation of the ether (5)
under the sign of the full derivative over time, and not in front of it.

175
 We will act by analogy with [9, p. 91]. Consider the steady state
motion of the ether (partial derivatives over time are zero) in the field
of the potential forces 𝐅𝐅 = −𝛁𝛁Π, where Π is the potential of the
force 𝐅𝐅 volume density. The equation of motion (23) in this case takes
the form

1 1
� 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)2 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�� = −𝛁𝛁Π − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝. (158)
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 2

Multiply (158) scalarly by 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮. We get

(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)2
𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁 = −𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁(Π + 𝑝𝑝),
2

(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)2
𝐮𝐮 ∙ �𝛁𝛁 + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝛁𝛁(𝑝𝑝 + Π)� = 0.
2

Let the motion be barotropic, that is, a function of potentials exists

𝑝𝑝+Π
� 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑝𝑝 + Π)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑝𝑝0 +Π0

In this case
𝑝𝑝+Π
𝛁𝛁 � 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑝𝑝 + Π)𝑑𝑑(𝑝𝑝 + Π) = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝛁𝛁(𝑝𝑝 + Π)
𝑝𝑝0 +Π0

and

(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)2 𝑝𝑝+Π

𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁 � +� 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑝𝑝 + Π)𝑑𝑑(𝑝𝑝 + Π)� = 0.
2 𝑝𝑝0 +Π0

176
 This expression is derivative along the curve 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡): 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝐮𝐮, which is the current line. Thus, the ether analogue of the Bernoulli
theorem is fulfilled on the current line

(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)2 𝑝𝑝+Π

+� 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑝𝑝 + Π)𝑑𝑑(𝑝𝑝 + Π) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ≡ 𝐶𝐶�𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�. (159)
2 𝑝𝑝0 +Π0

Multiplying the equation (158) scalarly by 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮), we simi-

larly obtain the constancy of the expression (159) along any vortex
line, since in this case a derivative occurs along the vortex line.
The equation (159) is a consequence of the ether motion equation
of (5). Therefore, consideration of (159) instead of the equation of
state (15) is inexpedient because it does not add new information to
the problem. Besides, the equation of state (15) is fulfilled at any point
of the medium, whereas the Bernoulli integral (159) in the general
case is preserved only along the trajectory.
At 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, the Bernoulli ether integral (159) takes a simpler
form

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 /2 + 𝑝𝑝 + Π = 𝐶𝐶1 (𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)).

Subtracting from this expression the equation of the ether state (15),
we obtain at the steady motion the conservation on the trajectory of
the ether kinetic energy

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 = 2𝐶𝐶2 �𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�.

The value of 𝐶𝐶2 may be different for different trajectories.

15. Classification of ether steady flows

We will classify the flows of ether based on the ether representa-

tions for the electric, magnetic fields and the Lorentz force field. The

177
formula for the Lorentz force field (25) makes it possible to divide the
flows of the ether (not necessarily steady state) into three types: elec-
tric 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 = 0, gravitational 𝐄𝐄 + 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 = 0 and magnetic 𝐄𝐄 =
0. Further, based on the classification of flows, we consider the steady
state motion of an object in a given flow of the ether and study the
interaction of objects.
In this section we assume absence of sources and external forces:
𝑞𝑞 = 0 and 𝐅𝐅 = 0. Internal tension of the ether is characterized by
pressure 𝑝𝑝 (see p. 26).
Note that nonzero 𝑞𝑞 and 𝐅𝐅 can fundamentally change the proper-
ties of the ether flow.

15.1. Electric flow of the ether

Consider the case when the magnetic component of the Lorentz

force field is small 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 ≈ 0. Such a flow of the ether will be
called electric. At steady flow in the absence of external sources and
forces, the density and velocity of this flow must satisfy the continuity
equation (22), the equation of motion (23) and the absence of the mag-
netic component of the Lorentz force field

⎧ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = 0
⎪|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|) − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
⎨ 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁 = 1 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌 𝐮𝐮)� = 0
⎪ 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑚𝑚
⎩
or
𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = 0
� |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|) = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 . (160)
𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� = 0

We study the electrical flow of the ether, which has a geometry

close to spherical.

178
 One of the simplest solutions of the first and third equations in
the spherical coordinate system (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜑𝜑) with unit basis vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 , 𝐢𝐢𝜃𝜃 ,
𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 is the vector 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃) 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃)𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , such that

𝐶𝐶1
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃)𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃) = ,
𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃

where 𝐶𝐶1 is an arbitrary constant, that is, the flow of the ether, moving
only in the azimuthal direction.
This electrical flow of the ether is studied here only as an illus-
tration. The first and third equations have other solutions, for exam-
ple, with a nonzero radial component of the vector 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮.
It is also important to keep in mind that the electrical flow of the
ether from the macroscopic object can be defined by the aggregate of
the flows from the set of its smaller components. We also note that with
the continuous flow of the weakly compressible medium around the
object, there is no noticeable dragging of the object in the direction of
the flow due to the d’Alembert paradox [26, sec. 100; 15, p. 172, 303].
With this solution we have for the pressure gradient

𝐶𝐶12 𝐶𝐶12 cos 𝜃𝜃

−𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = − 𝐢𝐢 − 𝐢𝐢 .
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 3 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝑟𝑟 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 3 sin3 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃

To determine 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 and 𝐮𝐮 separately, we involve the equation of

state (15) at 𝛱𝛱 = 0

−𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 ) = |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|) + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁|𝐮𝐮|,

which, taking into account the second equation of the system (160),
gives

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁|𝐮𝐮| = 0.

179
This equation means the absence of the velocity gradient in the elec-
tric ether flow of the form 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃)𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃)𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 .
In this way,

|𝐮𝐮| = |𝐶𝐶2 |, 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 = 𝐶𝐶2 ,

where 𝐶𝐶2 is an arbitrary constant.

Then

1 |𝐶𝐶1 |
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = .
𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 |𝐶𝐶2 |

The value of �𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 � in the absence of external forces and discontinuities

is limited by the condition �𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 � ≤ 𝑐𝑐, where 𝑐𝑐 is the speed of light (the
speed of free propagation of disturbances in the ether).
From the second equation in (160) accounting (156), we obtain
for the electrostatic field

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|) =

|𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 | |𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 | cos 𝜃𝜃 (161)
=− 2 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 − 2 2 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃

Consider the electrical ether flow, having the geometry close to

cylindrical. One of the simplest solutions of equations (160), (15) in
the cylindrical coordinate system (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑, 𝑧𝑧) with unit basis vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 ,
𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 is

|𝐶𝐶1 | 1
𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 = 𝐶𝐶2 , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = .
|𝐶𝐶2 | 𝑟𝑟

At that

180
 |𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 |
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄 = − 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑟𝑟 2 𝑟𝑟

In the Cartesian coordinate system (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧), the constant electric
field 𝐄𝐄 = 𝐸𝐸0 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 with the source 𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = 𝐶𝐶2 in the first equation of
the system (160), (15) corresponds to the ether flow 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮:

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 𝐶𝐶22 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶1

𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 , 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 = , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = .
𝐶𝐶2 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0

According to the formula (74), the ether pressure of the electro-

static field differs from the electric potential only by the constant fac-
tor. Therefore, finding of the ether pressure in this case is reduced to
solving the electrostatic problem. Methods for solution of such prob-
lems are well developed [62, ch. IV; 115, ch. IV; 34, sec. 24, 26; 28,
sec. 19; 36, p. 353–356].

15.2. Gravitational flow of the ether

In this section, we discuss the phenomena associated with gravity

in the ether.
Let the Lorentz force field (25) be small

𝐄𝐄 + 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 = |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|) ≈ 0. (162)

Such a flow of the ether we call gravitational, and the phenomena

occurring in it – the ether gravity or briefly – gravity.
In favor of the adequacy of the assumption (162) about the equal-
ity to zero of the Lorentz force field in the gravitational ether flow is
the absence of the extremely quick loss of the Earth’s charge [28, p.
83], as well as a comparison of theory and experience at the end of
sec. 22.2.

181
 From (162) it can be seen that the gravitational ether flow corre-
sponds to the flow with a small gradient of the flow density: 𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮| ≈
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
Consider the motion with steady density and velocity, that is,
when their partial time derivatives vanish, including

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮
= 0. (163)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

In the absence of external sources and forces, the density and ve-
locity must satisfy the continuity equation, the equation of motion and
the condition of the absence of the Lorentz force field:

⎧ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = 0
⎪|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|) − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
. (164)
⎨ 𝐄𝐄 + 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁 = 1 |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌 |𝐮𝐮|) = 0
⎪ 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑚𝑚
⎩

As above, we first study the behavior of density and velocity in

the case when the geometry of the ether flow is close to spherical. To
do this, it is convenient to transfer to the spherical coordinate system
(𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜑𝜑) with the center at some point 𝐵𝐵 and unit basis vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 , 𝐢𝐢𝜃𝜃 ,
𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 .
One of the solutions of the first and third equations is the vector
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃)𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃)𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , such that

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃)𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃) = 𝐶𝐶1 , (165)

where 𝐶𝐶1 is an arbitrary constant. This ether flow moves only in the
azimuthal direction.

182
 Note that in this case, the Lorentz force field (162) vanishes due
to the sum of its electric and magnetic components, since on the solu-
tion considered, according to (156),

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = −𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� =

𝐶𝐶12 𝐶𝐶12 cos 𝜃𝜃
− 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 − 𝐢𝐢 ;
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃
cos 𝜃𝜃 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶1
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐁𝐁 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = 𝑐𝑐 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 − 𝑐𝑐 𝐢𝐢 ,
sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 𝜃𝜃
𝐮𝐮 𝐶𝐶12 𝐶𝐶12 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 × 𝐁𝐁 = 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 + 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑐𝑐 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃

For the pressure gradient we have

𝐶𝐶12 𝐶𝐶12 cos 𝜃𝜃

−𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = − 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 − 𝐢𝐢 . (166)
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃

Equations (164) do not allow to find 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 separately, since they

include the product 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃)𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃)𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 . Strong arbitrariness
in the choice of 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 is eliminated using the equation of state (15),
which with accounting of (165) gives

1 𝐶𝐶12
−𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 2)
= 𝐶𝐶12 𝛁𝛁 = − 2 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 .
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚

From this equation and equation (166) we get

1 1 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 1 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐢𝐢𝜃𝜃 = 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 + 𝐢𝐢 ,
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜃𝜃
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = |𝐶𝐶2 |𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃. (167)

183
 Then

𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶1 1
𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 = = .
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐶𝐶2 | 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃

So,

𝐶𝐶12 1 𝐶𝐶12 cos 𝜃𝜃

−𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = − 𝐢𝐢 − 𝐢𝐢 .
|𝐶𝐶2 | 𝑟𝑟 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑟𝑟 |𝐶𝐶2 | 𝑟𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃

Behavior of 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 as 1/𝑟𝑟 2 leads to the law of the world gravitation

(see. sec. 17.2). We emphasize that the dependence of the form 1/𝑟𝑟 2
was obtained as the result of applying the equation of state (15). Using
in (15) the factor 1/2 in front of 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 (as in the formula for the kinetic
energy of the material point) would give a radial dependence of the
form 1/𝑟𝑟 3/2.
Also note that the equality

−𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 ) = 𝐶𝐶1 𝛁𝛁�𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 �

allows to link the occurrence of the spherical gravitational flow of the

ether with the presence of the azimuthal velocity gradient.
When adding the condition 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = 0 to the system (164),
we couldn’t find non-trivial solutions for 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 and 𝐮𝐮 in the spherical
coordinate system. Therefore, one can assume that the ether spherical
gravitational flow should be closely related to the presence of the vor-
ticity 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) ≠ 0, that is, the presence of the small but non-zero
magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮).
One of the simplest solutions of equations (164), (15) in the cy-
lindrical coordinate system is

184
 𝐶𝐶1 1
𝐮𝐮 = 𝐢𝐢 , 𝜌𝜌 = |𝐶𝐶2 |𝑟𝑟.
|𝐶𝐶2 | 𝑟𝑟 𝜑𝜑 𝑚𝑚

At that

𝐶𝐶12 1
−𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = − 𝐢𝐢 .
|𝐶𝐶2 | 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑟𝑟

It is interesting to note that the ether gravitational flow occurs

at 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 ≈ 0 in the superconducting 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 → ∞ medium with a steady
state that is non-isotropic in one direction 𝑙𝑙, since, according to (145),
in this case

1 1
|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|) = 𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|) = 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|)2 =
𝜌𝜌 2𝜌𝜌
1 1
�𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|2 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 + 𝜌𝜌𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|2 )� ≈ 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|2 ) =
2𝜌𝜌 2
1 2 𝑑𝑑�𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|
𝛁𝛁��𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|� = �𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁��𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|� ≈ �𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮| =
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮| 𝑑𝑑�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮| �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮| 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 |𝐮𝐮|𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
= = → 0.
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 2𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 2𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

15.3. Magnetic flow of the ether

Consider the case when the electric field is small, 𝐄𝐄 ≈ 0, but the
magnetic component 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 = 𝐮𝐮 × 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) of the Lorentz force
field is not small. Such a flow of the ether will be called magnetic.
The difference from the gravitational flow is that here the Lorentz
force field (155) is not zero. At steady state flow in the absence of
external sources and forces, the density and velocity of the magnetic
flux must satisfy the continuity equation, the equation of motion in
the form of (156) and the absence of the electric field

185
 𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = 0
� 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = 0
|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|) − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� = 0

or taking into account the equation of state (15)

𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = 0
� 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 ) = 0 . (168)
|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|) − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� = 0

The second equation gives

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 = |𝐶𝐶1 |.

Substituting this expression into the third equation of the system

(168), we find

1 𝐮𝐮
|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁 � � − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × � 2 �� = 0.
|𝐮𝐮| 𝐮𝐮

One of the simplest solutions of this equation in the spherical co-

ordinate system is the vector

𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 (𝜃𝜃)𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 ,

where 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 (𝜃𝜃) is an arbitrary function. In this case

|𝐶𝐶1 |
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = ,
𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟2 (𝜃𝜃)

186
and the first equation from the system (168) is fulfilled approximately
for big radii

2|𝐶𝐶1 |
𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) = .
𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 (𝜃𝜃)

This ether flow corresponds to the magnetic field having only the
azimuthal component

𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 (𝜃𝜃)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐁𝐁 = |𝐶𝐶1 | 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟2 (𝜃𝜃) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜑𝜑

One of the simplest solutions of the system (168) in the cylindri-

cal coordinate system is

|𝐶𝐶1 |
𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = .
𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑)
2

At that

𝑐𝑐|𝐶𝐶1 | 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝒛𝒛 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑) 𝑐𝑐|𝐶𝐶1 | 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝒛𝒛 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑)

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐁𝐁 = 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 + 2 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 .
𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑)
2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

In the Cartesian coordinate system (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧), the constant mag-
netic field 𝐁𝐁 = 𝐵𝐵0 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 , according to the system (168), corresponds, for
example, to the ether flow 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮:

𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 ,

2
𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐵𝐵0 /𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶2 𝑧𝑧 2 �𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐵𝐵0 /𝑐𝑐� + 𝐶𝐶22
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 = , 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 = , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = ,
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐶𝐶1 |

where 𝐶𝐶2 is an arbitrary constant.

187
 16. The force impact of the ether flow on the object

In this section, we will consider the application of the etheric con-

cept of force effects to explain the motion of differently charged ob-
jects in opposite directions in the electric field, to explain their rota-
tion in different directions in the magnetic field, and also to clarify the
causes of gravitation. The methodology of continuous media mechan-
ics allows us to give a natural and visual interpretation of these phe-
nomena.
In the continuous medium mechanics, the following effects are
known that can lead to the motion of objects or particles in different
directions in one and the same flow:

1. The generalized Zhukovsky force is the effect of the medium on

a discontinuous or vortical flow with the forces considered in
sec. 11 and 13. We emphasize that the generalized Zhukovsky
force can occur without the pressure gradient (p. 163). Zhu-
kovsky's classical lift force, including leading to the Magnus ef-
fect, is a particular case of the generalized Zhukovsky force.
2. Motion of tacks (tacking) (see, for example: [65]).
3. Oscillations of objects in the certain phase [11, 12].
4. Behavior of sources and/or sinks.
5. Reactive motion (jet propulsion).

The generalized Zhukovsky force seems to be a widespread nat-

ural effect in nature, and having a place in the incompressible me-
dium. Therefore, the construction of a theory of the ether impact on
objects here and in sec. 17 will be based on considering the general-
ized Zhukovsky force as the main one. It should be remembered that,
in general, the motion of an object can be determined by the entire set
of effects 1–5. Besides, the situation may be complicated by the par-
tial permeability of the object for the ether flow, as well as by the
presence of sources, sinks and external forces.

188
 It is known that the flow around asymmetric or rotating objects
can be accompanied by the formation of discontinuities, vortices and
boundary layer (see, for example: [8, sec. 107 and 93; 26, sec. 104–
105]). In the presence of such phenomena, the Zhukovsky force (lift
force) can begin to act on an object from the flow (see, for example:
[26, sec. 103–104; 14, sec. 8, 28; 9, sec. 50; ru.wikipedia.org; en.wik-
ipedia.org]). For a rotating object, the Zhukovsky force gives rise to
the so-called Magnus effect [26, sec. 105; 9, p. 177], in which this
object in the oncoming flow deviates in one or another direction.
We emphasize that the Zhukovsky force also acts in the incom-
pressible medium. And this does not contradict the d’Alembert para-
dox, according to which only at steady unseparated flow [15, p. 172]
around an object, the force acting on it from the incompressible fluid
is zero [15, p. 303].
Suppose that a steady state with a boundary layer containing dis-
continuities or vortices has been formed near or inside the object. The
shape of this layer is determined by the geometry, internal structure
and other properties of the object.
Let us study the case when the ether force 𝐅𝐅obj effect on an object
can be represented as the sum of the force 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 , resulting from the
preservation of the vortex impulse (see. sec. 11) and the force 𝐑𝐑,
caused by the presence of the pressure gradient (see. sec. 13),

𝐅𝐅obj = 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 + 𝐑𝐑. (169)

The force 𝐅𝐅obj is caused by a discontinuous and/or vortex flow of

the ether. Therefore, we will call it, like 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 , the generalized Zhu-
kovsky force or, briefly, the Zhukovsky force.
The forces 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 and 𝐑𝐑 are calculated using the volume integrals
(120) and (152). By analogy with [8, sec. 107 and 93; 26, sec. 104–
105] to calculate the force 𝐅𝐅obj take the region 𝑉𝑉, which covers the
object and has the boundary that coincides with the outer boundary of
the boundary layer, as the integration domain.

189
 Taking into account the equation of state (15) in the absence of
external forces, we have

𝐅𝐅obj = 𝐑𝐑 + 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 = � 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +

𝑉𝑉
(170)
1
� �𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑉𝑉 2

Next, we consider the force 𝐅𝐅obj in more detail for specific cases,
allowing to simplify the expression for 𝐅𝐅obj , to make estimates and to
make a comparison with experimentally known laws.
We note that the main effect of the appearance of the 𝐅𝐅obj is al-
ready taken into account by the assumption of the presence of a dis-
continuity or a vortex boundary layer and the general form of formula
(170). This allows us to make significant simplifications in the appro-
priate integrand expressions at obtaining approximate estimates with-
out losing the main characteristics of the effects.
In the general case, to calculate the force acting on an object, it is
necessary to construct a numerical solution of the original ether equa-
tions (4)–(6) for 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 and 𝐮𝐮, taking into account the details of the object
structure. At that, as already noted, the force effects can also occur in
the absence of the ether pressure gradient.

16.1. Impact on a charged object. The Lorentz force

Let there be a velocity 𝐮𝐮obj near the object at rest, associated, for
example, with the processes occurring inside it. Let us give the ether
near the object in the region 𝑉𝑉, appearing in (170), the vortexless ve-
locity 𝐕𝐕: 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕 ≈ 0. At 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕 ≠ 0, the force 𝐅𝐅obj (170) contains ad-
ditional term. This case is considered at the end of this section.
In other words, let the points of the region 𝑉𝑉, containing the ob-
ject, begin to move instantaneously with an additional velocity 𝐕𝐕. Let

190
us assume that the velocity and density of the ether inside the bound-
ary layer are equal to 𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕 and 𝜌𝜌obj .
According to formulas (20), (21), for the magnetic and electric
fields in the boundary layer, we have

𝐁𝐁obj = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × �𝜌𝜌obj �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕��,

𝐄𝐄obj = ��𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕� ∙ 𝛁𝛁� �𝜌𝜌obj �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕��.

Denote the fields corresponding to the velocity of the ether 𝐕𝐕, as

𝐁𝐁 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕), 𝐄𝐄 = (𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕), (171)

where 𝜌𝜌 is the density of the ether in the absence of the object.

The force 𝐅𝐅obj is calculated using formula (170) over the region
𝑉𝑉, containing the boundary layer, in which the ether moves with the
velocity 𝐮𝐮 = 𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕 and has the density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj ,

2
𝐅𝐅obj = 𝐑𝐑 + 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 = � �𝛁𝛁 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕� � +
𝑉𝑉

𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕���� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (172)

𝐕𝐕
� 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 �𝐄𝐄obj + × 𝐁𝐁obj � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑉𝑉 𝑐𝑐

The determination of 𝐅𝐅obj requires knowledge of the density

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj and the velocity 𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕 of the ether. In the general case, they
can be calculated only numerically. For this it is necessary to know
the structure of the object.
In order to obtain an analytical formula, we express 𝐅𝐅obj through
the fields 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄, given by formulas (171). To do this, we represent

191
in the boundary layer the density of the force, entering the integral
(172), as follows

2
𝛁𝛁 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕� � + 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕��� =
𝑓𝑓�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj , 𝐮𝐮obj , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 , 𝐕𝐕� �𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕 2 ) + 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕)��,

where 𝑓𝑓 is some function, the meaning of which will become clear

below. Such a representation does not limit the generality, since, for
known 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj, 𝐮𝐮obj , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 , 𝐕𝐕 the function 𝑓𝑓 can be calculated using this
formula.
As a result, the expression (172) takes the form

𝐅𝐅obj = � �𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕 2 ) + 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕)�� 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓.

𝑉𝑉

Using formulas (171), we obtain

𝐕𝐕
𝐅𝐅obj = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � �𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁� 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓.
𝑉𝑉 𝑐𝑐

We assume that the force field 𝐄𝐄 + 𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 varies slightly in-

side the boundary layer so that it can be taken out from the integral
sign

𝐕𝐕
𝐅𝐅obj ≈ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 �𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁� � 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓.
𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉

For comparison with experimental data on the Lorentz force, we

introduce the coefficient

192
 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 ≡ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � 𝑓𝑓�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj , 𝐮𝐮obj , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 , 𝐕𝐕�𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (173)
𝑉𝑉

This coefficient can be positive or negative, depending on the be-

havior of the function 𝑓𝑓.
We come to the expression
𝐕𝐕
𝐅𝐅obj = 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 �𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁�. (174)
𝑐𝑐
Formula (174) coincides with the experimentally known formula for
the Lorentz force, which acts on an object with a charge 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 , moving
with velocity 𝐕𝐕 in an electric and magnetic fields.
Thus, the introduced coefficient 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 has the meaning of the charge
considered in physics. Comparing the etheric representations of
charge (66) and (173), we conclude that the value of 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑓𝑓 should be
approximately equal to the volume charge density 𝜎𝜎.
The etheric interpretation of the magnitude of the charge 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 of an
object arose in the process of deriving the force 𝐅𝐅obj as some feature
of the object leading to the formation of a discontinuous or vortex
boundary layer characterized by the presence of the Lorentz force.
Such objects can be divided into two types according to the direction
of the Lorentz force (by the sign of 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 ). Approximate estimates of the
outer boundary of the boundary layer are given in sec. 22.1.
The etheric interpretation of the Lorentz force shows that the
charge moves with the velocity 𝐕𝐕 not in the vacuum, but in the electric
and magnetic fields, also associated with 𝐕𝐕 by formulas (171).
At a negative 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 , the velocity emitted by the object 𝐮𝐮obj leads to
the change of the direction of the force, caused by the ether flow with
the velocity 𝐕𝐕, to the opposite.
The electrical part of the ether flow 𝐄𝐄 = (𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕) (see (171))
affects the object, possessing the charge, in the direction of 𝐄𝐄, and the

193
magnetic one 𝐁𝐁 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕) – in the direction transverse to the mo-
tion of the object. Expression (156) allows us to conclude that at Π =
0, the effect of 𝐄𝐄 on the charged object occurs in the direction parallel
to the ether pressure gradient.
The absence of head drag to the ether flow under electromagnetic
action can be explained by the weak compressibility of the ether, lead-
ing to the so-called d’Alembert paradox (see, for example: [26, sec.
100; 15, p. 172, 303; 9]).
The obtained etheric interpretation of the Lorentz force has a
clear mechanical meaning of the generalized Zhukovsky force (170),
in contrast to the commonly used interpretation of the Lorentz force
as a relativistic effect [32, v. 3, p. 72; 28, p. 16]. The main difference
between the Lorentz force (174) and the Zhukovsky force (170) is that
the Lorentz force takes into account the ether flow of a charged object
and acts on the object, and the Zhukovsky force acts on the volume
element of the ether.
The negligibly small effect of 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 on an uncharged object
can be explained by the specifics of its structure and action, in which
the giving to the region around the object of the velocity 𝐕𝐕 does not
lead to rising of the force (174).
Consider the case 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕 ≠ 0. According to (170), an additional
term appears in the integral (172)

2
𝐅𝐅obj = 𝐑𝐑 + 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 = � �𝛁𝛁 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕� � +
𝑉𝑉

𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕���

1
+ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕� × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2

Let us represent in the boundary layer the density of the force

entering the integral as follows

194
 2
𝛁𝛁 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕� � + 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj �𝐮𝐮obj + 𝐕𝐕��� +
1
𝜌𝜌 �𝐮𝐮 + 𝐕𝐕� × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕) =
2 𝑚𝑚 obj
𝑓𝑓�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj , 𝐮𝐮obj , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 , 𝐕𝐕� �𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕 2 ) + 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕)�
1
+ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕)�.
2

Acting as above, we come to the generalized Lorentz force

𝐕𝐕 1
𝐅𝐅obj = 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 �𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁 + 𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕)�.
𝑐𝑐 2

The presence of the additional term in the Lorentz force can be

tested experimentally, for example, if the charged particle is given a
velocity 𝐕𝐕, with large rotor 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕 value.

16.2. The force of etheric gravitational attraction

From the experiment it is known that gravity acts on both un-

charged and charged objects. In the etheric interpretation, gravity is
due to the formation of the discontinuous or the vortex boundary
layer. For objects of the ether, in which such a layer is not formed, the
gravity may be absent.
The study of the details of the ether motion in the boundary layer
requires in the general case a numerical solution of the original ether
equations (4)–(6). Here we will focus on a simplified analytical esti-
mate of the gravitational force and its interpretation from the point of
view of the continuous media mechanics.

195
 Consider a still object 𝑏𝑏 with the characteristic size 𝑟𝑟𝑏𝑏 , located in
the gravitational ether flow 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮: 𝐄𝐄 + 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 = |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|) ≈ 0
(see. sec. 15.2).
Suppose that near the object in the volume 𝑉𝑉 the boundary vortex
layer is formed and the force 𝐅𝐅obj (169), caused only by the pressure
gradient 𝐅𝐅obj = 𝐑𝐑, acts on the object.
The formula (154) for 𝐑𝐑 at 𝐅𝐅 = 0 and |𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮|) ≈ 0 takes the
form

𝐑𝐑 = − � �𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)�� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (175)

𝑉𝑉

Consider the spherical gravitational ether flow, found in sec.

15.2. The constant 𝐶𝐶2 in the formula (167) is chosen so that the ether
density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 equates the unperturbed ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 at some char-
acteristic distance 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 at 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋/2
𝑟𝑟 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 sin 𝜃𝜃 , 𝐶𝐶2 = .
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵

We emphasize once again that the established process is consid-

ered here. The study of the given density distribution formation dy-
namics and its stability is a separate task, the solution of which re-
quires, in the general case, numerical studies.
From (165) we find

𝐶𝐶1 1
𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 = .
𝐶𝐶2 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃

The constant 𝐶𝐶1 is determined from the condition of the 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 equality
to some characteristic velocity 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 at the distance 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 at 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋/2:

196
 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵
𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 = 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 , 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 .
𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃

The value of �𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 � in the absence of external forces and discontinuities,

is limited by the condition �𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 /(𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃)� ≤ 𝑐𝑐, where 𝑐𝑐 is the
speed of light (the speed of free propagation of disturbances in the
ether). The direction of rotation of the ether flow is defined by the
sign of the velocity 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 . At 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 > 0, the rotation occurs in the direc-
tion of the vector 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 . The magnitude of the velocity decreases with
distance from the center 𝐵𝐵.
Substituting 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (or 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 ) into (166), we find

2
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 2
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 cos 𝜃𝜃
−𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = −𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝐢𝐢 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑟𝑟
2 𝑟𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃

The singularity of 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 at 𝜃𝜃 = 0 and 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋 is associated with the

spherical representation of the ether flow, which is used only to obtain
an approximate estimate in the form of the analytical formula. For
example, in the ether gravitational flow, close to the cylindrical, sin-
gularities are absent (see. sec. 15.2). Therefore, we consider 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 far
from singularities, namely, near the equatorial plane 𝜃𝜃 ≈ 𝜋𝜋/2:

2
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵
−𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = −𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝐢𝐢 . (176)
𝑟𝑟 2 𝑟𝑟

At calculating the integral (175) in the form (152), it is necessary

to take into account the specificity of the behavior of the ether gravi-
tational flow the near the object 𝑏𝑏 (in the volume of the boundary
layer 𝑉𝑉), which leads to the appearance of the force. In the general
case, a numerical solution of the ether equations with some conditions
of the ether behavior on the boundary and inside the object is required.

197
In a simplified analysis of the formula (175) , we assume that the char-
acteristic speed of the ether in the boundary layer 𝑢𝑢�0,𝜑𝜑 differs from
the characteristic speed 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 of the ether flow:

2
𝜆𝜆𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵
2
𝑢𝑢�0,𝜑𝜑 ≈ , (177)
𝑎𝑎∗

where λ is some factor that describes this difference, and 𝑎𝑎∗ is the
outer boundary of the boundary layer.
Experimental information, the extremely small size of the new-
tonians (234) and the insignificant viscosity of the ether (sec. 21.7)
indicate the high penetrating ability of the ether gravitational flow,
which in classical physics is called the principle of superposition of
gravitational fields (see, for example, [26, p. 323]). For example, in
many gravitational phenomena, not the size of the object is important,
but its mass. Besides, the gravity of the Earth is determined by its
entire mass, and not the mass of a separate part of the Earth nearest to
the object. Apparently, it is the high penetrating ability of the ether
gravitational flow that namely explains the complexity of the experi-
mental study of the gravitational phenomena mechanism.
In the estimate of 𝐑𝐑, we take into account that the ether gravita-
tional flow penetrates into the object, that is, we will integrate around
the whole ball

2
𝑢𝑢�0,𝜑𝜑 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵2
𝐑𝐑 = − � 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≈ − � 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 =
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑟𝑟 2
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
2 (178)
4𝜋𝜋 3 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵2
− � 𝑎𝑎∗ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 � � � 𝐢𝐢 .
3 𝑎𝑎∗ 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 /𝜆𝜆 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑟𝑟

The brackets identify terms that have the dimensions of mass and ac-
celeration.

198
 The formula (178) shows that the gravitational force 𝐑𝐑 of the ob-
ject in the considered ether flow does not depend on the direction of the
flow rotation, determined by the sign of 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 , and is always directed to
the center 𝐵𝐵. The force 𝐑𝐑 is perpendicular to the velocity of the ether,
as one would expect for the vortex conditioned the Zhukovsky force.
We introduce the notations
2
4𝜋𝜋 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵2
𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏 ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑎𝑎∗2 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 , 𝑔𝑔 ≡ . (179)
3 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 /𝜆𝜆 𝑟𝑟 2

Then from (153) we have

𝐑𝐑 ≈ −𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏 𝑔𝑔𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 , (180)

which coincides with the formula for the force of the material point
of the gravitational mass 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏 , located at the distance 𝑟𝑟 from the center
of the gravitational field 𝐵𝐵.
The value of 𝑔𝑔 has the dimension of acceleration or the force per
unit mass. Therefore, it can be interpreted as a force acting on a unit
mass. This interpretation is similar to the interpretation of the Lorentz
force field 𝐄𝐄 + 𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 in the formula (174) as the force acting on
the unit charge.
The gravitational mass 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏 is introduced here using the mathe-
matical formula. Physically, this formula can be considered as the
etheric interpretation of the gravitational mass of the object. The value
of 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏 in the ether representation is determined by the density of the
unperturbed ether 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0, the characteristic dimensions of the boundary
layer 𝑎𝑎∗ and the ether flow 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 .
For the given gravitational mass of the object we have for 𝑎𝑎∗ :

1 3 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏
𝑎𝑎∗ = � .
2 𝜋𝜋 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵

199
 Due to the high penetrating capability of the ether gravitational
flow, the boundary layer can be located both outside and inside the
object. Approximate quantitative estimates for the outer boundary of
the gravitational boundary layer 𝑎𝑎∗ are given in sec. 22.2.
The vortex motion of the ether in the object and its surroundings
can arise both as the result of the ether external flow passage through
the structural elements of the object, and as the result of the ether flow
caused by the motion of the structural elements themselves.
Objects of similar shape can have significantly different gravita-
tional mass. Therefore, the vorticities that define the presence of the
boundary layer, apparently, originate, mainly, inside the objects.
The property of the ether to prevent the acceleration of objects is
laid down in the original equation of the ether motion (5), which cor-
responds to the second Newton's law (the law of the motion amount
conservation). From the etheric point of view, the inertial mass of the
object, which manifests itself when trying to change its velocity in the
absence of the external ether flow, can be interpreted as the appear-
ance of a vortex ether stream inside the object, resulting in the appear-
ance of Zhukovsky force. At that, the vortices, as in the presence of
the ether external gravitational flow, are defined mainly by the inter-
nal structure of the object. These considerations can be viewed as an
etheric interpretation of the gravitational and inertial masses equiva-
lence principle and the principle of gravitational forces and inertial
forces equivalence, described, for example, in [26, p. 392, 399].
At high speed of the ether motion �𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 � the gravitational force
acting the object, which moves at a much lower speed, is defined by
the ether speed �𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 �, and not by the speed of the object. That is, in
this case, the velocity of the object in formulas (154), (175) can be
neglected.
In the formula (175) the ether velocity 𝐮𝐮 relative to the object
figures. When the object reaches the ether flow velocity 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , the

200
relative velocity of the object becomes equal to zero and the Zhu-
kovsky force ceases to act 𝐑𝐑 = 0. Further, the object, according to the
first Newton's law, begins to move over a straight line. At this, its
velocity relative to the flow of the ether again becomes non-zero, and
the Zhukovsky force reappears, turning the trajectory. A regular pro-
cess arises, similar to the process of vortex separation from the trailing
edge of the wing (see, for example: [26, p. 539]).
The absence of the head drag to the ether flow under gravitational
effects can be explained by weak compressibility of the ether, leading
to the so-called d’Alembert paradox (see, for example: [26, sec. 100;
15, p. 172, 303; 9]).
The exact calculation of the gravity force requires the calculation
of the integral (152) based on the solution of the ether original equa-
tions of motion (4)–(6) for the studied system of objects with accurate
setting of the boundary and initial conditions, taking into account the
details of the internal structure of the objects. However, the estimate
(178) already allows one to draw fundamental conclusions.
From the formula (178) it follows that if a rotating flow with a
density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑟𝑟/𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 and velocity 𝐮𝐮 ≈ 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 /𝑟𝑟 arose in the
ether, then all objects capable of gravitating, that is, for which the ap-
propriate vortex boundary layer is formed (leading to the appearance
of the force (178)), begin, depending on their speed, to rotate in this
flow or move towards its center. This picture corresponds to many
astronomical observations. For example, the growth of the Earth mass
[71]. This phenomenon is discussed in more detail in sec. 25.
The estimate (178) leads to another important conclusion: the
gravitational interaction of objects is takes place at distances of the
order of the sizes of their boundary layers, which can significantly
differ from the sizes of the objects themselves in both the smaller and
larger way. This may explain some seemingly paradoxical, at first
glance, astronomical phenomena [80].
It is interesting to consider the stability of the planetary and stellar
systems motion, taking into account the ether mechanisms, including

201
an explanation of the concentration of planets and stars near a certain
plane, as well as the laws of the distribution of planets along the radius.
The formula (169) shows the unity of the origin of the electro-
magnetic and gravitational forces as the result of the ether motion.
Based on this, and also taking into account the significant speed of the
ether around the Earth (sec. 22.2), it is natural to set the problem of
studying the possibility of creating technical devices that convert the
gravitational motion of the ether near the Earth into electromagnetic
for practical use.

17. Interaction of objects

In this section the etheric mechanisms of electrical and gravita-

tional interaction of macroscopic objects are studied.
The etheric nature of the charge and mass of particles occurrence
on atomic scales of distances is not considered here. The references
[48, 49] are devoted to one of such phenomena models.

17.1. Coulomb's law for two charged objects

In sec. 3, Coulomb's law in the form of the formula (68) was ob-
tained on the basis of the Gauss electrostatic theorem, which follows
from the ether definitions of the electric field 𝐄𝐄 (21) and charge den-
sity 𝜎𝜎 (28). Here we obtain the Coulomb law for two objects pos-
sessing charges 𝑞𝑞1 and 𝑞𝑞2 , and show its force nature.
Place the object with a trial charge 𝑞𝑞2 at the distance 𝑟𝑟 from the
object with the charge 𝑞𝑞1 . Substituting the expression (68) for 𝑞𝑞1 into
(174) at 𝐁𝐁 = 0, we obtain the force acting on the object with the
charge 𝑞𝑞2 from the the field 𝐄𝐄1 of the object with the charge 𝑞𝑞1
𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
𝐅𝐅12 = 𝐢𝐢 ,
𝑟𝑟 2 12
where 𝐢𝐢12 is the unit vector drawn from the 𝑞𝑞1 object to the 𝑞𝑞2 object.

202
 Having changed the charges 𝑞𝑞1 and 𝑞𝑞2 with roles, we similarly find
𝑞𝑞2 𝑞𝑞1
𝐅𝐅21 = 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑟𝑟 2 21

Formulas for 𝐅𝐅12 and 𝐅𝐅21 can be written in the conventional form
of Coulomb's law
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 𝑞𝑞𝑘𝑘
𝐅𝐅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐢𝐢 , (181)
𝑟𝑟 2 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

where 𝐅𝐅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is the force acting from the object with the charge 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 on the
object with the charge 𝑞𝑞𝑘𝑘 , 𝐢𝐢𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is the unit vector drawn from the object
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 to the object 𝑞𝑞𝑘𝑘 , 𝑟𝑟 is the distance between them.
The choice of a specific representation for the charge value may
be different, since in the experiment the force is measured relative to
the charge taken as unit (see, for example [28, p. 17]). For example,
the charge 𝑞𝑞2 can be measured in fractions of the charge 𝑞𝑞1 . The use
of etheric definitions (20), (21) for magnetic and electric fields leads
to the Coulomb law representation in the system of CGS units.
In the classical electrostatics, the Coulomb law is considered as a
generalization of experimental facts. In the etheric interpretation, the
Coulomb's law is due to the appearance of the Zhukovsky force in
some ether flow associated with the charged object (see. sec. 16.1).

17.2. The law of gravitational attraction

In sec. 16.2, the solution of the ether equations is considered, ap-
propriate to the gravitational flow of the ether, and the force of attrac-
tion is calculated (180)
2 2
𝜆𝜆𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵2 𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑
𝐑𝐑12 ≈ −𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝐢𝐢12 , 𝑔𝑔 = 2 = 2 . (182)
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑟𝑟12 𝑟𝑟12

203
Here 𝑟𝑟12 is the distance from the center of the ether gravitational flow
to the mass 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝐢𝐢12 is the unit vector directed from the center of the
gravitational flow to the center of mass 𝑚𝑚2 , the constant 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 is the
characteristic azimuthal speed of rotation of the gravitational flow,
created by object 𝑚𝑚2 near object 𝑚𝑚1 .
Let us relate the ether gravitational flow to the mass 𝑚𝑚1 , using
2
known expression 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟12 = 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚1 , which follows from the experiments
on measuring the gravity of one object in the field of another 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔 =
2
𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑟𝑟12 , where 𝐺𝐺 is the gravitational constant: 𝐺𝐺 = 6.6726 ∙
2 2 2
10 [din cm2 /g 2 ]. Substitute 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟12
−8
= 𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 (182) in 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟12 = 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚1 :

2
𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 = 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚1 . (183)

This associates the mass 𝑚𝑚1 with the constant 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 , which defines the
magnitude of the ether flow.
Using (183) in (182) we come to the universal law of gravity
2
𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2
𝐑𝐑12 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝐢𝐢12 = 𝑚𝑚2 2 𝐢𝐢12 = 𝐺𝐺 2 𝐢𝐢12 . (184)
𝑟𝑟12 𝑟𝑟12

Note that the choice of representation for the mass 𝑚𝑚1 is defined
by the system of measurement units [26, p. 392], since the experiment
measures the force of the action of one mass with respect to another.
For example, the mass 𝑚𝑚1 could be measured in fractions of the mass
𝑚𝑚2 . The use of the formula (183) for 𝑚𝑚1 leads to the generally ac-
cepted notation for the universal gravitation law (184) with the meas-
urement of the mass 𝑚𝑚1 in the system of CGS units.
The values of 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 and 𝜆𝜆 for the Earth are estimated at the end of
sec. 22.2.
The considered etheric interpretation of the gravitational law has
a clear mechanical explanation, consisting in the emergence of the

204
Zhukovsky force in the ether flow created by the mass. Note that be-
fore the results presented here, according to [26, p. 326], there were
no clear physical interpretations of the gravitational attraction, includ-
ing in the general theory of relativity.
Nevertheless, the obtained formula (184) may not be applicable
to global processes at the planetary and galactic levels, since, for ex-
ample, it cannot be claimed that conditions (162), (163) are neces-
sarily fulfilled on such scales. Therefore, it is impossible to absolutize
the universal gravitational law.
In the general case, to calculate the gravity force, it is necessary
to solve equations (4)–(6) with the appropriate boundary and initial
conditions.

18. Etheric interpretation in electrical engineering and elec-

trochemistry

In this section, an etheric interpretation of the phenomena used in

electrical engineering and electrochemistry is given. The methodol-
ogy of the ether theory application described here can be useful for
analyzing other processes.
Adequate understanding of the mechanisms of phenomena occur-
ring in electrical engineering and electrochemistry is of great im-
portance, since it allows to purposefully improve existing technical
devices and create fundamentally new ones.

18.1. The creation of electric current in the wire. Voltage

drop across the circuit

In accordance with Maxwell's equation (34), the electric current

is a vortex flow of the ether (131). The motion of the ether, according
to the equation (5), occurs in the presence of a pressure gradient or
external force. Therefore, to generate the ether flow in the wire, it is
required to create a difference of the ether pressure values 𝑝𝑝 (15) at

205
its ends or at some section by influence, for example, application of
an electric field (see formula (72)) or emf (see sec. 9, 18.11). The in-
fluence of the wire material structural elements in combination with
the external effect leads to a swirl of the ether flow. An electric current
occurs in the wire.
The flow of the electric current in the circuit is accompanied by
the voltage drop of the electric field voltage.
In [42, 43], it was shown that for steady state ether flow in the
wire, the integral of 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁(𝑈𝑈𝐅𝐅 + 𝑝𝑝)/𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 along the length of the
wire 𝑙𝑙 allows associating the voltage drop 𝑈𝑈, which is equal to the
potential difference 𝜑𝜑 of the electric field 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁𝜑𝜑 at the ends of the
wire 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 , with the difference in pressure 𝑝𝑝 of the ether flow at
these ends.
Find the relationship between the voltage drop of the electric field
𝑈𝑈 and the pressure drop of the ether in the general case.
On one hand,
𝑙𝑙2 𝑙𝑙2
𝑈𝑈 ≡ � 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = − � 𝛁𝛁𝜑𝜑 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = −(𝜑𝜑2 − 𝜑𝜑1 ).
𝑙𝑙1 𝑙𝑙1

On the other hand, from formula (24) at 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 0, 𝐅𝐅 = −𝛁𝛁𝑈𝑈𝐅𝐅,

𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 we have
𝑙𝑙2 𝑙𝑙2
1
� 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = − � 𝛁𝛁(𝑈𝑈𝐅𝐅 + 𝑝𝑝) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥
𝑙𝑙1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑙𝑙1
1
=− ((𝑈𝑈𝐅𝐅 + 𝑝𝑝)2 − (𝑈𝑈F + 𝑝𝑝)1 ).
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
Then
1
𝑈𝑈 = −(𝜑𝜑2 − 𝜑𝜑1 ) = − ((𝑈𝑈𝐅𝐅 + 𝑝𝑝)2 − (𝑈𝑈F + 𝑝𝑝)1 ).
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

206
Thus, the voltage drop, equal to the potential difference at the ends of
the wire, is defined by the difference between the pressures of the
ether flow 𝑝𝑝 and the potentials of external forces 𝑈𝑈𝐅𝐅 at these ends.

18.2. Power of the electric circuit

For the cases of an electrochemical cell, a gas discharge or a wire,

the relation between the released power 𝑊𝑊, the voltage drop 𝑈𝑈 and
the current 𝐼𝐼total [72; 28, p. 185], is known as

𝑊𝑊 = 𝑈𝑈𝐼𝐼total . (185)

Let us show that in the ether interpretation, the law (185) is a

consequence of the formula for the power density of the ether flow
(13), (16), obtained from Newton's second law.
In the ether model of the electrochemical cell and the gas dis-
charge, we accept the formula (133), as in the case of the wire, for the
current density 𝐣𝐣. Then the relation (148) takes place.
From (148) the power of the ether flow in the volume element 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is

1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = − 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝Σ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, 𝑝𝑝Σ ≡ 𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Consider along the flow direction of the ether 𝐢𝐢𝑙𝑙 = 𝐮𝐮/|𝐮𝐮| a cylin-
drical region with a cross section of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and a height of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Suppose
that in this region the vector 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝Σ is directed opposite to the vector 𝐢𝐢𝑙𝑙 .
Then

1 1 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Σ 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝Σ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑗𝑗𝐢𝐢𝑙𝑙 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Σ .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

207
 Denoting the total current 𝐼𝐼total = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗, we get

1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐼𝐼total 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Σ .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

We integrate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 over 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Σ on the line segment [𝑝𝑝Σ,1 , 𝑝𝑝Σ,2 ], as-
suming the constancy of 𝐼𝐼total ,
𝑝𝑝Σ,2 − 𝑝𝑝Σ,1
𝑊𝑊2 − 𝑊𝑊1 = 𝐼𝐼total .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Denote 𝑊𝑊 ≡ 𝑊𝑊1 − 𝑊𝑊2 and take into account the relation of the
pressure of the ether with the electric voltage (75), generalized for the
case of the source presence. We come to the formula (185) for the
power of the circuit section

𝑊𝑊 = (𝜑𝜑1 − 𝜑𝜑2 )𝐼𝐼total = 𝑈𝑈𝐼𝐼total , 𝑈𝑈 ≡ (𝜑𝜑1 − 𝜑𝜑2 ).

At such an introduction of the power 𝑊𝑊 and the voltage drop 𝑈𝑈,

the power released in the circuit section will be positive when 𝐼𝐼total >
0, if the potential (ether pressure) in this segment drops 𝜑𝜑1 > 𝜑𝜑2 .
Usually, the law (185) in the electrochemical cell or a gas is in-
terpreted by defining of the current strength [28, p. 173], introduced
by G.A. Lorentz, and the electric field strength
𝐼𝐼total = 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣, (186)
𝑈𝑈 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸,

where 𝑒𝑒 is the electron charge, 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 is the concentration of conduction

electrons, 𝑣𝑣 is the velocity of their directional motion, 𝑈𝑈 is the voltage
drop, 𝑙𝑙 and 𝑆𝑆 are the length and the cross-section area of the conductor.
Substitute these expressions into the formula (185). We get

208
 𝑊𝑊 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 , (187)

where 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 is the volume filled by the current.

Now consider the law of the ether momentum conservation in the
form of (5) and (24)

𝑑𝑑(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮 𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝑃𝑃

= , + 𝐄𝐄 = .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Eliminating the right hand side of these equations, we get

𝑑𝑑(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮
= + 𝐄𝐄.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

This formula also follows directly from the definitions of the full de-
rivative 𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and the electric field (21).
For steady state ether flow 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 0

𝑑𝑑(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)
= 𝐄𝐄.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Multiply this expression scalarly by 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 and bring the result to the
form

1 𝑑𝑑(𝜌𝜌2 𝐮𝐮2 )
= 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐄𝐄.
2𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Here, in the left hand side, up to the constant factor 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 , the en-
ergy per unit volume stands, which is carried by the ether per unit
time, see (150). This expression allows us to interpret the formula
(187) as follows. If we assume that the electron moves in the interval
𝑙𝑙 with the speed given to it by the ether flow 𝑣𝑣 = |𝐮𝐮|, then 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 is

209
the power transferred by the ether flow to the number of particles
𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 , and the factor 𝑒𝑒 is some dimensional constant for conversion of
mechanical quantities into electrical ones.
It should be noted that the introduction of the velocity of the
charged particles directed motion, their concentration and coupling
with the current strength (186) historically follows from electrochem-
ical experiments in which charge carriers were recorded in measure-
ments, but the real cause of their movement was not determined. In
the case of wires through which current flows, the use of the formula
(187) is not confirmed by direct experiments. On the contrary, exper-
iments with the explosion of wires (sec. 18.10) and other information
and experiments (sec. 12.2, 12.3, 21.11, 23.2.1, 23.2.2, 23.3, 23.6.1,
23.6.2, 23.9.1, 23.9.2, 23.9.5) show that electrons are not the main
energy carrier of the electric current.
Thus, the power released in the circuit is primarily due to the
ether flow, which, in the presence of charged particles, can set them
in motion.

18.3. Electrical resistance in an electrochemical cell and a

gas discharge
Consider the volume in which certain charged particles with a
bulk density 𝜌𝜌𝑒𝑒 move under the action of the ether flow. Let the equa-
tion of these particles motion under the action of the forces 𝐅𝐅 and 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
(see sec. 16.1)) and the ether flow has the form

𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑒𝑒 𝐯𝐯𝑒𝑒
= (𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝) sgn 𝑒𝑒 − 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐 𝜌𝜌𝑒𝑒 𝐯𝐯𝑒𝑒 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝐯𝐯𝑒𝑒 is the velocity of charged particles, 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐 is the frequency of

their collisions with ether particles.
We introduce the current density of the charged particles as 𝐣𝐣𝑒𝑒 =
𝜌𝜌𝑒𝑒 𝐯𝐯𝑒𝑒 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐2 sgn 𝑒𝑒 /𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0. With this definition, the current density value |𝐣𝐣𝑒𝑒 |

210
increases with growth of the frequency 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐 of charged particles colli-
sions with ether particles. The equation of charged particles motion
takes the form

𝑑𝑑𝐣𝐣𝑒𝑒 𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
= 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐2 − 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐 𝐣𝐣𝑒𝑒 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

The general solution of this equation is

𝑡𝑡
𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
𝐣𝐣𝑒𝑒 = e−𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 �𝐣𝐣𝑒𝑒 (0) + � e𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�.
0 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

For the constant in time current 𝐣𝐣𝑒𝑒 the last but one expression
gives

𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
𝐣𝐣𝑒𝑒 = 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐 .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Using the equation for the law of the ether momentum conserva-
tion in the form (24)

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮 𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
+ 𝐄𝐄 = ,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

we get in steady flow conditions 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 0

𝐣𝐣𝑒𝑒 = 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐 𝐄𝐄 = 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐 |𝐄𝐄|𝐢𝐢𝐸𝐸 ,

where 𝐢𝐢𝐸𝐸 is the unit vector in direction of 𝐄𝐄.

Multiplying the absolute value of this expression by the area 𝑆𝑆,
through which the ether flows and applying the formula |𝐄𝐄| = |𝑈𝑈|/𝑙𝑙,
we find for the total current of particles

211
 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆 |𝑈𝑈| 𝑙𝑙
|𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒 | = 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐 |𝐄𝐄|𝑆𝑆 = |𝑈𝑈| = , 𝑅𝑅 ≡ ,
𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑅 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆

where 𝑅𝑅 is the electrical resistance of the segment of the length 𝑙𝑙. For
the specific resistance (the resistivity) 𝑅𝑅0 we have [28, p. 194]

𝑆𝑆 1
𝑅𝑅0 ≡ 𝑅𝑅 = .
𝑙𝑙 𝜈𝜈𝑐𝑐

The resistivity 𝑅𝑅0 is determined experimentally.

Thus, the formula 𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒 = 𝑈𝑈/𝑅𝑅 known from experiments in electro-
chemical cells and a gas discharges is a consequence of the law of the
ether momentum conservation and the equation of charged particles
motion in the ether flow.

18.4. Electrical resistance in the wire

In sec. 12.2, the general formula (145) for the electrical conduc-
tivity 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 was obtained. In this section we consider the etheric inter-
pretation of the resistance 𝑅𝑅 and another representation of the specific
resistance 𝑅𝑅0 = 1/𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 of the circuit section.
The voltage in the wire circuit on the segment [𝑙𝑙1 , 𝑙𝑙2 ] is defined as
𝑙𝑙2
𝑈𝑈 ≡ � 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝑙𝑙1

At 𝐄𝐄 = 𝐸𝐸𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, where 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 is the unit vector along the wire 𝐿𝐿,

𝑈𝑈 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸, 𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙2 − 𝑙𝑙1 .

212
 Consider the definition of the resistance 𝑅𝑅 of the circuit segment
with the voltage 𝑈𝑈 and the current 𝐼𝐼total

𝑈𝑈
𝑅𝑅 ≡ . (188)
𝐼𝐼total

In the case 𝐄𝐄 = 𝐸𝐸𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅 = .
𝐼𝐼total

According to the etheric definition of the electric field (21),

1
𝐄𝐄 = 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�.
2𝜌𝜌

The total current through the cross section of the wire 𝑆𝑆 is equal
to the integral of the current density (34), which, with accounting of
the etheric definition of the magnetic field (20), has the form

|𝐮𝐮|2 |𝐮𝐮|2
𝐼𝐼total = � 𝛁𝛁 × � 𝐁𝐁� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = � 𝛁𝛁 × � 𝛁𝛁 × (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐮𝐮)� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬.
𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑐

Then for the resistance of the wire section of length 𝑙𝑙 we get

1
�2𝜌𝜌 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)2 − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�� ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿
𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑙𝑙 ≡ 𝑅𝑅0 .
∫𝑆𝑆 𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐮𝐮|2 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 𝑆𝑆

Analyze the expression for the resistivity 𝑅𝑅0 at 𝜌𝜌 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,

𝐼𝐼total ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

213
 1
𝜌𝜌 �2 𝛁𝛁𝐮𝐮2 − 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)� ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅0 = 𝑆𝑆.
𝐼𝐼total

One can see that in this case the resistance in the wire is deter-
mined by the gradient of the kinetic energy and the vorticity of the
ether flow in it. In typical cases, at an increase of the ether flow vor-
ticity, the resistivity 𝑅𝑅0 decreases, and at an increase in the gradient
of its kinetic energy, it increases. Thus, depending on the nature of the
ether flow in a conductor, both superconductivity �𝛁𝛁𝐮𝐮2 /2 −
𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)�𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 = 0, and dielectric properties can be observed. At that
the resistance of the conductor is determined by the characteristics of
the ether flow in it, and the possible motion of electrons or other
charge carriers is the secondary effect conditioned by the ether flow.
In confirmation of this conclusion, let us analyze the experi-
mental fact: the effect of superconductivity disappears as the current
increases with increasing of the electric field strength. From the
etheric point of view, this observation has a simple explanation. With
increasing of the electric field, the magnitude of the ether velocity
gradient increases. The increased flow of the ether begins to heat the
conductor (including entraining and accelerating free electrons, if
any). The increase in thermal motion of the structural elements of the
conductor prevents the motion of the ether flow, which leads to the
disappearance of the superconductivity effect.
The introduction of the resistivity 𝑅𝑅0 for the electrochemical cur-
rent and for the current in the wires allows to compare these re-
sistances. The resistivity of the electrochemical cell and the gas dis-
charge is determined by the frequency of charged particles collision
with particles of the ether medium, and the resistivity of the wire is a
feature of the ether motion in it.

214
 18.5. Electric capacitance, capacitors

For objects with a charge 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 , in which the charge density varies
in proportion to the charge

𝜎𝜎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 ,

with the proportionality coefficient 𝑘𝑘, which is a function of a point

in space, the concept of electrical capacitance (capacity) 𝐶𝐶 of a soli-
tary conductor immersed in a stationary dielectric with relative die-
lectric constant 𝜀𝜀 is introduced in physics (see, for example, [36, p.
355, 359; 28, p. 97]). With the help of the dielectric constant the elec-
tric field in the dielectric is described by 𝜀𝜀𝐄𝐄. However, as noted after
the system (33), all environmental effects are included in 𝜎𝜎 and 𝐣𝐣. In
this sense, the relation 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋/𝜀𝜀 is more general than 𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜀𝜀𝐄𝐄) =
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. Applying the formula (71) to 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋/𝜀𝜀

𝑘𝑘(𝐫𝐫 ′ ) ′
𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎
𝜑𝜑 = 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 � 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 = ,
𝑉𝑉 𝜀𝜀(𝐫𝐫 )|𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫 |
′ ′ 𝐶𝐶
1 (189)
𝐶𝐶 ≡ ,
𝑘𝑘(𝐫𝐫 ′ ) ′
∭𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
𝜀𝜀(𝐫𝐫 ′ )|𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫 ′ |

we get the relation

𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 = 𝐶𝐶𝜑𝜑,

in which the coefficient 𝐶𝐶 depends only on the geometry of the

charged object and the dielectric permittivity of the considered region.
Note that the formula 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 can be obtained mathematically
from the uniqueness of the solution of the boundary value problem
for a solitary conductor [115, p. 398].

215
 Taking into account the relationship of 𝜑𝜑 and the ether pressure
𝑝𝑝 (73), we find, up to an additive constant, the etheric representations
of the last relation
𝑝𝑝
𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 = 𝐶𝐶
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

or taking into account the equation of the ether state (15) at 𝛱𝛱 = 0

𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 = 𝐶𝐶(𝜌𝜌∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ − 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ).

These expressions mean that the charge of an object with a given

capacity 𝐶𝐶 characterizes the pressure of the ether in the object 𝑝𝑝 =
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 /𝐶𝐶 or the deviation of the energy density of the steady state
flow of the ether from its typical value.
A decrease of the capacity 𝐶𝐶 at the fixed charge 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 leads to an
increase in the pressure of the ether 𝑝𝑝 (the potential difference).
Capacitors are widely used in electrical engineering. By defini-
tion [36, p. 360] a capacitor is a system of two oppositely charged
with equal in magnitude charges of conductors having such a shape
and position relative to each other that the field created by such a sys-
tem is localized in a limited region of space. The conductors them-
selves are called capacitor plates.
The capacitor plate is usually a thin conductor with the surface 𝑆𝑆.
To describe the potential 𝜑𝜑 of such a plate, consider the limit of the
formula (71) or (189) as the thickness of the plate ∆𝑙𝑙 tends to zero

𝜎𝜎(𝐫𝐫′) 𝜎𝜎(𝐫𝐫′)∆𝑙𝑙
𝜑𝜑 = lim � 𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 ′ = lim � 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 ′
∆𝑙𝑙→0 𝑉𝑉 𝜀𝜀(𝐫𝐫′)|𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫′| ∆𝑙𝑙→0 𝑆𝑆 𝜀𝜀(𝐫𝐫′)|𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫′|
lim (𝜎𝜎∆𝑙𝑙)
∆𝑙𝑙→0
=� 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 ′
𝑆𝑆 𝜀𝜀(𝐫𝐫′)|𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫′|

216
and the condition of the finite surface charge density

𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 ≡ lim (𝜎𝜎∆𝑙𝑙).

∆𝑙𝑙→0

Then, assuming the proportionality of 𝜎𝜎𝑆𝑆 to the charge

𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 ,

for the potential and capacity of the thin plate we obtain

𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 (𝐫𝐫′) 1
𝜑𝜑 = 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 � 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 ′ , 𝐶𝐶 ≡ .
𝑆𝑆 𝜀𝜀(𝐫𝐫′)|𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫′| 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 (𝐫𝐫′) ′
∬𝑆𝑆 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠
𝜀𝜀(𝐫𝐫′)|𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫′|

According to the superposition principle (see p. 27), the potential

𝜑𝜑 between the capacitor plates is equal to the sum of the solitary po-
tentials of each of the plates. If we denote 𝜑𝜑𝑘𝑘 the potential of the plate
with charge |𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 |, then for the potential of the capacitor with a posi-
tively charged second plate we have

𝜑𝜑 = 𝜑𝜑2 − 𝜑𝜑1 .

Expressions for the potentials of charged bodies of simple form

are obtained, for example, in [28, sec. 19]. Noting that the charge en-
ters these expressions as a multiplier, we obtain for the potential of
such capacitors
𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎
𝜑𝜑 = . (190)
𝐶𝐶

The value of 𝐶𝐶 is called the capacitance of the capacitor. From

the derivation of this formula, it follows that 𝐶𝐶 depends only on the

217
geometry of the capacitor and the dielectric permittivity. Capacity for-
mulas for capacitors of various shapes are derived, for example, in
[28, sec. 26].
Substituting formulas (75), (76) into (190), we get the represen-
tations
𝑝𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑝1 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎
= , (𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢2 )1 − (𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢2 )2 = , (191)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶

allowing to give the etheric interpretation of the ratio of the charge

and the capacitor capacity as the difference between the pressures of
the ether or the difference of the energy densities of the steady state
currents of the ether created by its plates. A larger charge at the given
capacity means the larger difference of the ether pressures or the en-
ergy densities flows.

18.6. The equation of a current in the contour of a constant

form

Consider the etheric interpretation of the electric current flow in

the closed circuit 𝐿𝐿 of wires. Let the shape of the contour 𝐿𝐿 does not
change in time. Consider the circuit consisting of four sequentially
connected segments 𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘 , 𝑘𝑘 = 1, . . ,4, such that the first one has induct-
ance ℒ(𝑡𝑡), the second one has the resistance 𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡), the third one has
the capacitance 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡), and to the fourth an external emf ℰ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡) is ap-
plied (see fig. 3).
Let us apply the basic law of electromagnetic induction (109) to
this contour, taking into account the invariance of its form 𝐕𝐕 = 0 and
the absence of external forces 𝐅𝐅 = 0

1 𝑑𝑑Φ
= −ℰ(𝑡𝑡), ℰ(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡)

218
 Fig. 3. A scheme of the closed circuit.

In the circuit under consideration, the change of 𝐄𝐄 occurs in three

sections. Therefore, the integral over the contour 𝐿𝐿 splits into the sum
of three integrals over the segments
4

� � 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝑘𝑘=2 𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘

Denoting emf (or voltage) of each segment

ℰ𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡) ≡ � 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥,

𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘

we get
4
1 𝑑𝑑Φ
= − � ℰ𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡). (192)
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑘𝑘=2

219
 By the formula (107) on the left side of the equation (192) we have

1 𝑑𝑑Φ 1 𝑑𝑑ℒ(𝑡𝑡)𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡)

= 2 .
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

In the segment with the resistance, we use the formula (188), re-
lating the electric current 𝐼𝐼total , the resistance 𝑅𝑅 and the voltage drop
ℰ2 (𝑡𝑡) ≡ −𝑈𝑈(𝑡𝑡) in the conductor

ℰ2 (𝑡𝑡)
𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡) = − ,
𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡)

ℰ2 (𝑡𝑡) = −𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡)𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡).

The voltage drop on the segment with the capacitor is defined by

the formula (190)

𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 (𝑡𝑡)
ℰ3 (𝑡𝑡) = − .
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)

On the fourth segment the emf is defined by the external source

ℰ4 (𝑡𝑡) = ℰ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡).

Substituting the formulas for ℰ𝑘𝑘 (𝑡𝑡), 𝑘𝑘 = 2,3,4 into the equality
(192), we obtain the well-known equation for the current in the closed
circuit of the constant form taking into account the inductance, the
resistance and the capacitance (see, for example: [28, p. 273] and the
formula (122.2) in [28, p. 514])

1 𝑑𝑑ℒ(𝑡𝑡)𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡) 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 (𝑡𝑡)

+ 𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡)𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡) + = ℰ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡). (193)
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)

220
 We write the equation (193)in terms of the charge 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 , defined by
the expression (66). Take from (66) the full time derivative at a fixed
volume 𝑉𝑉 of the capacitor plate and use the equality (31)

𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 (𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)

=� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐣𝐣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆

where 𝑆𝑆 is the surface of the capacitor plate volume 𝑉𝑉.

In the etheric interpretation, a flow of the ether flows through the
capacitor (see. sec. 18.5). We assume that the same full ether current
flows through the capacitor plate as along the circuit contour 𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡)

− � 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = 𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡).

𝑆𝑆

The minus sign means that the current flows into the capacitor plate,
since the vector 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 is directed along the external to the 𝑉𝑉 normal.
Then
𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 (𝑡𝑡)
= 𝐼𝐼total (𝑡𝑡) (194)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

and the equation (193) transforms into the equation for charge

1 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 (𝑡𝑡)

�ℒ(𝑡𝑡) � + 𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡) + = ℰ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡). (195)
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)

This equation coincides with the well-known equation of the os-

cillatory contour of the constant form (see, for example, formula
(122.5) in [28, p. 515]). However, its interpretation is fundamentally
different from that adopted in the electrical engineering.

221
 Section 8, 18.4, 18.5 show that all quantities in the left hand side
of the formula (193) or (195), are expressed in terms of the density 𝜌𝜌,
velocity 𝐮𝐮 of the ether, and the geometry of the conductor compo-
nents. Therefore, when describing an electric current in a circuit, it is
not required to involve any information about electrically charged
particles, despite the fact that equations (193), (195) include the
charge. In the etheric interpretation, the charge (66) is associated with
the flow of the ether, and the presence of charge carriers, for example,
elementary particles, is not necessary.
From the method of obtaining formulas (193), (195) we conclude
that the oscillating circuit equation (the current equation in the closed
circuit) is the logical consequence of the ether momentum conserva-
tion law (Newton's second law).
Understanding of the processes in the electrical circuit as the flow
of the ether through its various elements provides a visual representa-
tion of the mechanism of energy transfer along the circuit with discon-
tinuities, such as capacitors or electrodes. Herewith, the movement of
charged particles in the chain is not excluded, but is a secondary effect.

18.7. Energy density of the electric current at non-vortical

magnetic field

Consider a non-vortical magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 in the sense

𝛁𝛁 × (|𝐮𝐮|2 𝐁𝐁) = 0. In this case, the equation (34) goes to 𝐣𝐣total = 0 or

𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄
−4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣 = .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

We multiply this equation scalarly by the vector of the electric

field strength 𝐄𝐄, and obtain the expression

1 𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄2
−𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 = ,
8𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

222
which means that the value equal to the power density (150), that is
on the left hand side, is related to the rate of the square of the electric
field strength change.
We integrate this expression over time on the interval [𝑡𝑡0 , 𝑡𝑡] as-
suming that at the initial time 𝑡𝑡0 there is no electric field,
𝑡𝑡
𝐄𝐄2
− � 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝐄𝐄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = .
𝑡𝑡0 8𝜋𝜋

We find the electric field energy density

𝑡𝑡
𝒜𝒜𝐸𝐸 ≡ − � 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝐄𝐄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝑡𝑡0

𝐄𝐄2
𝒜𝒜𝐸𝐸 = .
8𝜋𝜋

When creating the current in the unit volume of the conductor,

the external work is performed equal to minus 𝒜𝒜𝐸𝐸 .
In the etheric interpretation, the properties of a substance are
taken into account in the velocity 𝐮𝐮. Therefore, 𝐄𝐄 is the electric field
in the substance.
If we consider the electric field 𝐄𝐄vac in the absence of a substance,
and the field in the substance is characterized by the dielectric permit-
tivity 𝜀𝜀: 𝐄𝐄 = 𝜀𝜀𝐄𝐄vac , then in the substance one should start from the
equation

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄vac
−4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣 = .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
For time independent 𝜀𝜀 , when an external field 𝐄𝐄vac is applied to
a substance, we similarly obtain

223
 2
𝜀𝜀𝐄𝐄vac
𝒜𝒜𝐸𝐸 ≡ . (196)
8𝜋𝜋

This expression is used in the electrical engineering to introduce

the electrical energy density of the circuit.
The etheric understanding of the electric current in the circuit al-
lowed us to obtain from the most general considerations the density
of the electric energy of the circuit as a consequence of Newton's sec-
ond law at 𝛁𝛁 × (|𝐮𝐮|2 𝐁𝐁) = 0, and not as a consequence of some pos-
tulate [28, p. 346].
The magnetic energy of the circuit of the wires is discussed in the
sec. 18.8.

18.8. Magnetic energy of the closed conductor with a current

in the magnetic field. Magnetic energy density in the
circuit

Consider the closed contour 𝐿𝐿, in which a current 𝐼𝐼1 flows. Let
this contour be in the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁2 . According to the formula
(137), a force acts on the contour element 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐁𝐁2
𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 = 𝐼𝐼1 � 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑐𝑐

The work at displacement by 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 of the contour element 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 under

the action of the force 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 is equal to

𝐁𝐁2
∆𝔸𝔸12 ≡ 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 = 𝐼𝐼1 �𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑐𝑐

Convert the mixed product of vectors

224
 (𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 × 𝐁𝐁2 ) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 = 𝐁𝐁2 ∙ (𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 × 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 ).

Denote by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑|𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫| the surface element that appears when the
contour element is displaced. The direction of the vector 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 is chosen
perpendicular to both the vector 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 and the vector 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 :

𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 × 𝐢𝐢𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

Then

𝐁𝐁2
∆𝔸𝔸12 = 𝐼𝐼1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬.
𝑐𝑐

Let the displacement of the contour elements occur so that the

contour 𝐿𝐿 is tightened to a point, moving along an arbitrary surface 𝑆𝑆.
By integrating over this surface 𝑆𝑆, we obtain the energy associated
with the initial contour 𝐿𝐿, current 𝐼𝐼1 in it and an arbitrary surface 𝑆𝑆

𝐁𝐁2
𝔸𝔸12 = � 𝐼𝐼1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬.
𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑐

For the constant current 𝐼𝐼1 we have

𝐼𝐼1
𝔸𝔸12 = � 𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬,
𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆 2

By construction, the surface 𝑆𝑆 is bounded by the contour 𝐿𝐿.

Therefore, the integral is a magnetic flux through the contour 𝐿𝐿 (more
precisely, through an arbitrary surface 𝑆𝑆 bounded by the contour 𝐿𝐿)

Φ2 = � 𝐁𝐁2 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬.
𝑆𝑆

225
 Then

𝐼𝐼1
𝔸𝔸12 = Φ . (197)
𝑐𝑐 2

The flux Φ2 does not depend on the choice of the surface 𝑆𝑆 (see
sec. 8). Therefore, the energy𝔸𝔸12 does not depend on 𝑆𝑆. Thus, 𝔸𝔸12 is
some common characteristic, which does not depend on the surface
𝑆𝑆, of the circuit 𝐿𝐿 with the current 𝐼𝐼1 in the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁2 .
In electrical engineering, the formula (197) is called the magnetic
energy of the circuit (see, for example: [28, sec. 69]).
Let us now calculate the energy density 𝒜𝒜12 of the element 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of
the contour 𝐿𝐿.
Consider the element 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of the closed contour 𝐿𝐿 with the cross
section ∆𝑠𝑠. According to the main term in the formula (135), the fol-
lowing force acts on it

𝐁𝐁2
𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 = ∆𝑠𝑠 𝐣𝐣1,total × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑐𝑐

Let, under the action of a given force 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 , the contour element
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 be displaced by 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫. The work done at that is

𝐁𝐁2
∆𝔸𝔸12 ≡ 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 = ∆𝑠𝑠 �𝐣𝐣1,total × � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫.
𝑐𝑐

Determine the increment of the magnetic energy density in the

circuit with a current by the formula

𝑑𝑑∆𝔸𝔸12 𝐁𝐁2
𝑑𝑑𝒜𝒜12 ≡ = � 𝐣𝐣1,total × � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫.
∆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐

226
The convenience of introducing 𝑑𝑑𝒜𝒜12 is that this quantity does not
depend on the cross-section area ∆𝑠𝑠 and the length 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of the contour
element.
From (34) at |𝐮𝐮| ≈ 𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐
𝐣𝐣1,total = 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐁𝐁1 . (198)
4𝜋𝜋
So
1
𝑑𝑑𝒜𝒜12 = ( (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐁𝐁1 ) × 𝐁𝐁2 ) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫.
4𝜋𝜋

We calculate now the energy density of the circuit in the magnetic

field created by itself 𝐁𝐁2 = 𝜇𝜇𝐁𝐁1 , where 𝜇𝜇 is the relative magnetic per-
meability of the medium in which the conductor is located:
𝜇𝜇
𝑑𝑑𝒜𝒜11 = ( (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐁𝐁1 ) × 𝐁𝐁1 ) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫.
4𝜋𝜋

From the formula (198) it follows that the direction of the field
𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ≡ 𝐁𝐁1 /|𝐁𝐁1 | of the conductor small element is perpendicular to the
direction of the current flowing in it 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 ≡ 𝐣𝐣1,total /�𝐣𝐣1,total �.
Consider the right orthogonal Cartesian coordinate system with
unit basis vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 = 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 × 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 (see. fig. 4).
In this system

𝜕𝜕𝐵𝐵1 𝜕𝜕𝐵𝐵1
(𝛁𝛁 × 𝐁𝐁1 ) × 𝐁𝐁1 = � 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 − 𝐢𝐢 � × 𝐵𝐵1 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑦𝑦

For constant along the conductor field 𝐵𝐵1 = 𝐵𝐵1 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥, 𝑧𝑧)

𝜕𝜕𝐵𝐵1 1 𝜕𝜕𝐵𝐵12
(𝛁𝛁 × 𝐁𝐁1 ) × 𝐁𝐁1 = −𝐵𝐵1 �𝐢𝐢 × 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 � = − 𝐢𝐢 .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑦𝑦 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑥𝑥

227
 Fig. 4. Displacement of the conductor element.
The initial position is marked by the dashed line.

Then

𝜇𝜇 𝜕𝜕𝐵𝐵12 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥, 𝑧𝑧)

𝑑𝑑𝒜𝒜11 =− 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫.
8𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

In this coordinate system, an arbitrary displacement 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 can be

represented as 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫 = −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 . The minus means that at
the positive 𝑥𝑥, the displacement occurs against the direction of the 𝑥𝑥
axis (fig. 4).
From here
𝜇𝜇 𝜕𝜕𝐵𝐵12 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥, 𝑧𝑧)
𝑑𝑑𝒜𝒜11 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
8𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

228
It can be seen that the contribution to the energy density is made only
by the displacement of the elementary part of the circuit along the 𝑥𝑥
axis, that is, in the direction perpendicular to both the current density
and the magnetic field.
We integrate over the displacement on the segment [𝑥𝑥 ′ , 𝑥𝑥 ′′ ] and
obtain the increment of the magnetic energy density in the circuit
when its element is displaced from the point 𝑥𝑥 ′ to the point 𝑥𝑥 ′′
𝜇𝜇
𝒜𝒜11 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥′′, 𝑧𝑧) − 𝒜𝒜11 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥′, 𝑧𝑧) = �𝐵𝐵 2 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥′′, 𝑧𝑧) − 𝐵𝐵12 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥′, 𝑧𝑧)�.
8𝜋𝜋 1

In the case when at the point 𝑥𝑥′, before the displacement of the
conductor element, the field 𝐵𝐵1 and the energy density 𝒜𝒜11 were ab-
sent, we have
𝜇𝜇 2
𝒜𝒜11 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥′′, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝐵𝐵 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥′′, 𝑧𝑧). (199)
8𝜋𝜋 1

Here 𝒜𝒜11 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥′′, 𝑧𝑧) is the energy density resulting from the instanta-
neous motion of the conductor element with the instantaneous switch-
ing on of the current. Note that this energy density 𝒜𝒜11 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥′′, 𝑧𝑧) is
independent from which point 𝑥𝑥′ the contour element is displaced, and
therefore 𝒜𝒜11 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥′′, 𝑧𝑧) is some common characteristic of the contour.
As has been repeatedly noted, the study of the instantaneous ap-
pearance of a certain quantity is a common technique for the contin-
uous media mechanics (see, for example: [17, sec. 3.3, 3.7, 4.1; 16, p.
636]). This approach eliminates the need to take into account the pre-
vious state of the media.
The etheric interpretation of the current in the circuit allowed in-
troducing the magnetic energy of the circuit and the density of mag-
netic energy in the circuit not as the consequence of some postulate
[28, p. 346] or generalizations of experiments, but as the conse-
quences of Newton's second law and also to establish the mechanical

229
content of these quantities as the work or the density of work on the
creation and motion of vortices in the continuous medium. The con-
ductor is used as a container that holds the vortex.
In the etheric sense, the magnetic energy of the circuit is associ-
ated with the vortex, and the electric energy of the circuit – with the
vortex-free motion of the ether (see sec.18.7).
In the general case, the energy density of the ether is expressed
by the formula (83). The formulas for energy and energy density, ob-
tained in sec.18.7 and 18.8, describe the energetics of the particular
technical system, namely, wires with the current.

18.9. Full electromagnetic power of circuit with current.

Umov – Poynting Vector

In physics, the increment of the electromagnetic field energy is

postulated as the sum of the increments of the densities of work done
in the circuit under the action of the electric field (196), the magnetic
field (199) and released in the circuit 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝐄𝐄 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (149) [28, formula
(84.1)].
For the generated in the circuit power, physics accepts the postu-
late [28, formula (84.2)]

1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄 1 𝜕𝜕𝐁𝐁
𝑤𝑤
�= 𝐄𝐄 ∙ + 𝜇𝜇𝐁𝐁 ∙ + 𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝐄𝐄, (200)
4𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 4𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

where 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 are fields at the absence of a substance.

However, [28, p. 346] frankly notes the inconsistency of this ap-
proach, namely, the use of electrostatics and the rejection of the bias
current during the derivation of the second component in (200). But
despite this, it is still assumed that the formula (200) remains valid for
the case of alternating electromagnetic fields.
In the ether theory, the general representation for the power den-
sity of the ether flow is given by the formula (16), which follows from

230
Newton's second law. Therefore, the most general expression for the
power density of the circuit in terms of fields and the current is found
by converting of (16) to the form containing the vectors 𝐄𝐄, 𝐁𝐁, 𝐣𝐣. Such
an expression is obtained in sec. 5.1, see formula (85). Let’s take into
account in (85) the specificity of the ether flow in the electric circuit
wire and compare it with the formula (200), accepted in physics as an
axiom.
Substitute in (85) the ether representation for the current density
𝐣𝐣 in the circuit (133)

𝑤𝑤 =
2
𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱 𝐣𝐣 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (201)
2𝐣𝐣 ∙ �2𝐄𝐄 + � − 2 �3(𝐣𝐣 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌) + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � − .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

If the density gradient of the ether and its change in time are
small, then

𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑤𝑤 = 2𝐣𝐣 ∙ �2𝐄𝐄 + �− . (202)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

The dielectric, magnetic permeability and other properties of a

substance are taken into account in the velocity 𝐮𝐮. However, if we
introduce the fields 𝐄𝐄vac and 𝐁𝐁vac in the absence of the substance and
define their relationship with the fields in the substance as 𝐄𝐄 = 𝜀𝜀𝐄𝐄vac
and 𝐁𝐁 = 𝜇𝜇𝐁𝐁vac , then taking into account (29) the values of 𝜀𝜀 and 𝜇𝜇
appear in the formula (202) in the explicit form

𝐅𝐅 + 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑤𝑤 = 2𝐣𝐣 ∙ �2𝜀𝜀𝐄𝐄vac + �− , (203)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 |𝐮𝐮|2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄vac
𝐣𝐣 = �𝛁𝛁 × � 𝜇𝜇𝐁𝐁vac � − �.
4𝜋𝜋 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

231
 It can be seen that in the general case, the formula (200) differs
from the formulas (201)–(203). The coincidence of 𝑤𝑤 � and 𝑤𝑤 can be
achieved only by special selection of the the external force 𝐅𝐅 density
or the energy density of external sources 𝛱𝛱.
From the etheric point of view, the reason for the difference be-
tween 𝑤𝑤 � and 𝑤𝑤 is that the postulate (200) does not take into account
the interrelation of 𝐄𝐄, 𝐁𝐁, 𝐣𝐣 as characteristics of one process – the mo-
tion of the ether.
The direction of the energy density motion in the ether is de-
scribed by the vector potential (sec. 2.3). In physics, the motion of the
electromagnetic energy is characterized by the vector of the flux den-
sity of the electromagnetic energy 𝐒𝐒 = 𝐄𝐄 × 𝐁𝐁, which is called the
Umov – Poynting vector [32, p. 397; 28, p. 348]. The interpretation
of 𝐒𝐒 is given on the basis of the coincidence of the appearance of the
formula obtained by using the Maxwell equations in the axiom (200)
with the continuity equation of continuous media mechanics [28, p.
347]. In the etheric interpretation of nature, the formula (200) is not
general. Therefore, the vector 𝐒𝐒 does not reveal the essence of the
general laws. For example, the interpretation of the electromagnetic
energy using 𝐒𝐒 leads to the conclusion that it flows into the wire from
the surrounding space through the side surface [32, p. 398]. At that,
the question remains unanswered about the cause of the appearance
of the electromagnetic energy near the surface of the wire and the
mechanism of its propagation along this surface.

18.10. Explosion of wires by the electric current in vacuum.

Explosive electronic emission

In modern physics, there are great difficulties on the way of

building reliable models of wires explosion and the electronic emis-
sion. This situation usually indicates the need to take into account the
effects of ether, which are not taken into account by it.

232
 According to the existing concepts of the electric current, the cur-
rent in the wire is described by the formula (186), which does not
allow understanding the mechanisms of processes in conductors, that
are especially pronounced when wires explode.
So, in the experiment [95] an explosion of copper wires 10 −
11 [mm] in length and 0.25 [mm] in diameter occurred during 550 −
555 [ns] at the current in the circuit 10 [kA] and the voltage on the
circuit 𝑈𝑈 = 20 [kV]. Using (186) and the electron concentration in
copper 2.8 ∙ 1028 [1/m3 ], we obtain 𝑤𝑤 = 4.5 ∙ 104 [mm/s] for the
directed electron velocity. This means that the charge carriers could
cover a distance of only 0.025 [mm] in the wire, which is substan-
tially smaller than the length of the wire.
If, as it is considered in physics, all the energy of the electric cur-
rent was transferred by charged particles, then the wire would have to
explode at a length of 0.025 [mm]. However, observations show that
the wire during the time 550 − 555 [ns] explodes along its entire
length. This means that the inputted energy in these experiments is
transferred, mostly by not charged particles, but by the stream of the
ether.
According to the measurements in the experiments with the ex-
plosion of wires in vacuum [95], it is possible to estimate the velocity
of the ether and its pressure inside the wire. The numerical values of
these quantities allow to draw important conclusions.
According to the representation (84), the creation in the wire of
the electromagnetic field means the creation in it of a velocity and
gradients of pressure and density of the ether.
We assume that almost all the ether energy density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 (12),
created in the wire, where the asterisk denotes characteristic values of
quantities, goes to break bonds in the metal: sublimation or atomiza-
tion, in which the solid phase immediately transmits into gaseous, by-
passing the liquid state. The sublimation energy of copper is 𝑄𝑄Cu ≈
5.6 ∙ 106 [J/kg] [120, p. 304]. From the equality of the transmitted en-
ergy density of the ether and the energy density spent on the explosion

233
 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 = 𝜌𝜌Cu 𝑄𝑄Cu ,

taking for the density of the ether 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−6 [kg/m3 ]
(228), we find that the characteristic speed of the ether in the copper
wire with density 𝜌𝜌Cu ≈ 8.32 ∙ 103 [kg/m 3 ] [120, p. 304] is of the
order of the speed of light: 𝑢𝑢∗ ≈ 1.5 ∙ 108 [m/s]. This result corre-
sponds to the well-known experimental facts, showing the high ve-
locity of the electric current propagation in the wire.
According to the ether state equation (15), the characteristic en-
ergy density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 , in the case 𝛱𝛱 = 0 and absence of deviations from
the characteristic state |𝐮𝐮| = 0, is equal to the pressure of the ether 𝑝𝑝.
Then 𝑝𝑝Cu ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 = 𝜌𝜌Cu 𝑄𝑄Cu ≈ 4.7 ∙ 1010 [Pa] is the pressure of the
ether created in the wire. It is close to the threshold, starting from
which the process has an explosive character. The sublimation pres-
sure 𝑝𝑝Cu gives the lower estimate for the energy density required for
the explosion of the wire, since some more energy is required to give
the speed to the structural elements of copper.
The value of 𝑝𝑝Cu is by the order of magnitude close to the pres-
sure of the unperturbed ether 𝑝𝑝0 ≈ 1.1 ∙ 1011 [Pa] (230). That is, the
destruction of the wire occurs when the pressure of the ether inside it
approaches the pressure of the ether outside the wire.
The pressure of the ether that occurs in the material can be esti-
mated in another way. The results of sec. 18.2 give the following for-
mula for the current energy density at a small period of time 𝑡𝑡

𝐼𝐼 𝑈𝑈
𝑝𝑝ex = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑡𝑡.
𝑆𝑆 𝑙𝑙

In the etheric interpretation, the density energy of the current in

the wire is the characteristic ether energy density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 (12), which
at 𝛱𝛱 = 0, |𝐮𝐮| = 0 is equal to the pressure of the ether 𝑝𝑝 (15). Then for
typical explosion parameters 𝐼𝐼 = 10 ∙ 103 [A], 𝑈𝑈 = 20 ∙ 103 [V], 𝑆𝑆 =

234
𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑 2 /4, 𝑑𝑑 = 0.25 ∙ 10−3 [m], 𝑙𝑙 = 11 ∙ 10−3 [m], 𝑡𝑡 = 550 ∙ 10−9 [s],
we have the ether pressure 𝑝𝑝ex ≈ 2 ∙ 1011 [Pa ]. By the order of mag-
nitude, 𝑝𝑝ex is close to the pressure of the unperturbed ether 𝑝𝑝0 (230).
The excess of 𝑝𝑝ex values 𝑝𝑝0 in typical experiments is explained by the
need of having an additional to 𝑝𝑝Cu energy density for delivering a
velocity to the elements of the material.
The explosion of wires often occurs in the form of stratas perpen-
dicular to the wire with pronounced concentrations of wire material in
the form of pancakes, see the presentation of V.M. Romanova of 02.
03.2016 on the website [шаровая-молния.орг; ball-lightning.org].
Withal stratas appear during time when the electric current is no longer
in the wire. This may mean that before the explosion a standing wave
of the ether is formed in the wire and the strongest expansion of the
material occurs in the antinode region of the standing wave. The stand-
ing wave is likely to be longitudinal, since the pancake has a shape
close to axisymmetric, and the stratas can expand, but practically do
not move along the conductor. The role of etheric standing waves in
electrical devices is also discussed at the end of sec. 24.4.
Let us now analyze the experimental data obtained in the study
of explosive electron emission [122]. Such emission is created by ap-
plying of the high voltage pulse with a duration smaller than 10−7 [s]
at the tungsten emitter. At that one gets the current density of
about 108 [A/cm2 ]. Using emitters with different vertex radii and
changing the amplitude of the voltage pulse, it was managed to find
the relationship between the pre-explosion (critical) current density
and the delay time of the tip explosion 𝑡𝑡ex [122]. As the electric field
strength 𝐸𝐸 increased from 7 ∙ 107 to 1.3 ∙ 108 [V/cm], the critical cur-
rent density 𝑗𝑗 increased from 4.5 ∙ 107 to 2.2 ∙ 109 [A/cm2 ]. The de-
lay time before the explosion of the tip 𝑡𝑡ex was not measured, but
estimated. The estimate showed the decrease of 𝑡𝑡ex from ~10−9
to ~10−11 [s].
The current energy density created before the explosion of an
emitter can be calculated by the formula (see sec. 18.2)

235
 𝑝𝑝ex = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑡𝑡ex .

From here we obtain that before the explosion, the energy density 𝑝𝑝ex
was ~3 ∙ 1012 [Pa].
We again use the etheric interpretation of the occurrence of the
current energy density as the creation of the ether energy density
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 (12), which according to (15) means the ether pressure crea-
tion 𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 . We obtain, as in the case of the wires explosion, that
the emitter explosion occurs when the pressure 𝑝𝑝ex in it exceeds the
pressure of the unperturbed ether 𝑝𝑝0 . The need for overpressure is as-
sociated with the delivery of the velocity to the charged particles, and
also, perhaps, with overcoming the surface energy effects, determined
by the material and shape of the tip.
Thus, the destruction of materials in the considered experiments
occurs when the ether pressure in them approaches the external pres-
sure of the ether 𝑝𝑝0 (230) or exceeds 𝑝𝑝0 . This result, as well as the
Casimir effect (sec. 21.13), allows us to conclude that it is the differ-
ence between the external and internal pressure of the ether that de-
termines the phase state of the substance: solid, liquid, gaseous. Esti-
mates of the ether pressure within the solid and liquid phases of vari-
ous materials are given in sec. 21.12.
The reasoning above and the estimates obtained are based on the
analysis of the characteristic state of the samples before the explosion.
A detailed theoretical study of the processes occurring in the explo-
sion of wires and emitters requires solving the ether equations (4)–(6)
with some initial and boundary conditions.
Note that if we take the etheric interpretation of the solid phase
of the substance as the postulate of compression it by the ether instead
of deriving this interpretation from experiments, then similarity by the
order of magnitude of the pressure inside the wire and the emitter be-
fore the explosion to the estimate of the ether unperturbed pressure

236
(230), obtained in sec. 21.1 on the basis of completely different con-
siderations, allows to be considered as confirmation of the correctness
of the approximate estimate (230).

18.11. Emf of Zhukovsky. Unipolar generator

Let's discuss the appearance of emf on the segment of the circuit

𝐿𝐿 (not necessarily straight) under the influence of the generalized
Zhukovsky force (120). Consider the case when the magnetic field
does not change with time, the third term in the formula (120) is small
compared to the second term, and the external electric field and the
external force are missing or do not lead to the appearance of emf.
When the velocity 𝐕𝐕 is applied in the region of the ether 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
which has a magnetic field 𝐁𝐁, the generalized Zhukovsky force 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕
(121) arises. This force creates the pressure (energy density) on the
section 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 with the unit normal 𝐧𝐧, directed along the curve 𝐿𝐿,

𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕 ≡ ∙ 𝐧𝐧 = ∙ 𝐧𝐧𝑑𝑑 = ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

If the third term in (121) is small compared to the second and

non-potential forces are absent 𝐅𝐅 = 0, then

𝐕𝐕
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � × 𝐁𝐁� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥. (204)
𝑐𝑐

We emphasize that the formula (204) differs from (84) at 𝐄𝐄 = 0,

𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 = 0, 𝛁𝛁𝛱𝛱 = 0 both formally and in meaning. In (204) there is no
factor 1/2 and the field 𝐁𝐁 is determined by (20) with a velocity, gen-
erally speaking, different from 𝐕𝐕, but in (84) the field 𝐁𝐁 is expressed
in terms of the same velocity 𝐮𝐮, that enters the vector product. By
meaning the 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕 is the pressure of the generalized Zhukovsky force,
which appears when the external velocity 𝐕𝐕 is instantaneously applied

237
to the ether flux flowing with the velocity 𝐮𝐮.While the increment of
pressure, expressed from (84), is the increment of the pressure of the
ether flow with the velocity 𝐮𝐮.
Taking into account the relation of the pressure difference with
the potential difference (75) (see also sec. 18.1), we get for the incre-
ment of emf

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕 𝐕𝐕
𝑑𝑑ℰЖ = = � × 𝐁𝐁� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥. (205)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐

Then on the entire curvilinear section 𝐿𝐿 of the circuit there ap-

pears an emf

𝐕𝐕
ℰЖ = � � × 𝐁𝐁� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥. (206)
𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐

Thus, the appearance of the potential difference at the ends of the

𝐿𝐿 contour, when at its points the velocity 𝐕𝐕 is applied to the ether, is
caused by the ether pressure difference created by the generalized
Zhukovsky force (120). Such emf we call the emf of Zhukovsky.
Note that the calculation of the pressure (or potential) difference
at the ends of the contour 𝐿𝐿 by the formula (15), which relates the
ether pressure and speed, is made difficult by the need to calculate the
ether speed. In this sense the formula (206) is more convenient for
practice, since in electrical systems the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁, which in-
cludes the ether velocity, can be specified or directly measured.
The formula (206) for the emf of Zhukovsky ℰЖ is similar in ap-
pearance to the formula for the emf of the induction (109) in the ab-
sence of the electric field and the external force

𝐕𝐕
ℰ(𝑡𝑡) = � � × 𝐁𝐁� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡) 𝑐𝑐

238
This allows us to give a physical interpretation of the "magnetic" term
in the electromagnetic induction law (109) as a result of the general-
ized Zhukovsky force action.
However, the physical conditions of applicability of formulas
(206) and (109), generally speaking, are different. In deriving of the
formula (109), it was assumed that the contour is closed. The mag-
netic flux was considered specifically through the closed contour. In
the formula (206), the 𝐿𝐿 curve is not necessarily closed, and the mag-
netic flux is not even considered.
The difference in the conditions of applicability leads, generally
speaking, to the difference in the emf induction ℰ (109) and emf of
Zhukovsky ℰЖ (206). Let's give an example.
Let the velocity 𝐕𝐕 be created on the segment 𝐿𝐿 of the motionless
closed contour 𝐿𝐿 which lies entirely in a certain plane. Let the vector
of the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 be parallel to this plane. In such a system emf
of induction ℰ, appearing in the formula (109), is not induced, since
the magnetic flux is zero due to the perpendicularity of the vectors 𝐁𝐁
and 𝐧𝐧, where 𝐧𝐧 is the normal to the plane. However, according to
(206), the emf ℰЖ arises on the segment 𝐿𝐿 as a result of the general-
ized Zhukovsky force action.
The emf of Zhukovsky ℰЖ is observed, for example, in the uni-
polar generator, also called the Faraday disk [93, 123–125]. A sche-
matic scheme of such a device was proposed by Faraday in 1831. Cur-
rently, unipolar generators are used to create large currents at low
voltages, for example, in metallurgy or tokamak installations that im-
plement controlled thermonuclear fusion reactions.
However, before the etheric interpretation of the emf ℰЖ pre-
sented here as a result of the generalized Zhukovsky force appearance
in a disk rotating in the magnetic field, there was no convincing ex-
planation for the occurrence of a potential difference in a unipolar
generator.

239
 For example, in the books [123, p. 417] and [93, p. 117] emf in
the unipolar generator is associated with the introduction of all new
disk elements into the circuit, that is, with switching the disk from one
circuit to another. Reference [124, p. 545–549] states that it is neces-
sary to extend the electromagnetic induction law for the unipolar ma-
chine in the case of an opening-closing circuit by considering the
magnetic flux through some new closed contour containing part of the
external circumference of the disk. At the same time, it is stated that
"the main part of the electric field arising from the motion of the mag-
net has a purely relativistic origin" [124, p. 548]. Such an explanation
contradicts the experiment with a contour rotating together with the
magnet, p. 407.
Besides, a significant drawback of such explanations is the arti-
ficial replacement of the observed continuous process by the process
in one or another discontinuous (discrete) model and the lack of anal-
ysis of the result of the transition from the introduced discrete model
to the original continuous model.
The well-known encyclopedic Internet resource en.wikipedia.org
in the "Unipolar generator" section, referring to the book [126, p.
210], proposes to explain the work of the unipolar generator by the
"modern interpretation" of the electromagnetic induction law, in
which the total derivative of the magnetic flux is considered and when
it is revealed, an additional term allegedly appears. But such an inter-
pretation of the derivative of the surface integral is mathematically
erroneous. In mathematics, the surface integral of the function is in-
troduced as a quantity independent of the spatial coordinates. There-
fore, its total time derivative coincides with the partial one and does
not give any additional terms.
A typical scheme of the unipolar generator is shown in fig. 5. An
essential part of such a generator is the disk of the radius 𝑅𝑅, rotating
at an angular velocity 𝛚𝛚, directed along the axis of the disk. A con-
stant magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 is created by the magnet or the electric current
and is also parallel to the axis of the disk.

240
 Fig. 5. Scheme of the unipolar generator.

The field 𝐁𝐁 in such a system is perpendicular to the normal to the

plane in which the closed contour lies, and therefore does not create a
magnetic flux through the surface bounded by this contour. As a re-
sult, the emf of induction ℰ (109) is zero. However, measurements
show that there is an emf at the ends of the segment connecting the
axis of rotation and the edge of the disk. The value of this emf is pro-
portional to the angular speed of rotation |𝛚𝛚| and magnetic field |𝐁𝐁|.
Let us confine ourselves for simplicity to considering the case
when the vortex flow of the ether with the velocity 𝐮𝐮, corresponding
to the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) (formula (20)), is weakly de-
pendent on the ether flow caused by the rotation of the disk with ve-
locity 𝐕𝐕. That is, we will not consider sequently interaction of 𝐕𝐕 and
𝐁𝐁. Such a situation takes place, for example, at 𝐕𝐕 ⊥ 𝐮𝐮 or |𝐕𝐕| ≪ |𝐮𝐮|.
Suppose that the velocity of the ether 𝐕𝐕, caused by the rotation of
the disk, is directed perpendicular to the radius and can be represented as

𝑟𝑟 𝛼𝛼
𝐕𝐕 = 𝛚𝛚 × 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅 � � , (207)
𝑅𝑅

241
where 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 is the radial unit vector of the basis of the cylindrical coor-
dinate system with the axis coinciding with the axis of rotation. At
𝛼𝛼 ≠ −1, the flow of the ether with velocity 𝐕𝐕 is vortical, since in this
case 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕 ≠ 0.
Accounting (𝛚𝛚 × 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 ) × 𝐁𝐁 = (𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝛚𝛚)𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 − (𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 )𝛚𝛚 = (𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝛚𝛚)𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 ,
we have for emf of Zhukovsky ℰЖ (206) on the segment 𝐿𝐿 = [𝑟𝑟0 , 𝑅𝑅]

𝐕𝐕
ℰЖ = � � × 𝐁𝐁� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 =
𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 𝑟𝑟 𝛼𝛼
� � � �(𝛚𝛚 × 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 ) × 𝐁𝐁� ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟0 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑟𝑟 𝛼𝛼
� � � (𝐁𝐁 ∙ 𝛚𝛚)𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (208)
𝑐𝑐 0 𝑅𝑅
⎧ 𝑅𝑅
𝛼𝛼+1
− 𝑟𝑟0𝛼𝛼+1
|𝛚𝛚||𝐁𝐁| ⎪ (𝛼𝛼 + 1)𝑅𝑅 𝛼𝛼−1 , 𝛼𝛼 ≠ −1
± ,
𝑐𝑐 ⎨ 𝑅𝑅
⎪𝑅𝑅 ln 𝑟𝑟 , 𝛼𝛼 = −1
⎩ 0

where 𝑟𝑟0 is the radius on which the internal current collector is lo-
cated, |𝐁𝐁|/𝑐𝑐 = |𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)|, the sign "+" corresponds to the case of
unidirectional vectors 𝐁𝐁 and 𝛚𝛚, and "−" – to the opposite one.
At negative 𝛼𝛼, the parameter 𝑟𝑟0 begins to play an important role.
In the case of 𝑟𝑟0 = 0 and 𝛼𝛼 ≠ −1, the formula for ℰЖ is simplified

|𝛚𝛚||𝐁𝐁| 𝑅𝑅 2
ℰЖ = ± .
𝑐𝑐 𝛼𝛼 + 1

At 𝛼𝛼 = 1, this expression coincides with the formulas from [124, p.

548] and [93, p. 117].

242
 Thus, the etheric interpretation gives a simple explanation of the
emf proportionality to the angular speed of rotation |𝛚𝛚| and the magni-
tude of the magnetic field |𝐁𝐁| = 𝑐𝑐|𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)|. The formula for the emf
also includs the parameter 𝛼𝛼 of the distribution of the ether flow velocity
𝐕𝐕 over the radius. Parameter 𝛼𝛼 depends on the material of the disk.
The results of experiments with unipolar generators of different
designs are briefly summarized in the form of a table on the resource
ru.wikipedia.org in the section "Unipolar Generator" [127]. The ap-
pearance of emf as a result of the ether flow explains all experiments
with moving and fixed parts of the generator without involving the
discrete model and the relativity theory. This includes the experiment
that causes the greatest difficulty in trying to interpret it within the
framework of the paradigm adopted in physics, namely: the presence
of a current in the stationary circuit at simultaneously rotating disk
and fixed to it magnet. In this experiment, in the motionless state there
is no emf, but in the rotating one there is, in spite of the fact that the
magnet and the disk remain non-movable relative to each other and
the magnetic flux through the closed circuit, with which the emf is
recorded, is absent. The inertia of the electrons (the centrifugal effect)
does not explain the current, since changing the direction of rotation
to the opposite changes the sign of the current. The current is also not
explained by the effect of the magnetic component of the Lorentz
force on the electrons, since in the direction transverse to the magnetic
field the electrons would have to be "locked", rotating along the Lar-
mor circle (magnetic trap). From the point of view of the ether theory,
according to (206), for the emergence of emf in the unipolar generator
it is only important that there is ether motion with a velocity 𝐕𝐕 and
the vectors 𝐕𝐕 and 𝐁𝐁 are not parallel.
The ether is completely excluded from the modern physics.
Therefore, the absence in it of a clear explanation of the unipolar gen-
erator operation principle indicates that the ether effects play a major
role in this device. Such a situation motivated the authors, together
with their colleagues, to design the unipolar generator and undertake

243
a series of experiments with it. The measurement results confirmed
the etheric mechanism of the unipolar generator operation. The data
obtained show that the current flow in the unipolar generator cannot
be explained by the motion of electrons, see sec. 23.3.
The unipolar generator may allow one to evaluate the role of the
third "etheric" term in the generalized Zhukovsky force 𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 , if the full
expression for 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (121) is used in (204) for analyzing experi-
ments.
Study of the processes in the unipolar generator helps to under-
stand the reason for the appearance of the electric field of the Earth
(see also sec. 15.2, 22.2, 25). If we consider the Earth rotating in the
magnetic field, then, presenting it in the form of cylindrical layers
mounted on a common axis, we obtain the appearance of emf on the
surface of each layer.
This conclusion means that the electrical processes associated
with the charging of the Earth are not due to the thunderstorm activity,
as it is usually assumed (see, for example: [28, p. 83]) but have a
deeper nature that requires additional studies (see also p. 587). The
mathematical theory of the ether provides a powerful tool for under-
taking such a research.

18.12. Hall effect. Hall's constant

The Hall effect is the occurrence of a transverse electric field and

a potential difference in a metal or semiconductor, through which an
electric current passes, when placed in a magnetic field perpendicular
to the current direction [36, p. 462; 28, sec. 98; 152, Ch. 7].
In currently accepted physics, the Hall effect is explained by the
motion of free electrons. However, this leads to controversy, see, for
example [28, p. 418]: in some metals, positive charges should act as
carriers of the current, and negative charges in others. The resolution
of this and other contradictions is shifted to the quantum theory [28,
p. 418].

244
 In the etheric interpretation, the electric current is the ether flow,
and the possible motion of charged particles in it is a secondary con-
comitant effect. Let us show that with such an understanding of the
current there are no contradictions in the explanation of the Hall-effect,
and it does not require the involvement of a complex to interpret model
of quantum mechanics with numerous postulates and principles.
By analogy with [28, sec. 98], we consider a thin conductive tape.
Apply perpendicular to the tape plane a magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 of the con-
stant value |𝐁𝐁| = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, but not necessarily of a constant direction.
This field corresponds to some density and velocity of the ether 𝜌𝜌 and
𝐮𝐮 (20). The ether flow entering the tape can be changed significantly
due to the interaction with the structural elements of the tape material
and the ether flow created by them. Denote by 𝜌𝜌� and 𝐮𝐮 � the density and
velocity of the ether, induced inside the tape by the external field 𝐁𝐁.
Create a current in the tape with density 𝐣𝐣, |𝐣𝐣| = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. The di-
rection of 𝐣𝐣, generally speaking, may vary. According to (133), the
presence of the current means the flow of the ether with a vortical
velocity 𝐕𝐕:

𝐣𝐣 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐕𝐕.

The instantaneous superposition of the velocity 𝐕𝐕 on 𝐮𝐮

� in the vol-
ume element 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 gives rise to the generalized Zhukovsky force (121).
In the case of the absence of external non-potential forces and the
domination of the velocity 𝐮𝐮
� over 𝐕𝐕, the formula (121) takes the form:

𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 = 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌�𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮

�)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

In the direction of the element of the length 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥, the force 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕
creates the pressure (204)

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕 = �𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌�𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮

�)�� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = �𝐣𝐣 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌�𝐮𝐮
�)�� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.

245
 Taking into account the relation of the ether pressure difference
and the potential difference (75), we have

1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �𝐣𝐣 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌�𝐮𝐮
�)�� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

We introduce a unit vector in the direction of the current 𝐣𝐣: 𝐢𝐢𝑗𝑗 ≡

𝐣𝐣/|𝐣𝐣 |. We integrate over the shortest segment connecting the edges of
the tape and obtain the potential difference between the edges. Using
the constancy of |𝐣𝐣| and |𝐁𝐁| and designating the width of the tape by
the letter 𝑎𝑎, we write this difference in the form

𝜑𝜑2 − 𝜑𝜑1 = 𝑅𝑅|𝐣𝐣 ||𝐁𝐁|𝑎𝑎, (209)

1 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌�𝐮𝐮
�)
𝑅𝑅 ≡ � �𝑖𝑖𝐣𝐣 × � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥. (210)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 |𝐁𝐁|

The expression (209) coincides with the well-known formula for

the potential difference in the Hall effect [28, p. 416]. The coefficient
𝑅𝑅 is called the Hall constant.
The resulting etheric interpretation of the Hall effect (209), (210) is
a logical consequence of the ether equations (4)–(6). It does not require
the mandatory presence of negative or positive charges in the conductor.
The etheric representation of the Hall constant (210) can be re-
written using a magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 � = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌�𝐮𝐮
�), induced in the tape by
the external field 𝐁𝐁:

1 �
𝐁𝐁
𝑅𝑅 = � �𝑖𝑖𝐣𝐣 × � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 |𝐁𝐁|

𝑅𝑅 can be either positive or negative, depending on the particular

ether flow 𝜌𝜌�𝐮𝐮
� in this or that material. For example, in sec. 12.4 it is

246
shown that the direction of the magnetic field in the conductor may
change sign depending on the distribution of the ether speed in it. The
possibility of changing the sign of 𝑅𝑅 removes the contradictory inter-
pretation of the Hall effect in physics [28, p. 418], which abandoned
the notion of a medium and replaced the flow of the ether in a con-
ductor by the motion of free electrons.
In the future, when the ether theory of the atomic structure of
solids will be constructed, formula (210) will allow to calculate 𝑅𝑅 the-
oretically.

18.13. Electrostatic effects

In sec. 3, the definition of electric charge, the properties of the

electrostatic field and electric potential, their relationship with the pa-
rameters of the ether are considered. The electrostatic field is ex-
pressed through the pressure gradient of the ether (72). This fact al-
lows us to give a visual interpretation of electrostatic effects and
deeply understand the essence of the processes occurring in electro-
static devices.
This section deals with the etheric interpretation of electrostatic
effects mainly at a qualitative level. A detailed quantitative descrip-
tion of the ether behavior dynamics inside, on the border and outside
the objects requires the formulation of mathematical problems for
equations (4)–(6) taking into account the atomic structure of matter,
specifying the boundary and initial conditions and conducting numer-
ical modeling. The study of such issues is one of the directions for
further research.
According to the results of sec. 3, in order to impart an electric
charge to an object (wire or dielectric) it is necessary to change the
pressure of the ether inside or inside the border area. In accordance
with the equation of state (15), this can be done by changing the speed
or density of the ether. At the end of sec. 3 and in sec. 23.9.1 p. 499 it

247
is shown that the negative charge of the object corresponds to the in-
creased pressure of the ether inside it, and the positive charge to the
reduced pressure. It can be assumed that a similar situation takes place
in the microcosm at the level of electrons and protons.
Partial retention of the ether pressure in the object is provided by
at least two effects: the formation of the surface layer with a disturbed
regular structure of atoms and molecules, for example, in metals, and
the orientation (polarization) of complex molecules with the dipole
property, for example, in dielectrics.
In the absence of external influence, experience shows the possi-
bility of a relatively long retention by the object of the charge deliv-
ered to it. This means that in such a case, the change in the pressure
of the ether in the object (alignment with external pressure) is a rela-
tively slow, quasi-stationary process.
By analogy with the motion of gas through small holes in a bal-
loon or through nozzles from a reservoir, it is natural to assume that
when the ether in a negatively charged object, having an increased
pressure, goes beyond the boundary, the ether flow accelerates and
then the ether velocity decreases with increasing distance from the
object. If at the same time the density of the ether changes weakly,
then, according to (15), (72), the pressure gradient in the outer to the
negatively charged object area is directed from the object, and the
electric field – towards it.
Accordingly, if near the outside of the positively charged object
the flow of the ether slows down at flowing into the object, then in
this region the electric field is directed from the object.
The directions of the electric field near a positively and nega-
tively charged object, obtained from the etheric interpretation, coin-
cide with those accepted in physics [28, p. 19, 20].
The potential of the electric field is the pressure of the ether, see
formula (74). Therefore, the equipotentiality of the conductor surface,
known from electrostatic experiments [28, p. 79], in the etheric inter-
pretation has a clear explanation as the constant pressure of the ether

248
on this surface. If the pressure was different in different parts of the
surface, then, according to (5), there would be a flow of the ether be-
tween them, since the ether can move in a conductor, which would
continue until pressure equalization, that is, until a static state consid-
ered in electrostatics is established.
The increase of the electric field on the surface of the conductor
with a higher convexity compared to the neighboring areas [28, p. 51;
32, p. 111] can be associated with the rarefaction in this place of the
structural elements of the conductor. As a result, the flow of the ether
is facilitated, which, according to (15), increases the pressure gradient
of ether in this area.
The flow of the ether through the concave surface, on the con-
trary, is complicated by the local increase in the density of the con-
ductor material that appears during such a deformation. In this region,
the ether pressure gradient decreases and the electric field (72) ac-
cordingly decreases.
The creation of a charge during the friction of some bodies
against each other can be interpreted as an increase or decrease in the
pressure of the ether in them. The transfer of the electric charge from
one object to another when they are in contact is like the transfer of
the ether pressure.
The conservation law of the electric charges “the algebraic sum
of electric charges in an isolated system is kept constant” [36, p. 341]
is a consequence of the condition of the ether pressure gradient flow
constancy in the steady state (77) through the surface 𝑆𝑆, bounding the
isolated system.
The charge is recorded in the experiment by the presence of the
electrostatic field, that is, where there is the ether flow that has the pres-
sure gradient. Herewith, according to (5), the ether moves in the direc-
tion of lower pressure. Therefore, induction of the induction charge [28,
p. 50] when the charged object is brought into the electric field, can be
explained by the occurrence of a difference in the ether pressure in some
part of this object compared to the ether pressure in the electric field.

249
 Consider a positive charge. The electric field created by it is di-
rected from the charge. Place in this field some object that has little
effect on the existing field. Near the side of this object nearest to the
charge, the electric field is directed toward the object. This means that
the pressure gradient has the opposite direction (72). Then the ether
pressure decreases when approaching the outside of this part of the
object's surface. As a result, on the side closest to the positive charge,
the pressure inside the object becomes greater than outside, which
corresponds to a negative charge. On the far side of the object from
the positive charge, the pressure in the field of this charge, on the con-
trary, increases when approaching the object's surface. The pressure
inside the object is less than the outside, which corresponds to a pos-
itive charge.
Similarly, the negative charge creates an increased ether pressure
near the object’s side nearest to it and lower to the far side. As a result,
on the near side, the pressure inside the object becomes smaller than
on the outside, and larger on the far side. There are respectively pos-
itive and negative charges.
It is known from experience that the charge can flow through a
conductor such as metal. From the ether point of view, this means that
in the conductor the pressure of the ether can equalize. Therefore, in
conductors there is an additional mechanism for the formation of in-
duction charge.
As already discussed, a positive charge creates an increased ether
pressure inside the nearest to it region of a conductor. At the boundary
of this region, the ether begins to flow out of the conductor. Inside the
inflow to the leak appears. Since the flow of the ether through the
boundary is difficult, this inflow slows down near it and the pressure
rises (including, possibly, due to the change in the characteristic ether
density 𝜌𝜌∗ in (15)), the induced negative charge is amplified. The flow
of the ether to the leak area leads to the outflow of the ether from the far
side of the conductor. On the far side, the ether begins to flow into the
conductor, accelerating inside it due to the difficult permeability of the

250
boundary, which leads to a drop in pressure from the inner side of the
border and, accordingly, to an increase in the induced positive charge.
A similar effect takes place in the field of negative charge, but
the positive charge is induced on the side of the conductor closest to
it, and the negative charge is induced on the far side.
Such an understanding of the behavior of the ether during induc-
tion of charge in a conductor corresponds to the experiment [28, p.
50], in which, as a result of disconnecting the two-cylinder conductor
at the presence of the electric charge field and then removing this
field, oppositely charged cylinders are obtained.
The etheric mechanism of attraction and repulsion of charged ob-
jects is considered quantitatively in sec. 16.1, 17.1. The qualitative
picture of the interaction of charges can be described as follows. The
gradients of the ether pressure, created by opposite charges, are di-
rected in the region between them in one direction. Their overlap en-
hances the flow and, according to (15), reduces the pressure, which
becomes smaller than around the charges sides that are not facing each
other, where the flow is weaker. As a result, pressure from the outside
pushes the charges towards each other. The ether flow between the
like charges is weaker than from their sides not facing each other,
since in this region the opposite pressure gradients overlap. Increased
pressure between like charges pushes them in different directions.
The experimentally known absence of the electrostatic field in-
side a conductor from the ether point of view (72) is explained by the
absence of a macroscopic ether motion 𝐮𝐮 ≈ 0 in it (except for the
boundary where 𝐮𝐮 ≠ 0 in the direction perpendicular to it), which
leads to a constant ether pressure 𝑝𝑝 inside the conductor see formula
(15). The conclusion about the constancy of the ether pressure in the
conductor can be called the ether analogue of Pascal's law [15, p. 7].
This conclusion is a consequence of the ether momentum conserva-
tion law (5). Therefore, the etheric justification for the absence of the
electrostatic field in a conductor is more convincing than the reference

251
in physics to the free electrons motionlessness inside the conductor
[34, sec. 18; 28, p. 50].
It is natural to assume that there are microscopic ether flows gen-
erated by atoms in a conductor, which, like in a single elementary
particle or atom, have a characteristic velocity 𝐮𝐮∗ of the order of the
velocity of light |𝐮𝐮∗ | = 𝑐𝑐. Then from the formula (15) at 𝐮𝐮 ≈ 0 we
can make an important conclusion: in the absence of external sources,
the change in the ether pressure in the conductor is due to the change
in the typical density 𝜌𝜌∗ of the ether structural elements (newtonians,
see sec. 21.2). In other words, the creation of the static charge in the
conductor leads to the change in the ether density in it. Therefore, the
ether flow through the conductor boundary may include the transfer
of newtonians, and not just the propagation of disturbances over them
(such as sound over atoms in metal).
The tendency of the conductor to equalize the ether pressure
within itself can be explained by the fact that an area of increased or
lower pressure (for example, with a modified newtonian density) in
the microscopic ether flow in a regular atomic lattice is an alien for-
mation for this flow, which is influenced by a force similar to Archi-
medean force [9, sec. 26], see also sec. 23.5.1. The absence of a sharp
boundary in this formation leads to its stirring.
In the cavity of the conductor there are no sources or sinks of the
ether, therefore the ether flow through the inner boundary of the con-
ductor equalizes the ether pressure in the cavity with the pressure of
the ether in the thickness of the conductor.
Attempts to measure the thickness of the surface layer, in which
the charge of the conductor is concentrated, have shown that it is very
small [128, p. 77], see also [28, p. 49]. This circumstance speaks in
favor of the ether mechanism of the charge manifestation in the form
of an electric field as the vector proportional to the ether pressure gra-
dient (72) near the outer side of the object's boundary, and not as a
result of a change in the number of free electrons on it.

252
 We emphasize once again that the detailed study of the ether flow
through the surface of an object and the ether flow inside it requires
the construction of the etheric model of an object, in particular a solid
body, which is the direction of further research.
The absence of the electric field inside a conductor (having no
manifestations of dielectric properties) is of great fundamental im-
portance. For example, on this fact is based the proof of important
statements that make up the Faraday theorem [28, p. 53, 54; 32, p.
113–116]: “the sum of induced charges on the inner surface of the
conducting shell is equal and opposite in sign to the sum of charges
surrounded by this shell”, more precisely, surrounded by the surface
lying between the inner and outer boundaries of the shell; "The Cou-
lomb field of charges surrounded by the conducting envelope and
charges induced on its inner surface is zero in all outer space."
We show that the absence of the electric field inside a conductor
leads to a contradiction in the theory of free electrons at describing
electrostatics of a conductors system.
From experience it is known that the charge of any of the con-
ductors being not in contact with each other depends on the potentials
of all the conductors involved in the formation of the electric field,
see, for example: [34, p. 72]. This conclusion also follows from the
formula (27.5) in [28, p. 105]
𝑛𝑛

𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 = � 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝜑𝜑𝑗𝑗 , 𝑖𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛𝑛,

𝑗𝑗=1

where 𝑛𝑛 is the number of conductors not connected to each other, 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖

is the charge of the 𝑖𝑖-th conductor, 𝜑𝜑𝑗𝑗 is the potential on its surface,
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 are capacitance coefficients determined only by size, shape, loca-
tion of conductors and the dielectric constant of the intermediate me-
dium (properties and methods of finding 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 are discussed in detail,
for example, in [32, p. 117–122]).

253
 According to this formula, a change in the potential 𝜑𝜑𝑘𝑘 of the
surface of one of the conductors leads to a change in charges on the
other conductors without direct contact between the conductors.
Herewith, the concentration of free electrons inside the conductors
with the numbers 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑘𝑘 cannot change, since the electrostatic field in
them is zero and, therefore, the charge density (28) must be zero. The
number of electrons on their surfaces cannot change either, since the
conductors do not contact with each other (the charge density can be
redistributed over the conductor surface as a result of electrostatic in-
duction, but this does not change the total charge of the surface).
There is a contradiction in the electronic theory of electrostatics: the
charge 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 of the whole conductor changes without contact, and the
number of electrons in it and on its surface does not change.
The obtained contradiction means that the theory of free electrons
in the conductor cannot be applied to electrostatics.
Besides, sec. 23.2.1 shows that free electrons (if present) cannot
form clusters in a quasi-neutral conductor on scales larger than inter-
atomic. Another contradiction arises in the theory of free electrons:
on the one hand, it is believed that their motion explains the polariza-
tion of the conductor even in a relatively weak electrostatic field, on
the other hand, free electrons in such a field cannot move at distances
greater interatomic ones.
Historically, the laws of electrostatics were discovered in the para-
digm of the ether existence (see, for example: [128]), even if it was not
formalized by quantitative relations (4)–(6). Therefore, the noted essen-
tial omissions of the free electrons theory either were not noticed in time
or were hushed up when the empty space paradigm was imposed.
In the etheric interpretation of electrostatics, these contradictions
do not arise, since the change in the potential on the surface of one
conductor means the change of the ether pressure in it and in its sur-
rounding area, which, according to (4)–(6), leads to the change of the
ether pressure and gradient of the pressure around other conductors,
and, consequently, to the change of the charges of these conductors.

254
 In view of the equality (74), the calculation of the static ether
pressure of the conductors system, the pressure in them and the
charges on them is reduced to the solution of electrostatics standard
problems, see, for example: [62, p. 396–401; 130, ch. IV].
The main experimental evidence of the potential (the ether pres-
sure) constancy inside the conductor is the experiment with the Fara-
day cylinder [128, p. 82–86; 28, p. 54; 34, p. 61] and the experiments
of Cavendish and Maxwell [34, sec. 28 and p. 595–597].
Let us discuss the generally accepted interpretation of the experi-
ment with the Faraday cylinder and give its etheric interpretation. In
this experiment, a hollow cylinder and a small ball, as compared with
the cylinder dimensions, are considered. The ball is charged away
from the cylinder and introduced into the cavity of the cylinder. The
measurements described in [128, p. 86], show that a charge equal to
the charge of the ball is induced on the outer side of the cylinder. The
ball's contact with the inner wall of the cylinder does not change the
charge of the outer side of the cylinder [128, p. 86]. The extracted ball
is uncharged, that is, its entire charge remains on the cylinder. Repeti-
tion of the above actions again transfers the entire charge of the ball to
the cylinder. The removed ball is again uncharged. All points on the
outer surface, the inner surface and in the thickness of the cylinder
have the same potential [34, p. 460; 129, p. 73; 36, p. 357]. It is claimed
that multiple repetition of such operations can theoretically deliver the
hollow conductor an arbitrarily large charge [28, p. 54; 34, p. 61].
Interestingly, in physics, the fundamental problem of explaining
the details of the charge transfer mechanism (or potential) in the di-
rection from the lower (in absolute value), to which a small ball is
charged, to a much higher (in absolute value) charge (potential) of cy-
linder through the touch of the ball to the inner boundary of the cyl-
inder is either not considered at all, or put into problems for self-so-
lution, see, for example: [131, problems 34, 35, p. 9, 128; 132, p. 380;
133, problems 24, 28, 41, 42; 134, problem 10.4, p. 47, 163; 28, p.
107, problems 1 and 2; 34, sec. 30].

255
 The explanation accepted in physics is as follows. The ball and
the cylinder have a charge of the same sign, and therefore between
them Coulomb repulsion force acts. When the ball approaches the cyl-
inder and is introduced into the cavity, the work is performed against
the repulsive force, as a result of which the small ball is charged by
the potential by an amount equal to the potential of the cylinder. On
the ball inside the cylinder there is an excess potential corresponding
to the initial charge of the ball, see [131, problems 34, 35, p. 9, 128].
The contact of the ball with the inner surface of the cylinder transfers
to the outer side of the cylinder all the excess potential of the ball.
However, the mechanism of the ball potential increasing when
performing the work is not explained in physics. Besides, as already
noted, the electron theory of electrostatics does not explain the growth
of the charge of the test ball |𝑞𝑞| with an increase of its potential |𝜑𝜑| at
approaching the cylinder, since the number of electrons in the ball
does not change.
In the etheric approach, the problem of interpreting the experi-
ment with the Faraday cylinder does not arise. The potential is the
pressure of the ether (74). Therefore, the work against the pressure
(flow of the ether) created by the cylinder, goes on increasing the
pressure of the ether inside the ball: the forced motion of the ball in
the ether flow causes to increase the flow through its partially perme-
able boundary. The surface of the conductor is capable of retaining
the ether pressure for a long time, therefore the initial pressure in the
ball is not lost. In the cavity of the cylinder, the ball turns out to be
with a pressure that differs from the pressure in the cylinder by an
amount of the order of the initial pressure in the ball (and, according
to (190), with the changed charge). The contact of the ball with the
inner wall of the cylinder leads to pressure equalization, that is, to an
increase of the pressure in the cylinder. Since the ether pressure in the
conductor is constant, the pressure (potential) on the surface of the
cylinder also increases. The change of the pressure in the cylinder

256
makes stronger the flow of the ether through its boundary, the pres-
sure gradient increases, that is, the electric field, which is interpreted
by the observer as the appearance of an additional charge on the cyl-
inder. When the ball is pulled out of the cylinder, the work is done in
the opposite direction, it goes to change of ether pressure in the ball,
as a result of which all residual pressure after contact of the ball is lost
far from the cylinder and the ball becomes uncharged.

18.14. Electrostatic devices

According to sec. 18.13, the electrostatic effects are based on par-

tial holding of the ether pressure by objects, the ability of conductors
to equalize the pressure of the ether within themselves and the mani-
festation of the difference in pressure of the ether. These effects are
used in technical devices to convert mechanical motion into ether
pressure (electrostatic field), for example, in the Van de Graaff gen-
erator [28, p. 55; 34, p. 61, 62; 129, p. 74], as well as in the electro-
phore machine (electrophore) [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wimshurst_
machine], and in devices for creating mechanical motion using the
ether pressure such as, for example, the Franklin wheel or bitbrace
(kolovrat) [28, p. 52], the electric rotor [28, p. 52], asymmetric capac-
itor (lifter) [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifter], a pendulum in a capacitor.
In most of the textbooks on physics, the principles of electrostatic
devices are described extremely modestly, which is apparently related
with the problem of their explanation using the theory of free elec-
trons in conductors. Moreover, for a clear description of the processes
essence, the electron theory has to rely on intuitively understandable
ether terminology, for example: “transfer, flow, push out, charge in-
duction”, “charged to potential”, “leakage of electricity”, etc.
Let us dwell briefly on the etheric interpretation of these devices
operation mechanisms.
The principle of the Van de Graaff generator operation [28, p. 55]
is based on the experiment with the Faraday cylinder, which is con-
sidered in detail at the end of sec. 18.13. In the etheric interpretation,

257
in contrast to the electronic one, the principle of the generator opera-
tion is simple and illustrative and consists in creating of the significant
pressure in the hollow conductor by small portions.
The electrophore machine is widely used in many demonstration
experiments for producing of the high electrostatic field strength.
However, the description of the mechanism of it work is not found in
the main literature recommended for teaching students on physical
specialties. The principle of the electrophore operation uses an in-
crease in the ether pressure difference (potentials) with increasing of
the distance between opposite charges. This property follows from the
formula (191): 𝑝𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑝1 increases with decreasing of 𝐶𝐶 at 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

Fig. 6. A scheme of the electrophore machine.

Let us consider in detail the etheric interpretation of the electro-

phore work. A pair of conducting sectors 𝐴𝐴1 and 𝐵𝐵1 facing each other
on the 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 disks of the electrophore forms a capacitor, see fig. 6
[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wimshurst_machine].
There is a small initial ether pressure (potentials) difference in
the sectors due to the presence of positively and negatively charged
ions in the air (see appendix 6). The disks of the electrophore rotate

258
in different directions. The distance between sectors 𝐴𝐴1 and 𝐵𝐵1 in-
creases. As a result, the capacity of the considered capacitor 𝐴𝐴1 𝐵𝐵1
drops. Then, according to (191), the difference of the ether pressure
between the sectors 𝐴𝐴1 and 𝐵𝐵1 increases at a slightly changing charge
(pressure increments inside 𝐴𝐴1 and 𝐵𝐵1). At this moment, one of the
sectors, for example, 𝐴𝐴1 , of the separated capacitor 𝐴𝐴1 𝐵𝐵1, is opposite
the sector 𝐵𝐵2 of the disk 𝐵𝐵2, which is closed by a conductor with sec-
tor Y1 , lying diagonally on 𝐵𝐵. The pressure increased in the capacitor
𝐴𝐴1 𝐵𝐵1 induces in the closed sectors 𝐵𝐵2 and Y1 opposite in sign the ether
pressure increments (potentials), strengthening in each of them the al-
ready existing pressure increment (charging).
Moving further, the sector 𝐴𝐴1 touches the brush 𝑍𝑍 of the external
circuit and partially relieves the ether pressure (discharges). Then the
sector 𝐴𝐴1 gets on the diagonal conductor of the disk 𝐴𝐴1 , which closes
the sector X1 . Sectors 𝐴𝐴1 and X1 receive the induced pressure (charge)
similar to sectors 𝐵𝐵1 and Y1 . This time the pressure increment in 𝐴𝐴1
has the opposite sign. Thus, the disk 𝐴𝐴 transfers on one half of the
sectors the pressure increment of a certain sign, and on the other – the
opposite one. Similarly, for sectors of the disk 𝐵𝐵. The B disk sectors
are discharged to the 𝑍𝑍1 brush of the second external contour.
The beating of the pendulum between the plates of the capacitor
is explained by the occurrence of the induced increment of the ether
pressure of a different sign on its sides, by the Coulomb law attraction
to the nearest plate, getting a charge from it; by the attraction to the
oppositely charged plate, charge exchange on it, and so on.
The rotation of the bitbrace and the electric rotor, the floating of
the lifter in air is associated with the appearance of the so-called ion
(or electric) wind. These phenomena are explained by the ionization
of air molecules around thin and sharp edges at voltages of ~20 [kV].
Near the tip or thin electrode, the strength of the electric field in-
creases [34, sec. 29]. As a result, ionization of air molecules occurs,
see details in appendix 7. The resulting ions begin to repel, according
to the Coulomb's law, from the electrode, which ionized them. The
created amount of motion is enough to rotate the bitbrace, the electric

259
rotor and lifting the lifter into the air. Greater ion acceleration in the
bitbrace or rotor is achieved by mounting a ball next to it, which is
connected to the opposite electrode. In the lifter, the second electrode
is made of the wide foil, on which the ionization is less intense, see,
for example, the video [www.youtube.com/watch?v=vzZy1Aqleno&
t=9s] about the features of the lifter manufacturing.
Exhaustive research requires an answer to the question of
whether the movement of the bitbrace, electric rotor and lifter is main-
tained in a high vacuum, where there is no gas and, accordingly, no
ionization effect, as well as whether the charge leaks from the object
in the vacuum. The ether motion has the impulse (5), therefore, posi-
tive answers to these questions will confirm existence of the ether. It
would also be interesting to repeat in the vacuum the experiment on
the investigation of the charge location in a capacitor, see, for exam-
ple: [www. youtube.com/watch?v=PCae6jRw6Jg], [www.youtube.
com/watch?v = nQ-En3vWKsE] and other videos on this topic.
Much to our surprise, no reliable information was found in the
scientific literature about a serious study of these issues. At that, for
sure, experiments in the vacuum should have been carried out numer-
ously to implement the methodology of physics, which generalizes
the experimental facts. There is a suspicion that the ether effects have
been observed, but have not been published in the scientific literature
due to the contradiction to the relativistic paradigm of empty space.
The experiments we carried out together with our colleagues and
information on similar experiments found in the Internet show that
motion in the vacuum takes place, see sec. 23.9.4, 23.9.5. This, in
combination with many other experimental facts collected in sec. 23,
confirms the existence of the ether and the ether mechanism of elec-
trostatic effects.

18.15. Plasma confinement in toroidal traps. Generalization

of mathematical models of plasma

A large number of processes with different characteristic times

develop in a toroidal plasma [135]. In the close to steady state regime,

260
a gradual transition of one quasi-equilibrium state of the plasma to
another occurs, caused by the self-consistent interaction of the plasma
and the magnetic and electric fields. On the one hand, various pro-
cesses in the plasma change the gas kinetic pressure and current,
which leads to a restructuring of the electromagnetic field. On the
other hand, the electromagnetic field itself affects the evolution of
processes in a plasma.
From the etheric point of view, there is a self-consistent interac-
tion of charged plasma particles with ether, represented in the form of
magnetic and electric fields (20), (21).
The development of adequate plasma evolution models is ex-
tremely important. Such models and their corresponding numerical
codes make it possible to quantitatively study the change in plasma
properties in the course of time, optimize plasma confinement re-
gimes, study particle and heat transfer processes, calculate plasma
current generation by inductive and non-inductive methods, solve
problems of efficient energy production using hydrogen isotope syn-
thesis (fusion) reactions [www.iter.org].
Now, in the most general form, the self-consistent problem of the
equilibrium evolution of a toroidal plasma is described by three
groups of equations: the Maxwell equations, the equilibrium equation,
and a system of kinetic equations for the distribution functions of each
kind of plasma particle [57, 58, sec. 1.1]. The charge density and cur-
rent density included in Maxwell's equations are expressed through
the distribution functions.
It is noted in sec. 2.2 that instead of solving the system of eight
Maxwell equations for determining of two vector functions 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄,
a more efficient approach is to solve four ether equations (22), (23)
with respect to the scalar function 𝜌𝜌 and the vector function 𝐮𝐮 and
then use them for calculating fields 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄 (20), (21). Such an ap-
proach will increase the generality of the toroidal plasma model and,
possibly, allow to understand unexplained phenomena.

261
 At present, the radial energy flow in the toroidal plasma is con-
sidered as anomalously large, that is, it is not explained in physics.
Perhaps taking into account the energy of the radial flow of the ether
will solve this fundamental problem.
Under certain conditions, in the toroidal plasma an almost instan-
taneous transfer of its properties from the center to the periphery is
observed. In physics, the mechanism of such a phenomenon is not
explained. In the theory of the ether, it can be interpreted as the oc-
currence of the radial motion of the ether to the periphery, which, due
to the small size of the newtonians, does not experience noticeable
obstacles when passing through the substance of the plasma.
Another fundamental problem of the confinement in the form of
the torus is the explanation of the mechanisms by which plasma in-
stabilities arise. It is possible that many of them are due to the emer-
gence of an unstable flow of the ether.
For example, the plasma of almost all tokamaks has so-called
sawtooth oscillations, usually occurring in its center and leading to
plasma mixing in this region. This process is undesirable because it
leads to the cooling of the central plasma region, and in the worst
cases, to disruption of the discharge. Experimental and theoretical
study of sawtooth oscillations began quite a long time ago and con-
tinues at the present time, see, for example, [136–138]. Many models
of sawtooth oscillations have been proposed [137]. However, so far
the mechanism of their occurrence is not clear.
From etheric positions, the sawtooth plasma oscillations can have
the following explanation. The radial electric field in typical dis-
charges is directed to the plasma center, see, for example: [57, 58, sec.
1.2.16, 4.1.2]. According to (72), this means that the pressure gradient
of the ether is directed outwards, and in accordance with (6), the ether
flow moves toward the plasma center. In conditions of the impossi-
bility of unlimited uniform compression of the ether, periodically it
splashes out of the central region.

262
 The ether mechanism can also explain the formation of so-called
Edge Localized Modes (ELM) on the edge of the plasma. The essence
of ELM is the appearance at the boundary of a highly compressed
plasma cord of local buckling, which expands and bursts, see, for ex-
ample, the literature in the review [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITER]. As
a result, the reactor wall overheats, its increased wear occurs, and the
plasma is cooled and becomes clogged with impurities.
In discharges with the improved plasma confinement at its
boundary, there is usually a sharp local change in the radial electric
field. In the etheric interpretation, this means a sharp change in the
ether pressure gradient. The sharp ether pressure gradient prevents the
flow of the ether into or out of the plasma. There is a local accumula-
tion of the ether, causing the plasma to bulge. It should be emphasized
that charged particles accumulating in it can contribute to the for-
mation of a local splash in the pressure gradient, since, according to
(66), they also participate in the formation of the ether flow, as well
as sources external to the plasma.
The theory of the plasma confinement is based on the equilibrium
equation. In the classical form, it expresses the balance between the
force density of the magnetic pressure and the gas-kinetic pressure in
the steady state [57, 58, sec. 1.1]

𝐣𝐣
× 𝐁𝐁 = 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ,
𝑐𝑐

where 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 is the gas-kinetic pressure of plasma.

Perhaps in a more general case, the balance of forces in a medium
consisting of charged particles should take into account the gradient
of the ether pressure (potential (74))

𝐣𝐣
× 𝐁𝐁 = 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝, (211)
𝑐𝑐

263
since the ether flow has a noticeable effect on charged particles, for
example, in the form of the Lorentz force (174).
Taking into account the formula (72), the generalized equilibrium
equation (211) can be written in terms of the electric field 𝐄𝐄 (21), as-
sociated with the ether flow,
𝐣𝐣
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁 = 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 .
𝑐𝑐
Representing the current density through the ether velocity (133),
we come to the formula

𝐮𝐮 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐄𝐄 + × 𝐁𝐁 = ,
𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

which allows to give the generalized equation of the balance of the

forces density in the plasma (211) the ether interpretation as the equal-
ity of the Lorentz force field (25) and the field of the gas-kinetic pres-
sure of the plasma.
The study of the presented generalizations of the toroidal plasma
model should begin with a study of the ether effects significance. In
particular, it is necessary to understand whether the ether flow, cre-
ated by the currents in the coils, is closed in a certain volume, and find
out what effect the motion of charged particles has on this flow.

19. Interpretation of magnetic phenomena

A magnet is an object with its own magnetic field. In physics, it

is believed that the magnetic field of a magnet in the absence of elec-
tric current is excited by the rotation and motion of charged particles
in atoms (see, for example: [28, p. 242]). Such a magnetic field is
described by introducing of the molecular currents concept. Macro-
scopic manifestation of molecular currents is called magnetization
currents [28, p. 243].

264
 At the macro level in the magnet, domains are observed – mac-
roscopic regions, in each of which the magnetizing current flows with
its own orientation. A domain is usually characterized by a magneti-
zation vector representing the average magnetic moment of a domain
unit volume created by the magnetization current.
From the point of view of continuous media mechanics, the mag-
netizing current is a vortical flow of the ether (131) created by some
sources. The difference from the usual interpretation is that the mag-
netization current corresponds not to the currents circulating in the
atoms of the substance [28, p. 243], but to the ether vortical flow cre-
ated by atoms of matter or an external influence. In particular, the
magnetization current in the ether interpretation does not need to be
localized in the region where the charged particle or atom is located.
Thus, in the etheric interpretation, the electric currents in the con-
ductors and the magnetization currents in the magnets have the same
nature, consisting in the motion of the vortex ether flow (131).
In physics, the magnetization of a ferromagnet placed in an ex-
ternal magnetic field is associated with a change in the multidirec-
tional orientation of the magnetization vectors of the domains to uni-
directional. From the point of view of continuous media mechanics,
it is possible to assume the presence of a second magnetization mech-
anism – the creation by an external magnetic field (external ether
flow) in a ferromagnet of magnetization currents (vortex ether flows
in domains) that do not decay out for a long time due to the internal
structure of the ferromagnet. In such a mechanism, the magnetism of
a permanent magnet can be considered as a manifestation of the su-
perconductivity effect at the level of electric currents in the domains.
The ether interpretation of magnetization currents allows to give
a clear interpretation of the phenomena associated with permanent
magnets, and use equations (4)–(6) or (22), (23) for a detailed quanti-
tative study of their properties. In many cases, experiments with per-
manent magnets can be interpreted as a direct force effect of the ether,
due to the presence of the pressure gradient.

265
 19.1. Ether flow created by a domain

We explore the ether flow created by the domain using a simple

example. Consider the case when a ring magnetizing current flows in
the domain. Such a current on the ring axis creates a magnetic field
(see, for example: [28, p. 218])

2𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎2 𝐼𝐼
𝐁𝐁 = 𝐢𝐢 ,
𝑐𝑐(𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 )3/2 𝑧𝑧

where 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 is the unit basis vector of the cylindrical coordinate system
(𝑅𝑅, 𝜑𝜑, 𝑧𝑧) with the axis 𝑧𝑧, coinciding with the ring axis, 𝑎𝑎 is the ring
radius, 𝐼𝐼 is full total magnetizing current in the ring, (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 )1/2 is
the distance from a point on the ring to a point on the 𝑧𝑧 axis.
The etheric interpretation of the electric current allows to estab-
lish an interesting property of the magnetic field in the center 𝑧𝑧 = 0
of the ring current. According to (133), we have 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 =
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑆𝑆, where 𝑢𝑢 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 is the ether speed in an electric current, 𝜔𝜔 is
the angular speed of the ether current, 𝑆𝑆 is the cross-sectional area of
the current. Therefore

2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝐁𝐁 = 𝜔𝜔𝑆𝑆𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , (212)
𝑐𝑐

which means the independence of the magnetic field in the center of

the ring current on the radius of the ring at constant 𝑆𝑆 and 𝜔𝜔. Thus,
the ring currents of different radii with constant 𝑆𝑆 and 𝜔𝜔 generate the
same magnetic field near the center 𝑧𝑧 ≈ 0.
At points outside the 𝑧𝑧 axis, the expression for 𝐁𝐁 has a complex
form; therefore, we calculate here the density and velocity of the ether
near the 𝑧𝑧 axis.

266
 From the definition of the magnetic field (20) for the ether flow
density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮, we have near the 𝑧𝑧 axis

2𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎2 𝐼𝐼
𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = 𝐢𝐢 . (213)
𝑐𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 )3/2 𝑧𝑧

We will search for the magnetic ether flow, for which 𝐄𝐄 = 0 (see
sec.15.3). The second equation of the system (168), gives

𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 = 𝐶𝐶1 .

Substituting this expression into the third equation of the system

(168), we find

1 𝐮𝐮
|𝐮𝐮|𝛁𝛁 � � − 𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × � 2 �� = 0.
|𝐮𝐮| 𝐮𝐮

One of solutions of this equation is

𝐶𝐶2 sin 𝜑𝜑 𝐶𝐶2

𝐮𝐮 = 𝐢𝐢𝑅𝑅 + 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 ,
𝑅𝑅 cos 𝜑𝜑 𝑅𝑅
𝐶𝐶1 2
𝜌𝜌 = 2 𝑅𝑅 (cos 𝜑𝜑)2 ,
𝐶𝐶2

where 𝐶𝐶1 > 0, 𝐶𝐶2 are arbitrary constants. The density of such a flow
of the ether 𝜌𝜌|𝐮𝐮| is always limited. When considering |𝐮𝐮| separately
from the density 𝜌𝜌, the properties of the etheric medium should be
taken into account in the absence of external influences: |𝐮𝐮| ≤ 𝑐𝑐.
The condition (213), containing three equations, gives

𝐶𝐶1 2𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎2 𝐼𝐼
= 2 2 ,
𝐶𝐶2 𝑐𝑐 (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑧𝑧 2 )3/2
which is fulfilled for 𝑧𝑧 2 ≪ 𝑎𝑎2 .

267
 The found solution 𝐮𝐮 and 𝜌𝜌 describes the ether motion near the 𝑧𝑧
axis, since the equation (213) is true for 𝐁𝐁 on the 𝑧𝑧 axis. Note that the
ether velocity 𝐮𝐮 near the axis of the ring current does not have a com-
ponent along this axis. Besides, there is no pressure gradient on the
axis 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = −𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ) = 0.
To search for 𝐮𝐮 and 𝜌𝜌 in all points of space, a numerical solution
of the original system of equations (4)–(6) or (22), (23) is necessary.
In a more realistic approach to the formulation of the problem for
the ether flow created by a domain, it is necessary to accurately take
into account its geometry, as well as to take into account the condi-
tions at the domain boundaries and possible external influences.
The presence of the ether velocity around the domains allows to
reveal the essence of many phenomena associated with the force ac-
tion of permanent magnets.

19.2. Magnet and a ferromagnetic material

Consider the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. In accord-

ance with the concepts of classical physics, the magnetic field lines
begin and end at the magnet. For definiteness, we will assume that the
lines of force begin at the north pole of the magnet and end at its south
pole.
The effects arising around a permanent magnet should be at-
tributed to macrolevel ones, since they occur at distances of much
larger not only atomic processes, but also the typical size of domains.
Therefore, in the equation of ether motion (5) there is, generally
speaking, a non-zero right hand side, including the pressure gradient.
In the general case, a numerical solution of equations (4)–(6) or
(22), (23) with the appropriate right hand sides, boundary and initial
conditions is required.
We obtain approximate estimates, assuming that, in the sum, the
domains at relatively large distances weakly perturb the ether density
around the magnet

268
 𝜌𝜌 ≈ 𝜌𝜌0 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

In this case, the macrolevel equation of the ether motion coincides

with the hydrodynamic equation of motion of an incompressible in-
viscid fluid. The only difference is in the equation of state (15), where
the factor 1/2 is absent in the kinetic energy density. Therefore, taking
into account this difference, we can directly use the well-known hy-
drodynamic analogies
We emphasize once again that the hydrodynamic interpretation
of electromagnetic processes is generally accepted in continuous me-
dia mechanics. Magnetic phenomena are usually studied by introduc-
ing a vector potential 𝐀𝐀. In the theory of the ether, this approach finds
a simple explanation, since in the ether interpretation 𝐀𝐀 is the energy
density vector 𝐀𝐀 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐮𝐮 (see sec. 2.3). That is, the introduction in
physics of the vector potential 𝐀𝐀 means the study of the magnetic field
using the ether flow density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮.
The main property of permanent magnets is the effect of their
force influence on each other and on ferromagnets: attraction of op-
posite poles, repulsion of like-named ones, attraction of ferromagnets,
for example, objects of iron.
In the hydrodynamic interpretation, such effects may arise as a
result of a difference in pressure around an object. Then the effect of
a magnet force in the ether treatment can be explained by the appear-
ance of a region with a lower or higher pressure of the ether compared
to the pressure of the ether in the unperturbed state.
In continuous media mechanics, when obtaining estimates, the
Bernoulli integral is often considered as the equation of state [9, p.
96; 10, p. 111]. Here we will conduct reasoning on the basis of the
equation of state (15) with 𝛱𝛱 = 0, which formally differs from the
Bernoulli integral by the absence of a factor of 1/2

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 + 𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ (214)

269
and, moreover, it is fulfilled at all points of the medium, and not only
on the trajectory (see sec. 14). Here 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 is the ether density in mechan-
ical units (see. sec. 1.1 and 20.1).
Under the conditions considered, 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 , where 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 is the un-
perturbed ether density. Therefore, according to equation (214), regions
of various pressures of the ether appear when its velocity changes.
In classical physics, it is assumed that the magnetic field around a
permanent magnet is determined by the domains inside it. As already
noted, in the etheric interpretation of the magnetic field (20), these do-
mains create an ether flow density having a vorticity, that is, having a
non-zero rotor. As a result, the attraction or repulsion of permanent
magnets can be explained by the appearance of a gradient of the ether
pressure due to an increase or decrease in the ether velocity between
them. And the attraction of ferromagnetics by magnets by the appear-
ance of the ether pressure gradient due to the creation of orientation of
the ether flow in the domains of the ferromagnet that changes the ap-
plied magnetic field, that is, the ether velocity field. The d’Alembert
paradox (see, for example: [9, p. 290; 15, p. 194]) does not arise here,
since the ether flow under consideration is vortical.
Let us estimate quantitatively the etheric mechanism of magnetic
force action on the example of the loose magnet in the form of a rec-
tangular parallelepiped attraction to the fixed infinite wall made of the
ferromagnet and having a large thickness. Consider the case of the
absence of a gas and external forces in the surrounding magnet me-
dium. Place the magnet perpendicular to the wall at a sufficiently
close distance at which the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁0 between the wall and
the magnet can be considered constant (see fig. 7). For the sake of
definiteness, let the magnet pole closest to the wall be the north pole.
As noted above, the velocity of the ether motion from the north
pole of the magnet to the wall varies due to the reorientation of the
domains in the wall. The flow of the ether entering the southern pole
of the magnet also changes, since the ether flow lines (magnetic field

270
lines) now end, basically, on the wall, and the wall is infinite and does
not create a flow of the ether (magnetic field lines), coming to the
south pole. We assume that the speed of the ether between the wall
and the magnet is much higher than the speed of the ether near the
southern pole (this behavior can be explained, for example, by de-
creasing of the diameter of the ether flow between the magnet and the
wall at the same flow rate) i.e. the ether pressure near the southern
pole is weakly disturbed. Then, according to (214),

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2 + 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝0 , (215)

where 𝐮𝐮 and 𝑝𝑝 are the velocity and pressure of the ether between the
magnet and the wall, 𝑝𝑝0 is the ether pressure at infinity.

Fig. 7. A scheme of the magnet interaction with the

ferromagnetic wall; 𝐮𝐮d is the ether velocity in one of the
magnet domains, 𝐮𝐮w – in one of the wall domains,
𝐮𝐮 – is the velocity appropriate to the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁0 ;
closed lines show ether flow lines.

Thus, the velocity of the ether steady motion between the magnet
and the wall is determined by the difference of the pressure of the

271
unperturbed ether and the pressure of the ether between them. The
pressure difference between the vortex flow of ether affects the flow
of ether in the domains currents of the magnet. Domain currents are
limited by the surrounding substance, so the magnet moves with the
domain currents. The magnet gets in conditions similar to the motion
of the piston under the action of the pressure difference.
The formula (215) allows us to estimate the magnet attracting
speed, if we accept that the velocity of its steady state motion 𝐮𝐮𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛
coincides with the velocity of the ether motion 𝐮𝐮 between the magnet
and the wall

𝐮𝐮𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝐮𝐮. (216)

Let us turn to the evaluation of the pressure difference 𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝.

Suppose that the domains in the magnet and the wall create the ether
flow between the magnet and the wall in the form of a set of cylindri-
cal circular vortices with the constant vorticity.
The concept of magnetic field lines as vortex lines has long been
known in physics [86, p. 286]. Moreover, the experimental data on
the magnetic field lines correspond to the properties of vortex tubes
(a consequence of the second theorem of Helmholtz) ) [9, p. 50, 90,
162; 14, p. 367; 15, p. 300; 139, p. 47]: the vortex tubes cannot termi-
nate inside the medium – they either close to themselves, or rest on
the free surface of the medium or solid walls, or go to infinity.
The velocity field of incompressible fluid inside and outside the
steady state cylindrical vortex of the finite radius (circular vortex) was
calculated, for example, in [15, p. 296–298, formulas (27.31),
(27.32)]. In the approach described there, the linear velocity of the
vortex is calculated from a given angular velocity using the Biot –
Savard law [15, p. 284, 293, 296], that is, based only on kinematic
considerations. However, for a proper description of the ether vortex,
it is also required that the velocity found turns the equations of conti-
nuity and motion into identity.

272
 The equation of continuity is fulfilled inside and outside the cir-
cular vortex, since the velocity has just an azimuthal component,
which depends only on the radius.
In the model of the incompressible medium in order to satisfy the
equation of motion, it is assumed that inside and outside a circular
vortex, the flow with the velocity found from kinematic considera-
tions is provided by the external pressure [15, p. 298]. That is, in the
equation of motion, the density of the force is chosen to turn it into
the identity when substituting the known velocity.
As a result, the pressure inside and outside of the circular vortex
in a non-compressible medium is given by formulas (28.2), (28.3) in
[15, p. 298, 299].
In the compressible medium model, the pressure required to
maintain a steady flow in the vortex can be provided by appropriate
radial density distribution of the medium.
Acting within the framework of the circular vortex model in the
incompressible medium [15, p. 296–300], suppose that in the etheric
circular vortex, the external pressure provides the same pressure dis-
tribution in the vortex as calculated in [15, p. 298, 299]:

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝛚𝛚2 𝑟𝑟 2
⎧𝑝𝑝0 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝛚𝛚2 𝑎𝑎2 + , 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑎𝑎
𝑝𝑝 = 2 , (217)
⎨ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝛚𝛚2 𝑎𝑎4
⎩ 𝑝𝑝0 − , 𝑟𝑟 > 𝑎𝑎
2𝑟𝑟 2

where 𝑎𝑎 is the radius of the vortex (vortex core), 𝛚𝛚 is the angular

velocity of the vortex, 𝑟𝑟 is the distance from the center of the vortex.
According to (20), only the vortex velocity component of the
ether 𝐮𝐮 gives a contribution to the magnitude of the magnetic field at
𝜌𝜌 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. Outside the circular vortex, the velocity has no vorticity
𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮 = 0. Therefore, in the model of the magnetic field as a set of
circular vortices in the incompressible medium with the velocity field
[15, formulas (27.31), (27.32)], the magnetic field is not zero only

273
inside the circular vortex. However, such discreteness is invisible in
the volume that significantly exceeds the domain volume, since the
number of domains is large and their size is small, which means that
the density of the circular vortices created by the domains is high.
We assume that the influence on the pressure inside the vortex
from the other vortices is small. To estimate the order of magnitude,
we take for the ether pressure between the wall and the magnet some
average pressure in the vortex, for example, at 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎:

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝛚𝛚2 𝑎𝑎2

𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝0 − . (218)
2

Excluding 𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝 from formulas (215), (218), we get

2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝛚𝛚2 𝑎𝑎2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 = .
2

The angular speed 𝜔𝜔 is expressed in terms of the magnitude of

the magnetic field and the ether density in electromagnetic units 𝜌𝜌0
using the formula (20)

1 |𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌0 𝐮𝐮)| |𝐁𝐁0 |

|𝛚𝛚| ≡ |𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮| = = .
2 2𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0 2𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0

The CGS units system and the absolute Gaussian system for measur-
ing of electromagnetic quantities are used here.
Then

2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑎𝑎2 𝐁𝐁0 2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 = � � ,
2 2𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0
𝑎𝑎|𝐁𝐁0 |
|𝐮𝐮| = .
2√2𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0

274
 In the magnetic field model under consideration, the vortex is
created by the magnetic domain. Therefore, the radius of the vortex 𝑎𝑎
is defined by the radius of the domain. The size range of magnetic
domains is given, for example, in the review [en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/Magnetic_domain] and ranges to 10−2–10−4 [cm].
However, the vortex radius can be estimated directly from the dis-
tance between the lines of iron sawdusts, assuming that they are con-
centrated in the places of the lowest pressure (center) of the vortex
[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_domain]. To estimate the order of
magnitude we take some average value for the radius of the vortex
created by the domain

𝑎𝑎 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−3 [cm].

Then, at the speed of light 𝑐𝑐 = 2.9979 ∙ 1010 [cm/𝑠𝑠] and unper-

turbed ether density (227), we obtain in the field |𝐁𝐁0 | = 5 ∙ 103 [G]
the following estimate for the ether speed |𝐮𝐮| between the magnet and
the wall

|𝐮𝐮| ≈ 400 [cm/s].

The kinetic pressure of the magnet 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (energy density), having

a density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 and the velocity 𝑢𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 , is

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = .
2

Here the density of the kinetic energy of the magnet is understood in

the usual (not pulsed, sec 1.4) sense as the force work density for
moving it from one point to another.
For iron density, 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≈ 7.9 [g/cm3 ] and the speed �𝐮𝐮𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � ≈
|𝐮𝐮| ≈ 400 [cm/ s] we get 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≈ 0.6 ∙ 106 [dyne/cm2 ] ≈ 0.6 ∙

275
105 [Pa], that is, 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 has the order of the atmospheric pressure. It is
important to note that this result can be approximately verified in do-
mestic conditions. For example, the force required to hold a strong
magnet close to the wall of a refrigerator is consistent in order of mag-
nitude with a pressure about one atmosphere.
Formulas (215)–(218) allow us to estimate the density of the
ether experimentally.
The pressure of the magnet 𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 can be found by measuring (for
example, by a dynamometer) the force with which the magnet is at-
tracted to the wall, and dividing it by the cross-sectional area of the
magnet. Then from the equality 𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝 using formula (218)
we get

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑎𝑎2 𝐁𝐁0 2

𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = � � .
2 2𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0

Further, if in the same conditions we allow the magnet to move

freely and measure its speed 𝐮𝐮𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (for example, by a high-speed
video camera), then, taking into account 𝐮𝐮 ≈ 𝐮𝐮𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 , we have from the
formula (215)

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮2𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 .

The last two expressions allow estimating the ether density in

electromagnetic 𝜌𝜌0 and mechanical 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 units from measurements of
𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 , 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 and the known magnetic field 𝐁𝐁0 and the radius of the
vortex 𝑎𝑎, and also to find the conversion factor for the units of the
ether density measurement 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 :

𝑎𝑎|𝐁𝐁0 | 𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 2√2𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐

𝜌𝜌0 = , 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 = 2 , 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 ≡ = .
2√2|𝐮𝐮𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 |𝑐𝑐 𝐮𝐮𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎|𝐁𝐁0 |

276
 19.3. Conductive non-magnetic material and a magnet
Let us discuss the etheric interpretation of the experiment with a
permanent magnet, freely moving under the action of gravity in a ver-
tically located copper tube. A strong slowdown of the speed of the
magnet in the tube is observed.
There is a vortex flow of the ether around the magnet (sec. 19.2).
When the magnet passes through the tube, this flow interacts with the
internal structure of copper, as a result of which a flow of the ether
with a non-zero rotor of rotor appears in copper (see formulas (34),
(131)). In copper, the ether motion appears appropriate to the electric
current, which is discussed in detail in sec. 12.
Such currents in physics are called Foucault currents, and it is
emphasized that these currents are vortical and induction currents
(see, for example: [28, p. 262], as well as the illustration of Foucault
currents on site [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_current]).
The currents (the ether flows) in the walls of the copper tube in-
teract with the ether flows appropriate to the domain currents in the
magnet, according to Ampere's law, which is a consequence of the
ether vortical momentum conservation law (see sec. 12.1). In fact,
there is a force interaction of the ether vortex flows (see. sec. 11).
Arising forces prevent the magnet from moving along the tube.
The qualitative picture of the ether velocity field is shown in fig.
8. The ether flows of electric currents appropriate to the velocities
𝐮𝐮w,н and 𝐮𝐮d , repel each other, and for the velocities 𝐮𝐮w,в and 𝐮𝐮d at-
tract each other. Quantitative analysis of this observation requires the
numerical solution of the ether equations.
We emphasize that explanation of this experiment did not involve
any information about the directional motion of charged particles in
the magnet and the tube. From the point of view of the ether interpre-
tation of the process, the directed motion of charged particles, if it
occurs, is initiated by the ether flow.
A similar interpretation can be given to experiments with the lev-
itation of a copper spacer placed vertically or horizontally between

277
two poles of a strong magnet, as well as experiments with attenuation
of pendulum oscillations in the magnet field. Such experiments are
described, for example, in [28, p. 263].

Fig. 8. Section of the copper tube with a magnet in the form of the
spacer; 𝐮𝐮d is the ether velocity in one of the domains, velocity 𝐮𝐮𝐁𝐁
corresponds to field 𝐁𝐁, velocities 𝐮𝐮w,н , 𝐮𝐮w,в are induced in the tube;
the solid lines are the ether current (flow) lines, the dashed line is the
field 𝐁𝐁 line.

19.4. A conductor with a current and a magnet

Let us briefly stop on experiments with the deviation of the sus-

pended copper filament with a current in the field of a magnet [34]
and a float of the magnet above or below the superconductor [28, p.
321; 70, p. 102]. From the point of view of the ether theory, these

278
experiments have a relatively simple explanation at a qualitative level.
The situation here is similar to that discussed in sec. 19.3, but with a
more complex geometry of the magnetic field. There is a force inter-
action of the ether vortex flows, caused by the conservation law of the
ether vortex impulse (see. sec. 11).
Detailed analysis of such experiments is one of the directions for
further research.

19.5. The interaction of magnets with each other

The magnet creates around itself a vortex flow of the ether (see
sec. 19.2). The vortex flows of the magnets act on each other with a
force due to the preservation of the vortex impulse (sec. 11) and the
pressure difference (sec. 13), and move, dragging the magnets with
them (p. 272). At that, this force, in the general case, is distributed in
space, which significantly complicates the detailed study of the vortex
flows interaction. It is required to conduct numerical studies based on
the solution of the ether equations.
Nonetheless, at the qualitative level, the etheric interpretation al-
lows us to give simple and clear explanations to observations.
For example, it is easy to check, even in the domestic conditions,
that two identical magnets are much more strongly attracted to each
other than one of them to the ferromagnetic wall. This effect can be
explained by the fact that both magnets create a flow of the ether
around themselves and, accordingly, as the opposite poles approach
each other, the velocity of the ether increases significantly, and the
pressure decreases greatly. At the same time, as the magnet and the
wall come closer, the pressure between them does not decrease so
much, since in an isolated state the wall does not create a velocity
field in the ether.
The etheric interpretation of the magnets interaction, based on the
ether pressure difference, allows us to explain the smaller force re-
quired to separate two strong magnets using the third one applied to

279
them with the same pole, as well as less effort to separate the magnets
by a shift in their plane of tangency. See p. 283 on experiments with
magnet shift.
The rotation of the magnetic needle in the constant magnetic field
can be explained by the occurrence of the force moment associated
with the external vortical ether flow on the vortical flow created by
the domain flows in the magnetic needle.
It is known that long-term preservation of the magnet force prop-
erties is ensured by closing its poles by a jumper from a ferromagnet.
In the etheric interpretation, this effect is explained by the orientation
of the domain ether flows in the jumper, which, unlike air, not only
more easily passes the magnet ether flow through itself, but can also
support it with the ether flow in the jumper domains.

19.6. On attempts to create an engine or a power generator

based on the permanent magnets system motion

The analysis carried out in sec.19.2, 19.5 justifies the reasonableness

of attempts to develop devices using the difference of ether pressure or
ether kinetic energy for generating energy or performing mechanical
work. The question arises: is it possible to create an engine or an energy
generator by changing the relative position of the permanent magnets?
We will discuss this issue from the standpoint of the ether theory.
Consider a system of magnets connected by mechanical links, al-
lowing one to change the location of the magnets relative to each
other. Let us place this system in a region of ether 𝛺𝛺, which is isolated
from external influences, and does not contain any substance with the
exception of the magnets system.
Numerous experiments known from the publications show that
the magnetic properties of the magnet (the ether flow inside and out-
side it) practically do not change as a result of the relatively slow
movement of the magnet in the external magnetic field along an arbi-
trary path to the starting point, if at this moment the external magnetic

280
field also returns in the original state. That is, the course of the ether
flow when the magnet returns to the initial position remains the same
both outside and inside the magnet.
The stability of the magnetic properties of the permanent magnet
to a not too strong external magnetic field can be given a visual etheric
interpretation. The magnet interacts with the external magnetic field
through etheric vortices (sec. 19.1), created by domain ether currents
in the magnet, and the feature of the permanent magnet structural el-
ements organization (which is not yet fully understood) prevents the
influence of the external magnetic field on the orientation of the do-
main currents inside the magnet.
Many experiments, including attempts to create superunit devices
[125], show that at relatively slow motion after the return of the sys-
tem of magnets to the initial position, the magnetic properties of each
of them practically do not change. As a result, the magnetic field cre-
ated by all the magnets returns to its original state.
The magnetic field is proportional to the rotor (20) of the ether
density flow 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮. Therefore, the distribution of the rotor of the ether
flow density in 𝛺𝛺 returns to its original state. The rotor characterizes
only a part of the properties of the flow density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮; however, with
relatively slow movement of the magnets, no significant effects are
recorded by the available means. In particular, the electric field that
can arise according to (29), can be neglected. Therefore, it is natural
to assume that not only the rotor 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮, but also the density of the ether
flow 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮, as well as 𝜌𝜌 and 𝐮𝐮, separately return to the initial state. This
means that in the 𝛺𝛺 region there is no change in the density of the
kinetic energy of the ether (12) regardless of the trajectory along
which the magnets move.
Since the density of kinetic energy does not change in 𝛺𝛺, then,
according to the ether state equation (15), in the absence of the energy
density of external sources 𝛱𝛱 = 0, the energy density 𝑝𝑝, stored in the
ether tesions, does not change either.

281
 The identity of the currents and the tension density of the ether at
the initial and final moments of time, corresponding to the return of
the magnets to their original position, implies the equality of the inte-
grals over the domain 𝛺𝛺 of their sum at these moments of time. That
is, at the initial and final times, the total energy of the ether in 𝛺𝛺 is the
same. Then the external force moving the magnets does not do work
that changes the energy 𝛺𝛺.
According to the third law of Newton, the force acting on the
system of magnets is equal to the force acting from the system of
magnets. Therefore, the system of magnets does not do external work.
On some parts of the magnets movement between the initial and
final moments of time, mechanical work can be performed because of
a change in the balance between the kinetic energy and the ether pres-
sure (at preservation of their sum (15)), but the resulting work on re-
turning the magnets to the initial position still remains zero, otherwise
at the initial and final moments, the ether energy would change in 𝛺𝛺.
For example, when two magnets are connected by opposite poles, the
mechanical work is done and there is a noticeable increase in their
total magnetic field compared to the field of each magnet separately.
The work of the ether pressure at magnets approach to each other in-
creases the speed of the ether (magnetic field) motion inside and out-
side the magnets. However, when magnets are disconnected, the work
is done in the opposite direction.
Thus, in the isolated region of the ether, any cyclic relatively slow
motion of the magnets system, for which at some moment of time this
system returns to its original position, does not result in an increase
of the ether energy during one cycle. This means that by the motion
of the magnets in the considered conditions, it will not be possible to
use the kinetic energy and the energy of the ether internal tension
(pressure) to build a cyclic energy generator or engine. The main
physical reason for this conclusion is the restoration of the magnetic
properties of a permanent magnet at each period in a periodically var-
ying external magnetic field.

282
 A deceptive conclusion about the possibility of obtaining a gain
in the work may be given the impression that it is easier to separate
two magnets by a shift perpendicular to the magnetic field than by a
detachment in the direction of the magnetic field. To study this issue,
the authors together with I.N. Stepanov and V.A. Chizhov constructed
the stand where it was possible to measure with dynamometer the
force of magnets attraction depending on the distance between them
during detachment and shift. The work of the magnets attraction force
at detachment turned out to be equal to the work of the attraction force
during shift up to measurement error. At that, the initial magnitude of
the force during shift is significantly smaller than the magnitude of
the initial force at the detachment. Therefore, it seems that magnets
are easier to separate with a shift. But the force at shift does the work
on the greater length, and the work of the forces turns out to be the
same in both cases.
If one learns to directly use the domain currents in a magnet, ra-
ther than the fields created by them, for example, so that the magnetic
field of a permanent magnet weakens over time (like weakens the
voltage of an electric battery), then one could try applying released
energy for practical purposes.
In principle, it is possible to raise the question of using not the
kinetics and pressure of the ether, but the energy of its structural ele-
ments or their coupling, but this is another task.

20. Estimation of the unperturbed ether density

A detailed qualitative and quantitative understanding of the na-
ture phenomena hidden from direct observation opens up the possi-
bility of creating of fundamentally new technical devices for the pro-
duction and storage of energy, processing information, and mastering
the forces of gravity.
The necessary stage for advancement in this direction is the esti-
mation of the unperturbed ether density. Currently, there is a detailed
model of the ether behavior in an electron, proton, and neutron [49].

283
However, in it the ether formulas for the parameters of elementary
particles contain the product of the ether density and the velocity.
Therefore, the evaluation of the ether density requires additional re-
search, at that to increase the reliability of the evaluation, it is desira-
ble to consider various physical processes.
This section presents the results of the reference [69], in which a
comparison is made of electromagnetic and mechanical units for
measuring of the ether density; a method has been established for con-
verting physical quantities and formulas from one units of measure-
ment of the ether density to another; value of the undisturbed ether
density has been estimated.
Currently there are no direct measurements of the unperturbed
ether density 𝜌𝜌0 . It is now possible to find the value of 𝜌𝜌0 only with
the help of other quantities known from the experiment. The methods
for determining of 𝜌𝜌0 described here are based on the use of the lim-
iting electric field strength and on data on the geometric dimensions
of the phenomena. Many characteristics of processes are well known
from experiments, at least in order of magnitude. Therefore, one
should expect that the estimate 𝜌𝜌0 found here shows at least the order
of magnitude of the unperturbed ether density.

20.1. Ether density units

In the reference [52], electromagnetic units of the ether density 𝜌𝜌

were introduced based on the ether representation of the magnetic
field induction vector (20). The density of the ether in CGS units with
the absolute Gaussian system for measuring of electrical and mag-
netic quantities has the dimension [𝜌𝜌] = [𝐵𝐵]/([c[∇][u]) = [s g1/2 /
cm3/2 ]. In [52], the coincidence of the physical quantities dimensions
generated by the ether with their traditional units of measurement was
also shown, new systems of units using the ether density were dis-
cussed. For example, if 𝜌𝜌 is introduced as the dimensionless quantity,
then the dimensions of all basic physical quantities in the CGS and SI

284
coincide and are expressed in terms of integer powers of the time and
length dimensions (at that, of course, the units of length in the CGS
and SI are different). New unit systems are discussed in appendix 5.
The dimension of the second partial derivative over time from the
ether density 𝜌𝜌 in electromagnetic units coincides with the dimension
of the charge density. Hence, one of the interpretations of the 𝜌𝜌 phys-
ical meaning arises, consisting in the fact that the fluctuations in time
of the ether density at the given point in space determine the charge
density at this point.
At the macro level, it is possible to measure a force. Therefore,
in [41] the dimension of the ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 was introduced as
[g/cm3 ] by analogy with the density in mechanics.
To establish the relationship between physical quantities ex-
pressed in terms of the ether density in various units of measurement,
we introduce a constant equal to the ratio of the numerical value of
the unperturbed ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0, obtained in mechanical units, to
the value 𝜌𝜌0 in electromagnetic units: 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 /𝜌𝜌0 . The constant
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 in the CGS system (with the absolute Gaussian system) has the
dimension of the volumetric charge density [g 1/2 /(s cm3/2 )]. The
value of 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 is given in sec. 20.7.
Thus, the ether density in the mechanical units 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 is related to
the ether density in the electromagnetic units 𝜌𝜌 as follows:

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌.

Here 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 is indeed the constant, since 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 and 𝜌𝜌 are the same physical
concept, the dependence of which over time and space cannot change
with the change in units of measurement.
The expression of a value specified in the CGS electromagnetic
units in terms of mechanical units is reduced to the representation of
the original value using 𝜌𝜌 and replacing 𝜌𝜌 with 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 in this representa-
tion. For example, for the amplitude of the electrical component of an

285
electromagnetic wave with the ether density, measured in electromag-
netic units, the formula 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 𝜌𝜌0 𝜈𝜈𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 [g1/2 /(cm1/2 s)]= [statVolt/
cm] (see. sec. 20.3) is true. Then for the amplitude with the ether den-
sity, measured in mechanical units, we have 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚,𝑎𝑎 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝜈𝜈𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 [g/
(cm2 s 2 )]. The relation of 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 and 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚,𝑎𝑎 follows from the relations
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 /𝜌𝜌0 = 𝜈𝜈𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 and 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚,𝑎𝑎 /𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 = 𝜈𝜈𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 : 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚,𝑎𝑎 = 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 /𝜌𝜌0 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 .
It can be seen that the mechanical units for measuring of the ether
density are not very convenient for use in electrodynamics, since they
give an unconventional dimension of the electric field strength and
other physical quantities.
20.2. Estimates based on experiments with lasers
In reference [41, p. 80] the ether density was estimated based on
studies with lasers, showing that the maximum values of electric
fields achieved in experiments at which there is no change in the elec-
trodynamic constant are of the order of the values of intra-atomic elec-
tric fields 𝐸𝐸0 ≈ 1011 [V/m] = 3.3 ∙ 106 [statVolt/cm]. In fields that
exceed this value, the processes become highly nonlinear. For the lim-
iting value of electric field strength 𝐸𝐸0 ≈ 1011 [V/m], the density of
the unperturbed ether in mechanical units is [41]

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−6 [kg/m3 ] = 2 ∙ 10−9 [g/cm3 ]. (219)

We emphasize that the unperturbed ether density corresponds

precisely to the boundary of the transition of linear to nonlinear pro-
cesses.

20.3. Estimates using the ether model of the photon and the
characteristics of the electromagnetic field in it

Consider the ether velocity

286
 𝜈𝜈 𝜈𝜈
𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) = 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 cos �𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝑧𝑧� 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 sin �𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝑧𝑧� 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (220)
+ 𝑐𝑐𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ,

where 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 , 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 are the unit basis vectors of the Cartesian coordinate
system, 𝑐𝑐 is the speed of light, 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 is the amplitude of the velocity
oscillations transverse to the 𝑧𝑧 axis, 𝜈𝜈 is the oscillation frequency.
The velocity (220) is divergence free. The ether density at such a
velocity is not perturbed 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌0 [52]. This 𝐮𝐮 and 𝜌𝜌 satisfy the ether
equations (1), (2).
By substituting the velocity (220) and 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌0 into formulas (20)
and (21), we can verify that the considered ether motion corresponds
to a flat monochromatic circularly polarized electromagnetic wave
with the wave vector 𝐤𝐤 = 𝜈𝜈/𝑐𝑐 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , propagating in the direction of the
𝑧𝑧 axis
𝜈𝜈 𝜈𝜈
𝐄𝐄(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) = 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 sin �𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝑧𝑧� 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 − 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 cos �𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝑧𝑧� 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 ,
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝜈𝜈 𝜈𝜈
𝐁𝐁(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) = 𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 cos �𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝑧𝑧� 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 sin �𝜈𝜈𝜈𝜈 − 𝑧𝑧� 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 ,
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 𝜌𝜌0 𝜈𝜈𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 , 𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 = 𝜌𝜌0 𝜈𝜈𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 .

Here, 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 and 𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 are the oscillation amplitudes. The transverse veloc-
ity 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 is finite, but very small compared to the speed of light.
It is important to note that the etheric representation of the elec-
tromagnetic wave allows to explain a wave-particle duality observed
in experiments, since the velocity vector (220) contains components
corresponding to both the momentum and oscillations (see p. 96).
In the ether model, a photon is represented by a set of electro-
magnetic waves [48], bounded in space by a cylinder with an axis of
symmetry along the 𝑧𝑧 axis. Note that the theory of relativity does not
allow you to define the geometry of an object moving at the speed of
light, since upon its achievement it should turn into a point.

287
 The appearance of photons in experiments is often associated
with electrons. So Cherenkov radiation is generated by electrons.
Therefore, we determine the order of the transverse velocity 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 from
the condition that the medium passes the distance in the transverse
direction equal to the radius of the electron 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 , for the time 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝜋𝜋/𝜈𝜈,
corresponding to the full rotation of the vector 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) in the plane
(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦): 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝜈𝜈/(2𝜋𝜋). The radius of the electron is taken equal to the
radius at which the linear rotation speed with the angular frequency
𝜔𝜔𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2 /ℏ reaches the speed of light: 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑐𝑐/𝜔𝜔𝑒𝑒 = ℏ/(𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐) =
3.86 ∙ 10−11 [cm], (𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 is equal to the Compton radius of the electron).
Then 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 𝜌𝜌0 𝜈𝜈 2 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 /(2𝜋𝜋) whence

𝜌𝜌0 = 2𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 /(𝜈𝜈 2 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ).

The frequency of excited atoms radiation under the influence of

accelerated electrons ranges from 7.5 ∙ 1014 to 3 ∙ 1016 [Hz] (see, for
example, ru.wikipedia.org). Take the characteristic value 𝜈𝜈 = 2 ∙
1015 [Hz] as the characteristic frequency. Note that the velocity 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 in
this case is indeed very small compared with the speed of light 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 =
1.2 ∙ 104 [cm/s] ≪ 𝑐𝑐 ≈ 3 ∙ 1010 [cm/s].
Suppose that the unperturbed ether density 𝜌𝜌0 can be reduced, but
is difficult to increase. Then, to estimate 𝜌𝜌0 , one should take the limit
field achieved in the experiments with lasers 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 𝐸𝐸0 ≈ 3.3 ∙ 106
[statVolt/cm], see. [141, p. 5–10]. We get

𝜌𝜌0 ≈ 1.4 ∙ 10−13 [s g 1/2 /cm3/2 ]. (221)

We now estimate 𝜌𝜌0 without using data on 𝐸𝐸0 , basing on the for-
mulas for the energy of the electromagnetic wave and the energy of
the photon.
In physics, the volumetric energy density of the electromagnetic
2 2
wave in vacuum is defined as 𝑤𝑤 = �𝐸𝐸total + 𝐵𝐵total �/(8𝜋𝜋) (see, for

288
example: [28, p. 348]). It should be noted that the volume density of
energy obtained from the Maxwell equations in the interpretation of
Hertz [28] is not confirmed experimentally and does not follow from
[41]. However, such a formula for 𝑤𝑤 corresponds to the sum of the
densities of the electric and magnetic energies of the electric current
obtained in sec. 18.7, 18.8. This formula is quite acceptable for esti-
mating the order of magnitude, especially since it is used here in con-
junction with some model assumption about the characteristic photon
volume.
Note that 𝑤𝑤 does not contain a contribution from the velocity
component 𝑐𝑐𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , since this component disappears in (20) and (21) dur-
ing differentiation. Determination of the electromagnetic field energy
density without taking into account the speed of its propagation, ap-
parently, is caused by the possibility of reliably measuring the energy
of the vibrational component of the ether flow density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 (transverse
energetics). To study the energetics of the longitudinal component
𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮, very accurate measurements are necessary, for example, as in ex-
periments on determination of the light pressure.
We take into account that for the velocity 𝐮𝐮 of the photon, the
speed superposition theorem is fulfilled (the sum of the solutions is
also a solution) due to the fact that 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮 = 0 [50, 52]. Therefore, in
the photon there can be 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 electromagnetic waves with the total field
strength 𝐸𝐸total = 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 𝐸𝐸 and induction 𝐵𝐵total = 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 𝐵𝐵. For 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 photons,
we have 𝑤𝑤 = 𝜌𝜌02 𝜈𝜈 2 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎2 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤2 /(4𝜋𝜋).
On the other hand, it is experimentally established that the photon
energy is equal to ℎ𝜈𝜈. Then the photon energy density is ℎ𝜈𝜈/𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ ,
where 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ is the photon volume.
We have equality
𝜌𝜌02 𝜈𝜈 2 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎2 2 ℎ𝜈𝜈
𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 = .
4𝜋𝜋 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ

From where

289
 2 𝜋𝜋ℎ
𝜌𝜌0 = � .
𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 𝜈𝜈𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ

As 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ , we take a region with dimensions typical for the electro-

magnetic photon wave: a cylinder with a height equal to the photon
wavelength 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐/𝜈𝜈 and the base radius equal to the electron radius
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 :

𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒2 𝜆𝜆 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒2 𝑐𝑐/𝜈𝜈. (222)

Accounting that 𝑢𝑢𝑎𝑎 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝜈𝜈/(2𝜋𝜋), we have

4𝜋𝜋�ℎ/𝑐𝑐
𝜌𝜌0 = .
𝜈𝜈𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒2 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤
The formula ℎ𝜈𝜈 for photon energy is established in experiments
with light. Therefore, we consider the characteristic frequency of vis-
ible light 𝜈𝜈 = 6 ∙ 1014 [Hz].
The value of 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 is determined by the properties of the radiation
source. If for the light source we assume 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 = 10, then we obtain the
estimate of 𝜌𝜌0 , which is close (by order of magnitude) to the values
(221) and (226), found without using 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 ,

𝜌𝜌0 ≈ 6 ∙ 10−13 [s g1/2 /cm3/2 ]. (223)

20.4. The estimate from the ether model of the photon and
its momentum

The above presented estimates of the unperturbed ether density

were carried out on the basis of the oscillatory characteristics of elec-
tromagnetic phenomena. Here we use mechanical concepts and the
experimentally known property of light to exert pressure on bodies.

290
 We first estimate the density of the unperturbed ether in the me-
chanical units of measurement 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0, basing on the momentum of the
single photon having the volume 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ (222). In the ether model of the
photon (220), the velocity in the direction of its propagation substan-
tially dominates. Therefore, the impulse of the photon consisting of
one electromagnetic wave is approximately equal to 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ .
Equating the etheric representation of the photon's momentum to
the experimentally established ℎ𝜈𝜈/𝑐𝑐, taking into account the possibil-
ity of superposition of electromagnetic waves in the photon 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 , we
have 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 = ℎ𝜈𝜈/𝑐𝑐. Hence, using (222),

ℎ𝜈𝜈 ℎ𝜈𝜈 2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 = 2 = .
𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 𝑐𝑐 3 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒2 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤

For the visible light characteristic frequency 𝜈𝜈 = 6 ∙ 1014 [Hz],

we find

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 1.9 ∙ 10−5 /𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 [kg/m3 ],

where the value of 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 is determined by the properties of the photon

source. If, as in the previous paragraph, to take 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 = 10, then

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 1.9 ∙ 10−6 [kg/m3 ]. (224)

Let us now estimate 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 on the basis of the ether interpretation

of natural experiments to determine the pressure of light. Consider the
flow of photons falling on a body of mass 𝑚𝑚. Denote the total energy
of the photon flux by the letter 𝑈𝑈. Let the energy 𝑈𝑈 be completely
absorbed by this body.
If 𝑈𝑈 significantly exceeds the energy of the body before the in-
fluence of photon exposure, then we can write approximately 𝑈𝑈 ≈
𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 . We note that it is impossible to equate 𝑈𝑈 only with the kinetic

291
energy of the body, since the photon energy also goes to increase the
internal energy of the body.
Taking into account discussed above possibility of electromag-
netic waves overlaying in the photon, we have for the number 𝑁𝑁 of
electromagnetic waves falling on a body

𝑈𝑈
𝑁𝑁 = .
ℎ𝜈𝜈/𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤

Since one electromagnetic wave carries the momentum

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ , then from the superposition property of the ether velocity
in a divergence-free velocity field [50, 52] and the law of conservation
of momentum we have

𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 or 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ = .
ℎ𝜈𝜈/𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 𝑐𝑐

Then

ℎ𝜈𝜈
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 = .
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤

The result is the same formula for 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 as at the beginning of this
section.

20.5. Estimates using ether models of electrons and protons

In [49], on the basis of the approximate solution of the ether equa-

tions (1), (2) analytical formulas were obtained for the description of
steady states of the electron, proton, and neutron. The free parameters
of the analytical solutions are calibrated in accordance with known
experimental data on the charge, mass, and magnetic moment of the

292
electron, proton, and neutron. It is shown that the difference between
the theoretical calculated and experimentally obtained values for the
charge, mass, and magnetic moment of the electron and proton is only
~ 0.1%. The same error occurs for the mass and magnetic moment of
the neutron.
Etheric representations of the elementary particles characteristics
contain the product 𝑉𝑉0 𝜌𝜌0 . We obtain the estimate for the parameter
𝑉𝑉0, and then by 𝑉𝑉0 we find 𝜌𝜌0 .
Consider the range of variables in which the radial velocity
𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜑𝜑) [49] of the ether point is directed to the center of the el-
ementary particle 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒, 𝑝𝑝

𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗 (𝜃𝜃)
𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜑𝜑) = cos ��𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜑𝜑�/2� < 0,
𝑟𝑟
𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗 (𝜃𝜃) = 𝑉𝑉0 �𝑎𝑎 + sin 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 sin(2𝜃𝜃) + 𝑐𝑐𝑗𝑗 sin(3𝜃𝜃)�.

According to the formula (9) from [49], the charge and constant
𝑉𝑉0 have the same sign. Then at −𝜋𝜋/2 < �𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜑𝜑�/2 < 𝜋𝜋/2 for elec-
trons 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒: 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒,1 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒,2, 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒,1 ≈ 0, 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒,2 ≈ 𝜋𝜋/2, and for protons
𝑗𝑗 = 𝑝𝑝: 𝜃𝜃𝑝𝑝,1 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜃𝜃𝑝𝑝,2 , 𝜃𝜃𝑝𝑝,1 ≈ 𝜋𝜋/32, 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒,2 ≈ 7𝜋𝜋/16 (fig. 9).
The constants 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 , 𝑐𝑐𝑗𝑗 in the formula for 𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗 (𝜃𝜃), 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒, 𝑝𝑝, are de-
fined by calculating the integrals. The errors of approximations of var-
ious quantities when obtaining estimates should be consistent. There-
fore, we simplify the expression for the radial velocity by replacing 𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗
by the average over part of the surface, where 𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜑𝜑) < 0,

𝜃𝜃 𝜋𝜋/2
∫𝜃𝜃 𝑗𝑗,1 ∫−𝜋𝜋/2 𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡, 𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜑𝜑)𝑟𝑟 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 |𝑉𝑉0 |
𝑉𝑉�𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) ≡
𝑗𝑗,1
𝜃𝜃 𝜋𝜋/2
= −𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 ,
∫𝜃𝜃 𝑗𝑗,1 ∫−𝜋𝜋/2 𝑟𝑟 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟
𝑗𝑗,1

𝛾𝛾𝑒𝑒 ≈ 1.66, 𝛾𝛾𝑝𝑝 ≈ 0.63.

293
 Fig. 9. Functions 𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗 (𝜃𝜃)/𝑉𝑉0.

The equation of motion along the coordinate 𝑟𝑟 with the average

velocity

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉�𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)

has the solution

𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗2 (𝑡𝑡) = −2𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 |𝑉𝑉0 |𝑡𝑡 + 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗2 (0).

294
 The sign of the radial velocity does not change (that is, the point
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) moves in one direction) over the time interval ∆𝑡𝑡 =
(𝜑𝜑 + 𝜋𝜋)/�𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 � − (𝜑𝜑 − 𝜋𝜋)/�𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 � = 2𝜋𝜋/�𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 � (the change in the direc-
tion of motion may occur, for example, because of the change in the
sign of divergence in the equation of motion [50]). In the time ∆𝑡𝑡, let
the trajectory 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) shift from the initial position 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗2 (0) to the position
𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗2 (0) − 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗2 (0)𝛿𝛿 2, where 0 < 𝛿𝛿 < 1 (at 𝛿𝛿 = 1 the displacement
would reach the center of the particle). Then

𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗2 (0)𝛿𝛿 2 = 2𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 |𝑉𝑉0 |∆𝑡𝑡.

From here

�𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 � 2
|𝑉𝑉0 | = 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗2 (0) 𝛿𝛿
4𝜋𝜋𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗

or on average (taking into account the Jacobian) over all starting

points 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 (0) ∈ [0, 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 ]
𝑟𝑟
∫0 𝑗𝑗 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗4 (0) 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 (0) �𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 � 2 3 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗2 �𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 � 2 3 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐 2
|𝑉𝑉0 | = 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 𝛿𝛿 = 𝛿𝛿 = 𝛿𝛿 .
∫ 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗2 (0) 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 (0) 4𝜋𝜋𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗
0
20𝜋𝜋 𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 20𝜋𝜋 𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗

Replacing the right hand side with the minimum over 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒, 𝑝𝑝,
we obtain the lower bound for the parameter 𝑉𝑉0

3 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐 2
|𝑉𝑉0 | ≥ 𝛿𝛿 ≈ 4.8 ∙ 10−5 𝛿𝛿 2 [cm2 /s].
20𝜋𝜋 𝛾𝛾𝑝𝑝

We find the upper estimate for |𝑉𝑉0 | from the restriction on the
magnitude of the velocity of disturbances free propagation in the ether

295
 𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗2 + 𝑊𝑊𝑗𝑗2 ≤ 𝑐𝑐 2 ,

where 𝑊𝑊𝑗𝑗 is the azimuthal velocity of the ether in the particle 𝑗𝑗.
Replace the velocity by the average over the surface: 𝑉𝑉�𝑝𝑝 and

𝜃𝜃 𝜋𝜋/2
∫𝜃𝜃 𝑗𝑗,1 ∫−𝜋𝜋/2 𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 𝑟𝑟 3 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
�𝑗𝑗 ≡
𝑊𝑊
𝑗𝑗,1
≈ 0.74𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 𝑟𝑟.
𝜃𝜃 𝜋𝜋/2
∫𝜃𝜃 𝑗𝑗,1 ∫−𝜋𝜋/2 𝑟𝑟 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑗𝑗,1

Then

𝑉𝑉0 2 2
�𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 � + �0.74𝜔𝜔𝑗𝑗 𝑟𝑟� ≲ 𝑐𝑐 2 .
𝑟𝑟

From here

2
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
|𝑉𝑉0 | ≲ �1 − �0.74 � .
𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗

The estimate should be fulfilled for all 𝑟𝑟 from the range of ap-
plicability of the analytical formula for the radial velocity: 0.15𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 ≲
𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 . Then, taking into account the monotonic increase of the right
hand side for 𝑟𝑟 ∈ [0.15𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 , 0.96𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 ], we find

𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐
|𝑉𝑉0 | ≲ 0.15 .
𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗

The estimate should take place for both electrons and protons

296
 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐
|𝑉𝑉0 | ≲ 0.15min𝑗𝑗=𝑒𝑒,𝑝𝑝 = 0.15 ≈ 1.5 ∙ 10−4 [cm2 /s].
𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 𝛾𝛾𝑝𝑝

So,

4.8 ∙ 10−5 𝛿𝛿 2 ≲ |𝑉𝑉0 | ≲ 1.5 ∙ 10−4 [cm2 /s], 0 < 𝛿𝛿 < 1.

Here, the value of the parameter 𝛿𝛿 characterizes the value of the av-
erage displacement of the ether in the radial direction. Additional re-
search is needed to determine the definite value of 𝛿𝛿.
The density of the unperturbed ether 𝜌𝜌0 is calculated using the
formula for charge (9) from [49]

4 𝑞𝑞𝑗𝑗
𝜌𝜌0 = . (225)
1 + 4𝑎𝑎/𝜋𝜋 𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉0

Taking into account the estimate of |𝑉𝑉0 |, obtained above, we have

1
3.6 ∙ 10−16 ≲ 𝜌𝜌0 ≲ 1.1 ∙ 10−15 [s g1/2 /cm3/2 ], 0 < 𝛿𝛿 < 1.
𝛿𝛿 2

Note that the value of the ether density 𝜌𝜌0 ≈ 3 ∙ 10−13 [s ∙

g /cm3/2 ] gives 𝛿𝛿 2 ≈ 0.004, |𝑉𝑉0 | ≈ 1.8 ∙ 10−7 , |𝑉𝑉0 |/𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ≈ 4.6 ∙
1/2

103 [cm/s], |𝑉𝑉0 |/𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 ≈ 8.5 ∙ 106 [cm/s]. Therefore, the assumption
of the small compared with the speed of light radial velocity, used in
obtaining analytical expressions for the ether motion in the elemen-
tary particle [49], is fulfilled with the large margin.
The estimate of the radial velocity in the electron and proton al-
lows us to explain the lower resistance of the electron to the penetra-
tion of objects into it. The average radial velocity of the ether in the
electron is significantly smaller than the average radial velocity of the
ether in the proton. Therefore, the ether in the electron gives a much
smaller radial impulse to an object penetrating into it, providing less

297
resistance. In a muon (electron reduced by ~ 200 times), the radial
ether velocity is ~ 200 larger than in the electron, and in this sense,
the muon has ~200 times greater resistance to penetration than the
electron. This circumstance matches experimental observations [53],
showing a short lifetime of the hydrogen mesic atom.

20.6. Estimation based on Coulomb barrier data

Let us consider the model initial-boundary problem of the ether

emission from the surface of the sphere Ω with an initial velocity dif-
ferent from zero only on the boundary of the sphere Γ:

𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�
⎧ = 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� �𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ∙ 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)��𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) , 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) ∈ Ω, 𝑡𝑡 ∈ (0, 𝑇𝑇]
⎪ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
⎪ 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)|𝐫𝐫∈Γ = 𝛍𝛍(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)|𝐫𝐫∈Γ , 𝑡𝑡 ∈ [0, 𝑇𝑇]
⎪ 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)
�𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫 ∙ �� = 𝜂𝜂(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)|𝐫𝐫∈Γ , 𝑡𝑡 ∈ [0, 𝑇𝑇]
|𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)|
⎨ 𝐫𝐫∈Γ

⎪ 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�� 𝛍𝛍(0, 𝐫𝐫), if 𝐫𝐫 ∈ Γ

= �
⎪ 𝑡𝑡=0 0, if 𝐫𝐫(0) ∉ Γ, 𝐫𝐫 ∈ Ω
⎪ 𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)
⎩ 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 = 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�, 𝑡𝑡 ∈ (0, 𝑇𝑇]

where 𝑡𝑡 ∈ [0, 𝑇𝑇] is some time interval, 𝛍𝛍�0, 𝐫𝐫(0)� is the initial velocity,
𝜂𝜂�0, 𝐫𝐫(0)� is the initial value of the unit vector divergence in the direc-
tion of the velocity 𝜂𝜂�0, 𝐫𝐫(0)� = �𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)/|𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫)|)��𝑡𝑡=0, 𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(0) .
The equation used here for the ether velocity was obtained in [50, 52].
This problem with certain restrictions on the functions can be solved
analytically. Expressing in its solution 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� at 𝜂𝜂�0, 𝐫𝐫(0)� ≠ 0 the
dependence of time on the position of the point on the trajectory 𝑡𝑡 =
𝜆𝜆�𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�, one can find the velocity as the function of the point in space
𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)

298
 𝛍𝛍�0,𝐫𝐫(0)�
𝜂𝜂�0,𝐫𝐫(0)��𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)−𝐫𝐫(0)�
𝐮𝐮�𝜆𝜆(𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)), 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� = 𝛍𝛍�0, 𝐫𝐫(0)� 𝑒𝑒 �𝛍𝛍�0,𝐫𝐫(0)�� , 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡.

The obtained formula allows one to estimate 𝑉𝑉0 by the character-

istic value of the Coulomb barrier 𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝 for the proton, if we assume
that at small distances the interaction of charged particles is deter-
mined by the ether radial velocity and that at the distance 𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝 the ether
radial velocity becomes of the speed of light 𝑐𝑐 order and does not
change at 𝑟𝑟 > 𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝 .
Let the medium point start from the surface of the elementary
particle 𝐫𝐫(0) = 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 in the direction external to the particle with the in-
itial velocity equal to the average radial velocity 𝑉𝑉�𝑝𝑝 (see sec. 20.5) and
has the radial component

|𝑉𝑉0 |
𝛍𝛍�0, 𝐫𝐫(0)� = 𝛾𝛾𝑝𝑝 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟

Then
1 𝜕𝜕𝑟𝑟 2 2
𝜂𝜂�0, 𝐫𝐫(0)� = (𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 )|𝑡𝑡=0, 𝐫𝐫=𝐫𝐫(0) =� 2
�� = .
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐫𝐫=𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝

We get the condition for 𝑉𝑉0

|𝑉𝑉0 | 2𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟−𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 −2𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟−𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝2 −2𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟−𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝

𝑐𝑐 ≈ 𝛾𝛾𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝 or |𝑉𝑉0 | ≈ 𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝 .
𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 𝛾𝛾𝑝𝑝 𝛾𝛾𝑝𝑝

The Coulomb barrier for the proton is at a distance 𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝 ≈

10−13 [cm] (see, for example: [ru.wikipedia.org]). The proton radius
𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 = ℏ/(𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐) = 2.1 ∙ 10−14 [cm] (𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 is defined similarly to 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 in sec.
20.3). Then 𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝 /𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 ≈ 4.75.

299
 At 𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝 = 4.75𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 , we get |𝑉𝑉0 | ≈ 5.5 ∙ 10−7 [cm2 /s]. The formula
(225) gives

𝜌𝜌0 ≈ 10−13 [s g1/2 /cm3/2 ]. (226)

20.7. Main conclusions. Ether density value

Various units of measurement of the ether density were analyzed.

A method has been established for recalculating of physical quantities
expressed in terms of the ether density in electromagnetic units into
values expressed in terms of the ether density in mechanical units, and
vice versa.
The estimates of the unperturbed ether density are obtained on
the basis of the various physical phenomena analysis: the limiting
electric field strength 𝐸𝐸0 ; characteristics of the electromagnetic field
in the ether model of the photon; the behavior of the ether in the elec-
tron and proton involving data on the Coulomb barrier.
The adequacy of the electromagnetic waves number choice
𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 ~10 in photons of light is confirmed by the proximity (in order of
magnitude) of estimate (223) of the ether density 𝜌𝜌0 to estimate ob-
tained without using 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 , namely: involving 𝐸𝐸0 (sec. 20.3, the formula
(221)) or data on the Coulomb barrier (sec. 20.6, the formula (226)).
The estimates (219), (221), (223), (224), (226) allow us to accept
for the density of the unperturbed ether

𝜌𝜌0 ≈ 3 ∙ 10−13 [s g1/2 /cm3/2 ], [s2 statCoulomb/cm3 ], (227)

−9 3 −6 3
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 2 ∙ 10 [g/cm ] = 2 ∙ 10 [kg/m ]. (228)

The constant of measuring units conversion in this case is

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 = ≈
𝜌𝜌0 (229)
6.7 ∙ 103 [g1/2 /(s cm3/2 )], [statCoulomb/cm3 ].

300
 It is important to note that the reliability of the estimate 𝜌𝜌0 found
is verified by the good agreement of the values obtained for various
physical processes: on the basis of the limiting strength 𝐸𝐸0 (the esti-
mate (221) in sec. 20.3) and the Coulomb barrier (the estimate (226)
in sec. 20.6). The value of 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 is verified by the proximity of the
estimates through 𝐸𝐸0 ((219) in sec. 20.2) and through the photon mo-
mentum ((224) in sec. 20.4), as well as the estimates obtained in sec.
23.6.2, 23.6.3.
Additional new relatively inexpensive experiments to verify the
presence of the ether and estimate the value of its parameters are pro-
posed in the sections of the book, the numbers of which are listed on
p. 584.
The presented results allow us to proceed to a detailed quantita-
tive description of the phenomena of the micro- and macrocosm,
which opens up the possibility of studying the effects that can form
the basis of fundamentally new technical systems for operating with
energy, information, and gravity.

20.8. The fallacy of the vacuum dielectric constant adoption

as the unperturbed density of the ether

The works of V.A. Atsyukovsky [73–76, 225] are of great im-

portance for the qualitative understanding of etherdynamics. How-
ever, their content has largely natural-philosophical character and
does not allow important for practice quantitative research.
In [73, book. 2, p. 83] the ether density 𝜌𝜌Ats , measured in
[kg/m3 ], is assumed to be quantitatively equal to the dielectric con-
stant of vacuum 𝜌𝜌Ats = 𝜀𝜀0 = 8.85 ∙ 10−12 [F/m]. Here, from the
point of view of the most basic foundations of physics, the first mis-
take is made, which consists in equating physical quantities having
different dimensions: [𝜀𝜀0 ] = [F/m] and [𝜌𝜌Ats ] = [kg/m3 ].

301
 The second mistake is to absolutize the value of 𝜀𝜀0 as the world
constant. In fact, the concept of 𝜀𝜀0 appeared only as a result of the
introduction of the fourth unit of measurement in the SI system – the
electric current [A], as independent of the other three units [m], [kg],
[s], and the definition of charge measurement unit [Cl] through [A].
In SI, one [Cl] is assumed to be 10𝑐𝑐 charge units in CGSE, where 𝑐𝑐 is
the speed of light, see, for example: [28, p. 18, 217, 357]. The mean-
ing and value of 𝜀𝜀0 are established by comparison of the Coulomb law
in the SI with the Coulomb law in the CGS [28, p. 357].
Thus, if the unit of the charge [Cl] is introduced in the SI not equal
to 10𝑐𝑐 CGSE, then the value of 𝜀𝜀0 changes. This means that 𝜀𝜀0 is not
the world constant, but only serves for converting CGSE units to SI.
Appendix 5 discusses the redundancy of the SI system from the
mathematical point of view, which leads to the fact that one of the
physical laws, obtained from the experiments, after being written in
the SI requires the introduction of the constant 𝜀𝜀0 or the constant
𝜇𝜇0 for matching the values, which enter this law. For example, the
experimentally known electrostatic Gauss theorem in the CGS (28)
binds the dimensions of two physical quantities – the electric field
strength 𝐄𝐄 and the charge density 𝜎𝜎. Now, if we determine the charge
regardless of the 𝐄𝐄 dimension, then in order to preserve the law (28),
we need to introduce a constant factor in it, which is actually done in
the SI.
The disadvantages of the SI system for describing physical phe-
nomena, as compared with the SGS system, are discussed in detail,
for example, in [28, sec. 85]. It is possible that the SI lobbying was in
particular a commercial project on huge reprint of scientific literature.
Of all the proposed systems of units, the Gaussian system of the
CGS has so far remained the best in physics [28, p. 363]. However,
now it can compete with new systems of measurement units associ-
ated with the ether, which show the unity of the mechanical and elec-
tromagnetic quantities origin, see appendix 5.

302
 21. The structure of the ether carriers – newtonians.
Kinetic effects in the ether and substance

The equations of the ether (4)–(6), as well as the equations of

continuous media mechanics, are abstracted from the physical content
of density carriers and the velocity of matter. In gas and hydrodynam-
ics, the structure of a substance is revealed by molecular-kinetic the-
ory, in which the equations of continuity and motion are conse-
quences of the motion and interaction of numerous individual objects
of small size. Therefore, a natural question arises about the structure
of the ether carriers.
Currently, a detailed theory that answers this question is missing.
In this section, we propose and study the simplest model of the ether
carriers, based on an analogy with the molecular-kinetic theory.
Here we also began to study the question of the behavior of the
ether in matter. The motion of the ether inside the substance is deter-
mined by the current, created by the structural elements of the material
and external influence. A detailed study of this process requires the
development of the ether model of atoms, molecules and their aggre-
gates. Here we consider the behavior of ether in substance, using an
analogy with thermodynamics and molecular kinetic theory. Herewith,
the concept of thermodynamic entropy is not used, see sec. 21.17.

21.1. Unperturbed ether pressure

It is reasonable to begin the construction of the ether kinetic the-

ory from the analysis of the simplest models. Let us find the parame-
ters of the carriers (particles) of the ether under the assumption that
they behave like a loose (granular flowing) medium similar to a mon-
oatomic gas. The possibility of drawing an analogy between a flowing
medium and a gas is based on the fact that in both of them there is a
lack of strong bonds between the particles [36, p. 150]. In this case,
the ether pressure can be estimated from the speed of free propagation
of the disturbance in the ether, equal to the speed of light, and the
unperturbed ether density in mechanical units 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228).

303
 In the adiabatic case, when there is no heat exchange in the sys-
tem, a known relationship between medium pressure and density
takes place. For the parameters of the ether by analogy with [27, p.
79] we have
𝑝𝑝0
𝛾𝛾 = 𝑐𝑐 2 ,
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0

where 𝛾𝛾 is the ratio of heat capacities in the ether (analogue of the

adiabatic constant). Assuming 𝛾𝛾 = 5/3, as for solid particles [121, p.
197], we obtain for 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−6 [kg/m3 ] the estimate of the pres-
sure in the ether

𝑝𝑝0 ≈ 1.1 ∙ 1011 [Pa] = 1.09 ∙ 106 [atm], (230)

which is by ~106 times greater than the atmospheric pressure (see

also the estimate (253)). This estimate is appropriate, for example, to
experimentally created pressures of 1.5 ∙ 1010 − 2.5 ∙ 1010 [Pa] for
obtaining diamonds from graphite, since it is precisely when ap-
proaching the ether pressure a strong increase in the interaction with
its carriers should be expected, leading to the significant restructuring
of atomic structures. In [146, p. 220] it is noted that, starting with a
pressure of ~106 atmospheres, new properties appear in substances.
Besides, this estimate of the ether pressure is of order of magnitude
close to the estimate obtained from experiments with the explosion of
wires and emitters (see sec. 18.10), as well as to the pressure of the
unperturbed ether, 𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐 2 = 1.8 ∙ 1011 [Pa] obtained from for-
mula (15) at 𝜌𝜌∗ = 𝜌𝜌0 , |𝐮𝐮∗ | = 𝑐𝑐, 𝐮𝐮 = 0, 𝛱𝛱 = 0.

21.2. Mass and size of the ether carriers - newtonians.

Average distance between them

The Clapeyron – Mendeleev equation (equation of the state) for

an ideal gas of solid particles, an analogue of a loose-granular medium,

304
allows estimating the mass of the ether particle. This equation carries
additional information to the ether state equation (15) about the behav-
ior of structural elements in the Lagrangian particle of the ether.
The use of the Clapeyron – Mendeleev equation is not too strong
restriction on the class of the processes being studied in the ether,
since it can be obtained by decomposing the equation of state of any
substance in powers of particles density [27, p. 103; 146, ch. 1, sec.
1; 147, ch. 1, sec. 3], and in the case of the ether, the density is small
(228). Besides, the Clapeyron – Mendeleev equation can be inter-
preted as a consequence of the method for constructing the tempera-
ture scale [27, p. 25].
Theoretical methods for the refinement of the original equation of
the state of an ideal gas are discussed in detail in [146], see, for exam-
ple, ch. 4, sec. 6 and ch. 9, sec. 3, where the equation of the state of the
dense medium of solid spheres that do not have attraction forces is con-
sidered. For the characteristic diameter of the ether structural element,
estimated in sec. 21.2, the corresponding correction to the equation of
the state [146, p. 497, the formula (3.1)] turns out to be very small.
However, despite some limitation of generality, the idealized
Clapeyron – Mendeleev model allows one to understand the most im-
portant features of the ether medium behavior and dependencies on
variable parameters, and also, consistently rejecting various simplifi-
cations, find out the specifics of real objects [147], for example, re-
lated to the final dimensions of the ether structural elements.
For one mole of particles, the Clapeyron – Mendeleev equation
has the form [27, p. 25; 36, p. 151]

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅� 𝑇𝑇�, (231)

where 𝑅𝑅� = 8.3144 ∙ 103 [J/(kmol ∙ K)] is the universal gas constant
calculated for one mole (see, for example: [36, p. 151]), 𝑇𝑇� is the tem-

305
perature of the ether (the bar is introduced to distinguish with the des-
ignation of the temperature of macroscopic media 𝑇𝑇), 𝑉𝑉 is the molar
volume. The temperature of the ether here refers to the energy of
translational chaotic motion of the structural elements of the ether –
newtonians introduced into the physics by D.I. Mendeleev, see below.
Due to Avogadro's law (with the same pressures and the same
temperatures, equal volumes of different ideal gases contain the same
number of molecules) 𝑅𝑅� has the same value for different gases [27, p.
25]. Here we assume that the 𝑅𝑅� value is conserved for the ether, since
the main assumption in the model of a loose-granular medium, alike
gas, is the absence of strong bonds between particles [36, p. 150].
Let us denote the molar mass of the ether particles by 𝑀𝑀э ("э" is
from "ether" in Russian: "эфир"). It can be expressed through the den-
sity of the unperturbed ether 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228) and the molar volume 𝑉𝑉

𝑀𝑀э = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑉𝑉.

Substituting the molar volume 𝑉𝑉 found from here into the

Clapeyron – Mendeleev equation, we obtain

𝑅𝑅�
𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑇𝑇�. (232)
𝑀𝑀э 𝑚𝑚,0
Let us take for the expressed in degrees ether energy the temper-
ature of the so-called relict radiation 𝑇𝑇� = 2.73 [𝐾𝐾], see. [142–145],
which, together with the speed of light, is a reliable macroscopic char-
acteristic of the vacuum. Then 𝑀𝑀э ≈ 4.1 ∙ 10−13 [kg/kmol] at 𝑝𝑝 =
𝑝𝑝0 . The Clapeyron – Mendeleev equation is written for one mole of
particles equal to the Avogadro number 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = 6.02214 ∙ 1026 [1/
kmol]. Then for the mass of one ether particle we get 𝑚𝑚э = 𝑀𝑀э /𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 .
Thus, the mass of the ether particle in the gas-dynamic model
analogue of its structure is equal to

306
 𝑚𝑚э ≈ 6.8 ∙ 10−40 [kg] = 4.1 ∙ 10−13 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 , (233)

where 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 is the proton mass. This result is both qualitatively and in
principle quantitatively agrees with D.I. Mendeleev conclusion [54],
that if the ether particle exists, then it has a much smaller mass than
the hydrogen atom. He called this particle “newtonian” and estimated
its mass as ~5 ∙ 10−11 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 .
We emphasize that the introduction of the mass of one newtonian
𝑚𝑚э means the transition from the model of mechanics of the continu-
ous ether medium to the model of its individual structural elements.
In the continuous model, for example, when calculating a pressure, it
is more adequate to consider not the mass of one newtonian 𝑚𝑚э , but
the mass of a large number of newtonians, for example, the molar
mass 𝑀𝑀э (figuring in the Clapeyron – Mendeleev equation (232)),
since in sec. 16.2 and 17.2 the gravitational mass of the object is in-
troduced as a coefficient in the formula for the impact of the ether
pressure gradient on the object of a continuous medium, containing
many structural elements of this medium.
In sec. 16.2, the principle of equivalence of the gravitational and
inert masses of the object is also discussed. When building a model
of an individual structural element of the ether (newtonian), its mass
𝑚𝑚э can also be interpreted as the gravitational, characterizing the be-
havior of trial newtonian in the gravitational ether flow, and as the
inert one, characterizing the acceleration of the newtonian under the
action of a force applied to it.
We will estimate the characteristic radius of the newtonian on the
basis of the proton ether model structure. It is known from experi-
ments that the proton has a positive charge and possesses the proper-
ties of a rotating object. Mathematically, this object can be described
by a vortex sink, that is, a vortex in the ether, the speed of which has
a non-zero component directed to the axis of the vortex (see the ex-
ample of a vortex sink and vortex source in [140, p. 241, 242]). The

307
reduced pressure from within of such a vortex near its boundary cor-
responds to a positive charge (see. sec. 18.13). The shape of the vortex
border (fur coat) when estimating the size of the newtonian is not very
important. It can be a sphere, an ellipsoid, a cylindrical object or a
"pancake". It is important that in the proton model, both the pressure
gradient (217) and the radial velocity move the ether to the axis of
rotation, as a result of which newtonians are accumulated on it.
The presence in the proton of a central region with a very high
mass density is observed experimentally, see, for example, the review
[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton] and the literature cited there. In the
mathematical model of this phenomenon, we will assume that a rod
(core or kern) of length 2𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝑘𝑘 is formed on the axis of the proton rota-
tion, in which the proton mass is concentrated. Assume that in the
core the linear mass density 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 /(2𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝑘𝑘 ) is so high that it cannot be
further noticeably increased without external influence. Then the
characteristic diameter of newtonian 2𝑟𝑟э can be estimated from the
limit 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 → 𝑚𝑚э , 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝑘𝑘 → 𝑟𝑟э at the condition that the linear density of the
core 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 /(2𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝑘𝑘 ) is constant:
𝑚𝑚э 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝
= 𝑚𝑚lim = .
2𝑟𝑟э 𝑝𝑝 →𝑚𝑚э 2𝑟𝑟
𝑝𝑝 2𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝑘𝑘
𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝑘𝑘 →𝑟𝑟э

From here
𝑚𝑚э
𝑟𝑟э = 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝑘𝑘 .
𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝

Accounting (233), we find

𝑟𝑟э ≈ 4.1 ∙ 10−13 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝑘𝑘 .

The proton core length 2𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝑘𝑘 is estimated under the assumption

that the size of the proton vortex 2𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 is comparable with the core

308
length 2𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝,𝑘𝑘 ~ 2𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 . As the characteristic vortex radius 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 it is natural
to take the distance from the axis of rotation, at which the linear ve-
locity of rotation is close to the speed of light 𝑐𝑐. This choice is caused
by the fact that 𝑐𝑐, being the speed of disturbances free propagation in
the ether, is not exceeded under typical conditions without external
influences, and therefore limits the magnitude of the linear velocity in
the ether vortex. The searched radius of the proton vortex 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 corre-
sponds to the Compton radius of the proton 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 = ℏ/(𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐). It is on
the Compton radius that the linear rotational velocity with the angular
frequency 𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, determined from the proton energy ℎ𝜈𝜈 =
𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐 2, reaches the speed of light: 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐/𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐/(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) = ℎ𝑐𝑐/
(2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐 2 ) = ℏ/(𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐).
So,
𝑟𝑟э ≈ 4.1 ∙ 10−13 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 ;
(234)
𝑟𝑟э ≈ 8.6 ∙ 10−27 [cm], if 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 = ℏ/(𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐).

Thus, in the volume of the proton one can place up to 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝3 /𝑟𝑟э3 =
1037 newtonians. This means, for example, that there are enormous
opportunities in the ether to organize various structural elements and
information structures even at a distance of the order of the proton
radius.
The small size of newtonians substantiates the possibility of us-
ing the continuous media model to describe the ether up to the dis-
tance of ~4.1 ∙ 10−12 of the proton radius, since in the volume corre-
sponding to this distance (in Lagrangian particle) one can place about
(4.1 ∙ 10−12 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 )3 /(4.1 ∙ 10−13 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 )3 = 103 newtonians, which is suffi-
cient to satisfy the requirement of media continuity.
The average distance between newtonians 𝑟𝑟∗ depends on the spe-
cific conditions in which the ether exists.
For example, 𝑟𝑟∗ in the proton can be estimated from the fact that,
according to (233), the proton should contain 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 /𝑚𝑚э ≈ 2.4 ∙ 1012

309
newtonians. An estimate of 𝑟𝑟∗ from below is obtained under the lim-
iting assumption that all newtonians in the proton are in the core. Then
the distance between them is of the order 𝑟𝑟∗ ~ 2𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 /(𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 /𝑚𝑚э ) ≈ 2 ∙
8.6 ∙ 10−27 [cm], that is, the order of the characteristic newtonian di-
ameter 2𝑟𝑟э . An estimate of 𝑟𝑟∗ from above can be obtained by taking
the sphere with Compton radius 𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 (234) for the shape of the proton.
Then the average volume per one newtonian is: 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 /(𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 /𝑚𝑚э ), 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 =
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝3 /3. If this average volume is represented as a cube, then the dis-
tance between the centers of neighboring cubes (newtonians) will be
equal to the length of the cube edge 𝑟𝑟∗ ~ (𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 /(𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 /𝑚𝑚э ))1/3 ≈ 2.9 ∙
10−18 [cm]. Of course, such an estimate is very much overestimated,
since in the considered model of the proton, newtonians are concen-
trated in its core, which has a linear shape.
It would seem that the average distance between newtonians 𝑟𝑟∗ in
the unperturbed ether can be estimated by analogy with [30, p. 17]
based on the known concentration 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 /𝑚𝑚э , defined by the values
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228) and 𝑚𝑚э (233): 𝑟𝑟∗ ~ 1/ 3�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 /𝑚𝑚э ≈ 7.0⋅10−10 [cm]. How-
ever, such an assessment is generally incorrect, since it assumes the
existence of an established distribution of newtonians in space. This
assumption is not appropriate to the very high penetrating capability
of the ether, which is difficult to limit to any vessel where the behavior
of gases is usually considered. Besides, it is possible that in the un-
perturbed ether, areas of condensation and rarefaction of newtonians
may form as a result of their chaotic motion in unlimited space, espe-
cially if newtonians have no repulsive forces. In other words, the un-
perturbed ether has a certain average mass density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0, but the aver-
age distance between newtonians in it is generally undefined, as in the
gas provided to itself. However, the low thermal conductivity of the
vacuum known from experiments allows us to estimate from above
the average free path of newtonians in the unperturbed ether (258).

310
 21.3. Newtonians distribution in chaotic heat and direc-
tional motion

A detailed study of newtonians is an area of activity for further

research. However, at present it is possible to evaluate their properties
using regularities of a general form.
Suppose that the ether consists of a very large number of identical
newtonians that are in a state of chaotic thermal motion at a certain
temperature. Consider the case when the force fields acting in the
ether are absent.
The principle of detailed equilibrium and the general properties
of the mechanics symmetry laws allow, regardless the form of struc-
tural elements and forces acting between them, to establish the Max-
wellian distribution law of their velocities (see, for example: [27, sec.
72, 74; 147, ch. 1, sec. 4])
2
𝑓𝑓(𝐯𝐯) = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝛼𝛼𝐯𝐯 ,

where 𝐯𝐯 is the velocity of the structural element, 𝑓𝑓(𝐯𝐯)𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯 is the prob-

ability of its being in the volume element 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯 of the velocity space.
The coefficients 𝐴𝐴 and 𝛼𝛼 are determined by normalizing the prob-
ability density 𝑓𝑓 by one and by a given average kinetic temperature
𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 of structural elements, each of which has a kinetic energy 𝜀𝜀.
The theory presented in this book does not impose a restriction
on the magnitude of the newtonian velocity. Therefore, we will inte-
grate over the entire velocity space
−∞ −∞

� 𝑓𝑓(𝐯𝐯) 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯 = 1, � 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀(𝐯𝐯) 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯 = 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 .

−∞ −∞

The kinetic energy 𝜀𝜀 of the medium structural element depends

on the number of its mechanical degrees of freedom [36, p. 89]. It can

311
be introduced by various ways. In this book, we consistently use the
definition of the kinetic energy density at the instantaneous generation
of motion from a state of rest, see sec. 1.4. We apply this approach to
the newtonian of mass 𝑚𝑚э . For the kinetic energy of its translational
motion we get

𝜀𝜀 = 𝑚𝑚э 𝐯𝐯 2 . (235)

Passing in integrals to spherical coordinates, we find

3 𝑚𝑚э 3 𝑚𝑚э 3/2

𝛼𝛼 = , 𝐴𝐴 = � � .
2 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2 𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

In physics, the formula 𝜀𝜀1/2 = 𝑚𝑚э 𝐯𝐯 2 /2 is used for the kinetic en-
ergy of the translational motion of the medium structural element cen-
ter of mass. Accordingly, its average kinetic energy is 𝜀𝜀1/2,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑚𝑚э 〈𝐯𝐯 2 〉/2, where 〈∙〉 is the sum over all structural elements in a unit
volume divided by the number of these elements, see, for example:
[27, sec. 63]. For the measure of the kinetic temperature, two thirds
of the average kinetic energy of the medium element translational mo-
tion Θ = 2𝜀𝜀1/2,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 /3 is selected and it is shown [27, p. 197], that in
this case the kinetic temperature Θ and the absolute thermodynamic
temperature 𝑇𝑇 are related by the equation Θ = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, where 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑅𝑅� /𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
is the Boltzmann constant.
If the kinetic energy of the newtonian translational motion is cal-
culated by the formula (235), then for the average kinetic energy we
obtain 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚э 〈𝐯𝐯 2 〉. Then, by analogy with [27, p. 190], in order to
preserve the relation Θ = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇�, one should define Θ as Θ = 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 /3 (see
also [27, p. 194] for variations of the formula relating the gas pressure
and the energy density). From here

𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 3Θ = 3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇�, (236)

312
 𝑚𝑚э 𝑚𝑚э 3/2
𝛼𝛼 = , 𝐴𝐴 = � � .
2𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇� 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑇𝑇�

The expressions for 𝛼𝛼 and 𝐴𝐴 formally coincided with those typi-

cally used in the Maxwell distribution [27, p. 250]. Therefore, for the
most probable speed 𝑣𝑣p , average speed 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , and mean square speed
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 of the ether structural element, one can use the formulas [36, p.
206, 207; 27, sec. 59, 60, 73]

2𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇� 8𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇� 3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇�

𝑣𝑣p = � , 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � , 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = � . (237)
𝑚𝑚э 𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚э 𝑚𝑚э

It is known that the translational motion of the macroscopic ob-

ject center of mass, on average, has the same energy as the transla-
tional motion of a single particle [27, p. 202]. Atoms and molecules
can be considered with respect to newtonians as macroscopic bodies.
Therefore, the temperature of newtonians in equilibrium near atoms
and molecules in the case of elastic collisions coincides with the tem-
perature of atoms or molecules.
At temperatures 𝑇𝑇� from 1 to 273 [𝐾𝐾], the most probable speed of
newtonians 𝑣𝑣p lies in the range from 0.67𝑐𝑐 to 11𝑐𝑐, the average speed
of 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is in the range from 0.76𝑐𝑐 to 12.5𝑐𝑐, the mean square 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is in
the range from 0.82𝑐𝑐 to 13.6𝑐𝑐, where 𝑐𝑐 is the speed of light. Large
speeds are caused by the low mass of newtonians. The possibility of
exceeding the light speed 𝑐𝑐 by the average thermal speed of the new-
tonians chaotic motion 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is not unusual, since a similar situation
occurs, for example, in air, where the average thermal speed of mol-
ecules can significantly exceed the speed of sound [27, sec. 60].
It is important to emphasize that even at very low temperatures,
the thermal speed of newtonians is of the order of the speed of light.

313
By analogy with the propagation of sound in matter, this explains the
possibility of free propagation of disturbances in the ether namely
with the speed of light.
At 𝑇𝑇� = 2.7 [K], the average kinetic energy is 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇� =
1.12 ∙ 10−40 [erg] = 1.81𝑚𝑚э 𝑐𝑐 2 . Hence, 𝑚𝑚э 𝑐𝑐 2 = 1.65𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇� at 𝑇𝑇� =
2.7 [K]. This is the reason for the discrepancy by 1.65 times between
the mass of the newtonian 𝑚𝑚э (233) found above on the basis of suc-
cessive reasoning and M.Ya. Ivanov [153] estimate 𝑚𝑚 � э ≈ 4.2 ∙
10 −40 [kg] 2 � �
from the formal condition 𝑚𝑚э 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 at 𝑇𝑇 = 2.7 [𝐾𝐾].
In the case of simultaneous chaotic thermal motion and direc-
tional motion of newtonians with a given average velocity 𝐯𝐯0 =
𝐯𝐯0 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫) , their velocity distribution is found as the equilibrium solu-
tion of the Boltzmann equation
2
𝑓𝑓̃(𝐯𝐯) = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −𝛼𝛼(𝐯𝐯−𝛃𝛃) , (238)

where the values of 𝐴𝐴, 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are set from the normalization condition
of 𝑓𝑓̃(𝐯𝐯) on unit, the known average velocity 𝐯𝐯0 and the definition of
temperature, see, for example [38, sec. 6.3]:
−∞ −∞

� 𝑓𝑓̃(𝐯𝐯) 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯 = 1, � 𝐯𝐯𝑓𝑓̃(𝐯𝐯) 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯 = 𝐯𝐯0 ,

−∞ −∞
−∞

� 𝑚𝑚э (𝐯𝐯 − 𝐯𝐯0 )2 𝑓𝑓̃(𝐯𝐯) 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯 = 3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇�.

−∞

Here, as above, the temperature of chaotic motion is introduced with-

out a factor 1/2, following the formula (235) for the kinetic energy
of newtonian.
The listed conditions give

314
 𝑚𝑚э 𝑚𝑚э 3/2
𝛼𝛼 = , 𝐴𝐴 = � � , 𝛃𝛃 = 𝐯𝐯0 . (239)
2𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇� 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑇𝑇�

The expressions for 𝛼𝛼 and 𝐴𝐴 coincide with the case 𝐯𝐯0 = 0 dis-
cussed above. However, formulas change for the most probable speed
𝑣𝑣p , at which 𝑓𝑓̃(𝐯𝐯) reaches maximum, for the mean speed
−∞

𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = �|𝐯𝐯|𝑓𝑓̃(𝐯𝐯) 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯

−∞

and for the mean square speed

−∞
3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇�
2
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = � 𝐯𝐯 2 𝑓𝑓̃(𝐯𝐯) 𝑑𝑑𝐯𝐯 = 𝐯𝐯х2 + 𝐯𝐯02 , 𝐯𝐯х2 ≡ . (240)
𝑚𝑚э
−∞

21.4. A brief review of models of non-equilibrium, irreversi-

ble processes and transport coefficients in physics. Ap-
plication to the description of the newtonians kinetics

Description of non-equilibrium, irreversible processes is one of

the main problems of kinetics, see, for example: [147, p. 119]. Calcu-
lated theoretically or experimentally found transport coefficients are
used in models of continuous media, see, for example: [14, 9, 62].
The basis for considering the majority of irreversible, non-equi-
librium processes (see, for example: [14, ch. 5, sec. 3]), such as ther-
mal conductivity, viscosity, diffusion, is the hypothesis of local equi-
librium. This hypothesis assumes such an exchange of energy and mo-
mentum between particles, that after the very first collision each mol-
ecule acquires equilibrium properties characteristic of the point in
space where this collision occurred [147, p. 119]. The linear size of the

315
local equilibrium microregions is determined by the free path of parti-
cles, on which their inherent properties are preserved. Therefore, de-
spite the enormous particle speeds, the transfer of the properties of the
medium occurs sequentially from the microregion into the microre-
gion and is usually a much slower process. Mathematically, this hy-
pothesis is expressed in the fact that the speed of heat propagation is
determined not only by the average heat velocity of the medium ele-
ments movement, but also by the gradients of temperature and density.
In a fairly wide class of non-equilibrium systems, where the mean
free path of particles is much smaller than the characteristic size of
medium inhomogeneity, the particle distribution over velocities at
each point in space can be considered close to Maxwell, although the
value of temperature over volume is not constant. In the general case,
the velocity distribution of particles is not Maxwellian.
The idea of sequential adaptation of particles to the properties of
the medium at those points in space where their next collision occurs is
the basis of most kinetic calculations of transport phenomena [147, p.
120]. But these calculations themselves can be performed at different
levels of rigor, depending on how fully the various details of the phe-
nomenon are taken into account. In [147, ch. 1, sec. 16, ch. 4, sec. 32;
27, sec. 89–92; 146, ch. 1, sec. 2; 148, ch. 4; 149, sec. 52] transport
coefficients (thermal conductivity, viscosity, diffusion) are obtained by
considering the motion of medium particles in the characteristic time
interval between two successive collisions. In [146, ch. 7, sec. 1–4, ch.
8, ch. 9] the transport coefficients are calculated on the basis of the so-
lution of the Boltzmann equation or the model of classical statistical
mechanics [146, ch. 9, sec. 4]. In [147; 150; 146, ch. 1, sec. 3, ch. 13;
27, sec. 69] account is taken of the interaction between the particles of
the media, the presence of particles internal degrees of freedom (vibra-
tional, rotational, etc.), as well as various processes in the media.
The equations of continuous media mechanics in differential
form, including the ether equations (1)–(6), are not applicable for de-
scribing the trajectories of Lagrangian particles with kinks (bends),

316
since derivatives are not defined on kinks. Theoretically, it would be
possible to use the model of a continuous media in integral form by
analogy, for example, with [10, p. 55], but with such an approach it
will be necessary to solve integral equations, which is a much more
complicated problem than the solution of differential equations. In
continuous media mechanics, instead of applying an integral form, the
equations of continuity and motion in a differential form are supple-
mented with the equation of state or an energy equation (see, for ex-
ample: [14, ch. 5, sec. 8 and ch. 7, p. 395]), which contains in the
averaged form description of the behavior of medium structural ele-
ments under consideration. The equation of state in physics is deter-
mined either from experiments or from the theory of structural ele-
ments dynamics, in particular, statistical physics [146, 38].
The question of the ether structural elements properties and the
details of their interaction with each other remains open. Under such
conditions, it is natural to begin the study of the ether structural ele-
ments behavior basing on the analogy with known media. In sec. 21.2,
the parameters of the ether carriers (particles) are estimated under the
assumption that they behave like a flowing (loose-granular) medium
similar to a monatomic gas. Such particles, following D.I. Mendeleev
[54], are called newtonians.
The state of a gas from solid particles (analogue of a flowing
(loose-granular) medium) in the simplest case is described by the
Clapeyron – Mendeleev equation. This equation for ν moles of the
medium particles has the form [27, p. 25; 36, p. 151]

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = ν𝑅𝑅� 𝑇𝑇�. (241)

where 𝑅𝑅� is the universal gas constant, 𝑉𝑉 is the volume occupied by ν

moles of particles, 𝑇𝑇� is the medium temperature, in our case of the
ether. The possibility of using the equation (241) for the ether is dis-
cussed in sec. 21.2.
The number of moles in the volume 𝑉𝑉 at the density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 is

317
 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉
ν= ,
𝑀𝑀э

where 𝑀𝑀э is the molar mass of newtonians (particles of the ether), see
sec. 21.2.
Substituting ν into (241), we obtain for the ether

𝑅𝑅�
𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑇𝑇�. (242)
𝑀𝑀э 𝑚𝑚

Using 𝑀𝑀э = 𝑚𝑚э 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 and the known relationship 𝑅𝑅� = 𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 , where
𝑘𝑘 = 1.3807 ∙ 10−23 [J/K] = 1.3807 ∙ 10−16 [erg/K] is the Boltz-
mann constant, 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = 6.02214 ∙ 1023 [1/mol] is the Avogadro num-
ber, equations (241) and (242) can be written in the form

𝑘𝑘
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = ν𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇�, 𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑇𝑇�. (243)
𝑚𝑚э 𝑚𝑚

To the translational motion of the macroscopic object center of

mass in the case of elastic interaction with particles, on average, the
same energy falls as that on the translational motion of a single parti-
cle [27, p. 202]. Atoms, molecules and objects consisting of them can
be considered with respect to the newtonian as macroscopic objects.
If we consider the interaction of newtonians with them to be elastic,
then around the object the temperature of newtonians in equilibrium
coincides with the energy 𝑇𝑇 of the translational motion of the object
center of mass and 𝑇𝑇� = 𝑇𝑇 in the formula (242). In the general case,
the law of newtonians interaction with objects that themselves con-
sists of newtonians is not yet established. Besides, at large distances
from the macroscopic object, by analogy with the molecular kinetic

318
theory, the temperature of newtonians is defined by their thermal con-
ductivity, convection, and other processes and may differ signifi-
cantly from the temperature around the object. Therefore, further in
the formula (242) we will use the notation 𝑇𝑇�, emphasizing that we are
talking about the temperature of the ether.
The greatest interest in the ether is the case of a high concentra-
tion of newtonians, since, apparently, it is the basis of the objects and
processes available for observation. The phenomena of transport in
concentrated (dense) media are considered in [146, ch. 9; 147, ch. 4,
sec. 32]. In such media, the main transport mechanism is the collision
of the medium particles and the increase in the collision frequency
[146, p. 480, 497].
We note the advantage of the approach [147, ch.1, sec.16 and ch.
4, sec. 32] for the transport coefficients calculating, at which the pro-
portionality of the flow to the gradient in the transport laws is not
postulated, but derived in the process of reasoning. Besides, this ap-
proach allows obtaining a more general result, for example, to take
into account the heat transfer caused by the particle concentration gra-
dient [147, p. 128].
We will begin the transport processes study with a simple model
based on considering the newtonians motion between two successive
collisions.

21.5. Heat transfer in the ether. Heat capacity of the ether

The phenomenon of heat transfer consists in the directed transfer

of the internal energy of the medium [36, p. 210]. The mechanism of
thermal processes in gas, liquid, solid, and plasma is revealed by mo-
lecular kinetic theory. Heat transfer is associated in physics with the
chaotic (random) motion of the structural elements (molecules, atoms,
etc.) that make up the media. The presence of chaotic motion is ex-
plained by collisions or oscillations of structural elements [27, p. 61].

319
 The thermal conductivity coefficient of the ether can be obtained
by repeating the kinetic reasoning [27, p. 334–340; 146, ch. 1, sec. 2]
for newtonians, taking into account, possibly, their high concentration
[146, ch. 9; 147, ch. 4, sec. 32] or by analogy with [150, sec. 2.4], but
considering the Boltzmann equation modified for dense media [146,
p. 497–499].
However, in order to demonstrate the relation of the heat transfer
phenomenon in the ether to the initial postulates of the ether theory,
let us construct here the heat transfer model, using the ether equation
of state (15), obtained from the law of momentum conservation, and
an analogy with a flowing (loose-granular) medium. Under the heat,
as above, we will understand the energy of the translational chaotic
motion of newtonians. As will be shown below, the formula for the
ether thermal conductivity in such a description of the heat transfer
process is exactly the same in appearance as the result of a direct anal-
ysis of the newtonians kinetics using known approaches. Such a co-
incidence shows accordance to each other of the model, based on the
ether equation of state (15), and the model of the kinetic description
of newtonians.
Besides, we take into account the possible presence of a non-zero
velocity of the newtonians directional motion. Such a generalization
will be needed in sec. 21.11.
Heat transfer in a substance is discussed at the end of this section
and in sec. 21.6.
The equation (15) is obtained for a Lagrangian particle, which
includes a large number of newtonians. Take the limit from (15), di-
recting the volume of the Lagrangian particle to the volume of the
newtonian at fixed 𝑝𝑝 and 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 . In the result we obtain the equation for
one newtonian, which coincides in appearance with the original equa-
tion (15), since the volume is not included into the equation (15), (the
equation (15), is written at the point of the medium):

𝑝𝑝∗ = 𝑝𝑝 + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 + 𝛱𝛱, 𝑝𝑝∗ ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐮𝐮2∗ . (244)

320
Here 𝑝𝑝 is the pressure created by one newtonian in the media of new-
tonians, 𝐮𝐮 is the velocity of newtonians, 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 is the ether density in
mechanical units: 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌 (sec. 20.1).
Let us consider a fairly general case when the newtonian velocity
𝐮𝐮 is the sum of the chaotic thermal motion velocity 𝐮𝐮х and the given
average velocity of the directional motion 𝐮𝐮0 :

𝐮𝐮 = 𝐮𝐮х + 𝐮𝐮0 . (245)

According to (240), the mean square speed of such a motion is

−∞
3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇�
� ≡ � 𝐮𝐮2 𝑓𝑓̃(𝐮𝐮) 𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮 = 𝐮𝐮
𝐮𝐮2
� 2х + 𝐮𝐮20 , 𝐮𝐮
� 2х ≡ , (246)
𝑚𝑚э
−∞

where 𝑇𝑇� is the temperature of the newtonians chaotic motion.

To shorten the writing, we denote the root value of the mean
square velocity 𝑢𝑢� ≡ |𝐮𝐮�|, the average speed of the thermal chaotic mo-
tion 𝑢𝑢�х = |𝐮𝐮
� х | and the value of the average speed of directional mo-
tion 𝑢𝑢0 = |𝐮𝐮0 |.
The expression (244) cannot be differentiated over time on the
trajectories of the newtonians chaotic thermal motion, since such tra-
jectories can contain kinks (bends). However, average values can al-
ready be assumed smooth functions of time. Therefore, we consider
the average of the expression (244) over space taking into account the
Maxwell distribution of newtonians (238), (239). In the case of the
newtonians density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 independent of velocity, we obtain

�,
� 2 + 𝛱𝛱
𝑝𝑝∗ = 𝑝𝑝̅ + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮

321
 −∞ −∞

𝑝𝑝̅ ≡ � 𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓̃(𝐮𝐮) 𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮, 𝛱𝛱

� ≡ � 𝛱𝛱𝑓𝑓̃(𝐮𝐮) 𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮,
−∞ −∞

� 2 is cal-
where 𝑝𝑝̅ is the average pressure created by the newtonian, 𝐮𝐮
culated by the formula (246).
So, the average pressure in the ether (energy density) 𝑝𝑝̅, created
by one newtonian in the presence of chaotic thermal and directional
motion, is

𝑝𝑝̅ = 𝑝𝑝∗ − 𝒜𝒜̅ − 𝛱𝛱

�,
3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇�
𝒜𝒜̅ ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢�2 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝑢𝑢�х2 + 𝑢𝑢02 ) = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢02 ,
𝑚𝑚э

where 𝒜𝒜̅ is the average energy density of newtonians thermal and

translational motion.
Let the heat at a given point in space be transferred in the direc-
tion of the unit vector 𝐢𝐢hf . We introduce the average velocity of new-
tonians in the direction of 𝐢𝐢hf

� hf ≡ 𝑢𝑢�х 𝐢𝐢hf + (𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢hf ) ∙ 𝐢𝐢hf .

𝐮𝐮 (247)

We emphasize once again that, despite the enormous velocity of

chaotic thermal motion of particles 𝑢𝑢�х ,, the transfer of medium prop-
erties, in accordance with the hypothesis of the local equilibrium, oc-
curs much slower in such model of this process (see sec. 21.4).
In studying the heat motion, we are interested only in those new-
tonians that are involved in its transfer. In the simplest model of
transport processes, it is assumed that the particles move chaotically
only in three mutually perpendicular directions. Then [27, p. 336; 147,
p. 121] the density of particles arriving at the point under considera-
tion in the direction 𝐢𝐢hf , is 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 /6. Particles with the same density come

322
to this point from the opposite direction −𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 . In sum, the particles at
this point have the density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 /3.
Thus, created by the newtonian pressure 𝑝𝑝𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 , associated with the
transfer of heat and translational motion in the direction 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 , is

𝑝𝑝𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 = 𝑝𝑝∗ − 𝒜𝒜̅𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 − 𝛱𝛱

�,
𝑘𝑘 (248)
𝒜𝒜̅𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ≡ 𝜌𝜌 𝑇𝑇� + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 )2 ,
𝑚𝑚э 𝑚𝑚

where 𝒜𝒜̅𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 is the average energy density of heat and translational mo-
tion of newtonians involved in heat transfer in the direction of 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ,
𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚э = 𝑅𝑅� /𝑀𝑀э .
Consider the expression (248) on the trajectory of the newtonian
𝐫𝐫̅ (𝑡𝑡), corresponding to the average velocity 𝐮𝐮
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡

𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫̅ (𝑡𝑡)
= 𝐮𝐮
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Taking from (248) the full time derivative on the trajectory 𝐫𝐫̅ (𝑡𝑡),
we obtain the power density of the chaotic and translational thermal
flow carried by the newtonian along this trajectory

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑 𝒜𝒜̅𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑𝛱𝛱

�
��𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫̅ (𝑡𝑡)� ≡
𝑤𝑤 =− − .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

In Euler variables

𝜕𝜕𝒜𝒜̅𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫̅ ) �

𝑑𝑑𝛱𝛱
�(𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫̅ ) = −
𝑤𝑤 � 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫̅ ) ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫̅ 𝒜𝒜̅𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫̅ ) −
− 𝐮𝐮 ,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
�
𝑑𝑑𝛱𝛱 𝜕𝜕𝛱𝛱 � (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫̅ )
=− − 𝐮𝐮 � (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫̅ ).
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 (𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫̅ ) ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫̅ 𝛱𝛱
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Further, 𝐫𝐫̅ in 𝛁𝛁𝐫𝐫� is omitted for brevity.

323
 In the steady state (partial derivatives with respect to time go to
zero) in the absence of external sources, we have

𝑤𝑤 � 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝒜𝒜̅𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 .
� = −𝐮𝐮

By virtue of the formula (72), the last relation can be interpreted

as the creation of the power density of the thermal ether flow 𝑤𝑤 �=
� � ̅
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ∙ 𝐄𝐄𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 by the electric field 𝐄𝐄𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 = −𝛁𝛁𝒜𝒜𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 /𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0, associated
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮
with the chaotic and directional motion of the newtonians. Even
though the presence of a charge in the newtonian is not assumed.
The amount of energy brought in time unit with a velocity 𝐮𝐮 � 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡
per unit area with a thickness 𝐮𝐮 � 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 from its two sides is

𝑑𝑑𝐣𝐣̅ ≡ 𝑤𝑤
�𝐮𝐮 � 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ∙ 𝛁𝛁𝒜𝒜̅𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 )𝐮𝐮
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −(𝐮𝐮 � 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (249)

In accordance with the standard technique used here for calculat-

ing of transport coefficients (see sec. 21.4), the product 𝐮𝐮
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is con-
̅
sidered equal to the mean free path 𝜆𝜆 between two successive colli-
sions [27, sec. 89; 28, sec. 42]. The specific form of 𝜆𝜆̅ is discussed
below.
Substitute 𝒜𝒜̅𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 from (248) into 𝑑𝑑𝐣𝐣̅ (249)

𝑅𝑅�
𝑑𝑑𝐣𝐣̅ = − �𝐮𝐮
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ∙ 𝛁𝛁 � 𝜌𝜌 𝑇𝑇� + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 (𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 )2 �� 𝐮𝐮
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑀𝑀э 𝑚𝑚

𝑅𝑅� 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡

2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐮𝐮
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝐮𝐮� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑀э
− � ∙ 𝛁𝛁 � �𝑇𝑇� + (𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 )2 ���,
𝑀𝑀э 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑅𝑅�

where 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ is the characteristic ether density.

By analogy with the Fourier thermal conductivity law for the heat
flux density (the amount of energy passing per unit time per unit area)

324
[36, p. 210; 27, p. 162–164] we will call the value 𝜒𝜒, standing at the
term with the gradient, the thermal conductivity coefficient of the
ether:

𝐮𝐮
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝐮𝐮 � 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑀э
𝑑𝑑𝐣𝐣̅ = −𝜒𝜒 � ∙ 𝛁𝛁 � 𝑇𝑇� + (𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 )2 ��,
𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ �
𝑅𝑅
(250)
�
𝑅𝑅 𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑘𝑘
2 2
𝜒𝜒 ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑢𝑢�2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝑀𝑀э 𝑚𝑚э 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚э 𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡

where 𝑚𝑚э is the newtonian mass (see sec. 21.2). We emphasize that
the formula (250) takes into account the heat transfer caused by the
density gradient (see the discussion in [147, p. 128]), as well as the
possible presence of directional motion with an average velocity 𝐮𝐮0 .
For a flowing (loose-granular) medium, by analogy with an ideal
monatomic gas, it is possible to calculate the specific heat capacity at
the constant volume 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 [27, p. 213; 121, p. 197]. Taking into account
the introduction in the ether of the translational motion energy by the
formula (235) (without the factor 1/2), we have

𝑅𝑅� 𝑘𝑘
𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 = 3 =3 ,
𝑀𝑀э 𝑚𝑚э

where 𝑀𝑀э is the molar mass of newtonians, 𝑚𝑚э is the mass of one
newtonian.
Then

1 1
𝜒𝜒 = 2
𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 𝜆𝜆̅, 𝜆𝜆̅ = 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (251)
3 3

This formula in appearance is exactly the same as the formula ob-

tained in the molecular kinetic theory of gases, see, for example: [27,
p. 340; 147, p. 122].

325
 The ether heat capacity 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 depends only on universal constants:
the Boltzmann constant 𝑘𝑘 and the mass of newtonian 𝑚𝑚э :

𝑘𝑘 erg J
𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 = 3 ≈ 6 ∙ 1020 � � = 6 ∙ 1016 � �.
𝑚𝑚э g∙K kg ∙ K

By analogy with the derivation in [27, p. 213], it is possible to

calculate the specific heat capacity at the constant pressure 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝

𝑅𝑅� 𝑅𝑅� 𝑘𝑘
𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 + =4 =4 . (252)
𝑀𝑀э 𝑀𝑀э 𝑚𝑚э

For comparison, the heat capacity of air at 300 [𝐾𝐾] and atmos-
pheric pressure is 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 ≈ 103 [J/(kg ∙ K)], see. [121, p. 218]. Analyzing
the data [121, ch. 9], we conclude that the heat capacity of the ether
by 12–13 orders of magnitude exceeds the heat capacities of ordinary
substances. That is, to change the ether temperature by unit, it is nec-
essary to transfer to its unit mass the amount of heat by 1012 –1013
times greater than to the ordinary substance. This means that the tem-
perature of the ether is difficult to change and it is actually a thermo-
stat. The colossal heat capacity of the ether can be tried to be used for
practical purposes.
With 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 and 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 we calculate the adiabatic index of the ether

𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 4
𝛾𝛾 = = ≈ 1.33.
𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 3

The value 𝛾𝛾 = 5/3 ≈ 1.67 was applied in sec. 21.1 for the ether.
Using the coefficient 4/3 ≈ 1.33 instead of 5/3 slightly increases the
estimate of the unperturbed ether pressure (230)

𝑝𝑝0 ≈ 1.3 ∙ 1011 [Pa]. (253)

326
 Taking into account (247), (246), (251), the coefficient 𝜒𝜒 (250)
can be rewritten in another form

𝑅𝑅�
𝜒𝜒 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑢𝑢� 𝑢𝑢� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑀𝑀э 𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡
𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
𝜌𝜌 (𝑢𝑢�2 + 2𝑢𝑢�х (𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ) + (𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 )2 )1/2 𝜆𝜆̅ =
𝑚𝑚э 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚,∗ х
1/2 1/2
𝑘𝑘 3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇� 3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇�
𝜌𝜌 � + 2(𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ) � � + (𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 )2 � 𝜆𝜆̅ =
𝑚𝑚э 𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑚𝑚э 𝑚𝑚э (254)
3/2
𝑘𝑘
� � 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ (3𝑇𝑇� + 𝑈𝑈0 )1/2 𝜆𝜆̅,
𝑚𝑚э
1/2
𝑚𝑚э 3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇�
𝑈𝑈0 ≡ (𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ) �2 � � + (𝐮𝐮0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 )�.
𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚э

In the absence of newtonians directional motion 𝑢𝑢0 = 0, the for-

mula (254) is simplified

𝑘𝑘 2
𝜒𝜒 = 3 � � 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑇𝑇�𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑚𝑚э

We use the method [147, p. 269–272] to modify the formula

(251) in the case of the high concentration of the newtonians, when
the influence of the newtonian size on the mean free path begins to
affect. In this case, the average free run of the newtonian 𝜆𝜆̅ = 𝑢𝑢�hf 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is already comparable with the characteristic distance between the
newtonians 𝜆𝜆̅ ~ 𝑟𝑟∗ . Besides, each free run, measured by the distance
between the centers of the newtonians, is reduced by two newtonians
radii 2𝑟𝑟э , that is, the effective speed of motion increases and becomes
equal to 𝑢𝑢�hf ≡ 𝑢𝑢�hf 𝑟𝑟∗ /(𝑟𝑟∗ − 2𝑟𝑟э ). As a result, we obtain from (251)

327
 1 1 𝑟𝑟∗2
𝜒𝜒 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢�hf 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 𝑟𝑟∗ = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢�hf 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 . (255)
3 3 𝑟𝑟∗ − 2𝑟𝑟э

The difference of the mean free path 𝜆𝜆̅ in a concentrated medium

from a rarefied medium, where the length 𝜆𝜆̅ is taken equal to
1/(𝜎𝜎𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ /𝑚𝑚э ), 𝜎𝜎 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟э2 [27, p. 324; 36, p. 209], leads to the depend-
ence of the thermal conductivity coefficient in the concentrated me-
dium on the density.
Let us estimate 𝜒𝜒 in the limiting case of a very small characteris-
tic distance between the newtonians

𝑢𝑢�hf 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜆𝜆̅ ~ 𝑟𝑟∗ ~ 𝛼𝛼𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟э , 𝛼𝛼𝑟𝑟 = 3, (256)

where 𝑟𝑟э is the radius of the newtonian, 𝛼𝛼𝑟𝑟 is a parameter characteriz-

ing the mean free path 𝜆𝜆̅. Note that the 2𝑟𝑟э distance is the minimum
for the "free" passage of the newtonian between the two others.
From (255) we have

𝑘𝑘
𝜒𝜒 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑢𝑢� 9𝑟𝑟 . (257)
𝑚𝑚э 𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 э

At temperature 𝑇𝑇� = 2.7 [K] and 𝑢𝑢0 = 0, according to (237), we

have 𝑢𝑢�𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 = 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈ 1.35𝑐𝑐. Then for 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228) and 𝑟𝑟э (234):
𝜒𝜒 ≈ 1.3 ∙ 10−3 [erg/(s ∙ cm ∙ K)]. This is extremely small value in
comparison with the thermal conductivity of macroscopic objects,
which, for example, for air is 2.62 ∙ 10−2 [J/(s ∙ m ∙ K))] = 2.62 ∙
103 [erg/(s ∙ cm ∙ K))], see. [121, p. 346]. Thus, the obtained esti-
mate of the ether thermal conductivity coefficient corresponds to the
experimental data, which shows a very high thermal insulation prop-
erty of the vacuum. An increase in the characteristic distance between

328
the newtonians 𝑟𝑟∗ (256) by 4–5 orders of magnitude does not change
this conclusion in principle.
Measurement of the ether thermal conductivity coefficient 𝜒𝜒 in
the experiment will confirm the model of the ether structure and will
provide an opportunity to evaluate one or other of its parameters en-
tering the formula (254). But already now, basing on the experimental
fact of the low thermal conductivity of the vacuum, we can conclude
that the newtonians mean free path 𝜆𝜆̅ should be smaller than 105 radii
of the newtonian 𝑟𝑟э (234), that is very small by ordinary standards:

𝜆𝜆̅ < 105 𝑟𝑟э ≈ 8.6 ∙ 10−22 [cm]. (258)

Otherwise, the ether thermal conductivity coefficient (251) becomes

comparable with the thermal conductivity coefficients of macroscopic
objects.
We emphasize once again that the analogue of the Fourier law,
which describes the thermal conductivity of the newtonians, is ob-
tained here from the ether equation of state (15), which is a conse-
quence of Newton's second law. Thus, the Fourier law in the ether is
derived from a fairly general concepts and in fact is a consequence of
the second law of Newton.
Usually the distance between the macroscopic structural ele-
ments of a substance (atoms, molecules, etc.) is by many orders of
magnitude greater than the characteristic size of the newtonians
𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 /𝑟𝑟э ~ 1013 (see. sec. 21.2), and the thermal conductivity of the
ether is very small. Therefore, a change in the temperature of newto-
nians associated with the motion of macroscopic structural elements
can occur only near these elements. Moreover, the interaction of new-
tonians with atoms and molecules can be unusual, since atoms and
molecules themselves consist of newtonians. However, if with time
the trajectories of objects completely fill a certain amount of the ether,

329
then, depending on the law of interaction with newtonians, they can
change the chaotic motion of all newtonians in this volume.
The weak relation of the newtonians chaotic motion with the cha-
otic motion of the macroscopic structural elements of a substance un-
der ordinary conditions is confirmed by experiments. In the equilib-
rium unperturbed state, the pressure of the ether ~1.1 ∙ 1011 [Pa]
(230) and the pressure created on the Earth by macroscopic objects
~105 [Pa] turn out to be practically independent of each other. That
is, the Dalton's law is not applicable to a mixture of newtonians and
macroscopic objects under normal conditions: the pressure of a mix-
ture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of their partial pressures [36, p.
152; 27, p. 34].
Thus, in the case of a strong difference in the size of atoms (mol-
ecules) and newtonians and large distances between atoms compared
to the size of the newtonian, the chaotic motion of atoms and newto-
nians can be studied almost independently of each other. In particular,
in this case, a mixture of the newtonians and macroscopic objects can-
not be considered as a mixture of gases.
It follows from this conclusion that a noticeable effect on the ther-
modynamic parameters of the newtonians can provide, for example,
the movement or rotation of a material in which the effective distance
between its structural elements makes it difficult for the newtonians
to move between them, for example, it becomes comparable with the
characteristic microkinetics of the newtonians. The search or creation
of such materials is an important technical problem, the solution of
which opens the way to mastering new ether technologies, including
gravity.
We note that now well known are the methods of influence on
the motion of the newtonians with the help of magnetic objects, which
create a macroscopic vorticity of the ether (magnets), or charged ob-
jects, which create a macroscopic transport current of the ether. Cor-
responding technologies are widely used in practice.

330
 21.6. Heat transfer in solid matter

As already emphasized, the thermal motion of atoms, molecules,

etc., in the case of their weak interaction with the chaotic motion of
the newtonians, can be considered independently of the newtonians.
The appropriate theory was constructed in thermodynamics, the mo-
lecular kinetic approach and statistical physics. However, these theo-
ries do not reveal the mechanism for the exchange of kinetic energy
between electrically quasi-neutral objects that are not in the direct
contact with each other, for example, in metals free electrons are in-
troduced that are not relevant to experiments, see sec. 23.2.1, 23.2.2.
In the theory of the ether, the mechanism of the exchange of kinetic
energy by non-contacting objects has a simple explanation as an in-
teraction due to the occurrence of a directed flow of newtonians be-
tween them.
Let us consider the simplest model of heat transfer in a crystal
structure. We assume that the crystal temperature is determined by the
chaotic oscillations of its structural elements (atoms or molecules),
and the kinetic energy between the structural elements of the crystal
is transmitted by the chaotic flows of the ether created by these oscil-
lations (or by oscillations external to the crystal objects). We empha-
size that here we are not talking about the chaotic motion of individual
newtonians, but about the chaotic flow of their large aggregates.
Let's name the ether flow in some sufficiently small area of space,
where this flow has a certain direction, the thermal quantum of the
ether or thermal quantum. The word "thermal" here means a small
speed of the quantum compared to the speed of light. The chaotic
ether flow we represented as a set of thermal quantum.
If the principle of velocities superposition is fulfilled for thermal
quanta, for example, the ether flow in them is divergence-free 𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮 =
0, then the chaotic motion of such quanta is not due to the interaction
with each other, but due to the chaotic motion of their sources. In this
case, thermal quanta behave like a gas of free electrons introduced in

331
the electron theory of metals conductivity, in which the interaction of
electrons with each other is neglected, and only their interaction with
the structural elements (atoms) of the metal is taken into account [34,
sec. 147–150, p. 336; 36, p. 376–378].
This section and sections 21.7 and 21.8 show that the effects of
heat conduction, viscosity and self-diffusion in the ether are ex-
tremely small compared with similar effects in substances. Therefore,
the transfer of kinetic energy between the structural elements of a
crystal by means of thermal quanta can go almost without losses. As
a result, if the energy of thermal quanta is not spent on increasing the
internal energy of structural elements, then the thermal kinetic energy
of a crystal in the vacuum is lost mainly due to the departure of ther-
mal quanta beyond its boundary. Such a departure explains from the
standpoint of the ether theory the thermal radiation of objects ob-
served in experiments and the possibility of practically unobstructed
penetration of this radiation through some obstacles.
In the simplest model, we represent a thermal quantum in the
form of a cylinder with a radius 𝑟𝑟̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , equal to the radius of the sub-
stance’s structural element and a height ℎ�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , equal to the average path
length of the structural element from the mean to the extreme position.
The value of ℎ�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 can be estimated from above by the characteristic
value of the deformation of the crystal lattice, at which its destruction
occurs. This value usually has a scale of ~10 − 30 % of the linear
size of the sample, see, for example, the ratio 𝛿𝛿 of the absolute resid-
ual elongation of the sample after rupture to the initial length in [121,
ch. 3, tab. 3.2–3.22]. Therefore, for non-extremal temperatures, ℎ�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is
a small fraction of the characteristic distance between the elements of
the crystal lattice or a fraction of the characteristic radius of the struc-
tural element. The ether mass in the thermal quantum of volume 𝑉𝑉�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
2 �
𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 with the density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ is equal to

𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑉𝑉�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 . (259)

332
 Basing on the equation (15) for the Lagrangian particle in the
form of the thermal quantum and applying the reasoning used to de-
rive the ether thermal conductivity coefficient (250), (251), we arrive
at a similar formula for the thermal conductivity coefficient of a crys-
talline medium in which the heat transfer is carried out by the thermal
quanta

𝑘𝑘 1
𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ,
𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 3
(260)
𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 3𝑘𝑘/𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , 𝐮𝐮 � 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≡ 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 + �𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 � ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ,
𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = �3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚se , 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,

where 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 are respectively the density, the
average speed of the chaotic thermal motion, the mean free path, heat
capacity and the average speed of the directional motion of the ther-
mal quanta. The analogy with the creation of a gas flow by the piston
allowed us to take the average speed of random motion of a thermal
quantum 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 equal to the mean square velocity of random motion
(237) of the structural element of the crystal lattice having mass 𝑚𝑚se
and temperature 𝑇𝑇.
Account of the average speed of directional motion of the thermal
quanta will be important in sec. 21.11, 23.5.
Thus, relations (260) establish a correspondence between the
macroscopic characteristics of thermal processes in a crystal and the
ether flow.
Let us estimate the coefficient of thermal conductivity of copper
with the formula (260).
The thermal quantum is created by a shift of the ether during a
chaotic thermal oscillation of the structural element of a solid-state
crystal lattice. These oscillations occur at different speeds, therefore,
the generated thermal quanta have different speeds. We estimate the

333
concentration of the thermal quanta 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 under the assumption
that on average one copper atom is relevant to about one thermal
quantum, which has an average speed of random thermal motion cor-
responding to the temperature 𝑇𝑇: 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ~ 𝑛𝑛Cu ≈ 8.5⋅1022 [1/
cm3 ], where the concentration of atoms in copper 𝑛𝑛Cu is considered
in sec. 23.6.1, p. 441.
The validity of the estimate 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ~ 𝑛𝑛Cu can be checked by
calculating the thermal quantum length ℎ�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 and comparing it with the
characteristic deviation of the atom with thermal oscillations of
2 �
~10 − 30 % of the atom radius. From the formula (259) 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
� 2
𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑞𝑞 /𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ at 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ~ 1/𝑛𝑛Cu we find ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ~ 1/(𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛Cu ). For
the copper atom radius 𝑟𝑟Cu ≈ 1.28⋅10−8 [cm] and 𝑟𝑟̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ~ 𝑟𝑟Cu we get
ℎ�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ~ 7.3⋅10−9 [cm], which is comparable to the distance traveled by
the atom at generation of the thermal quantum.
The mean free path 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 of the thermal quantum is determined by
the law of its interaction with the element of the crystal lattice and its
geometry. The problem of accurately calculating 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is a matter for
the future, since it requires the construction of the ether model of an
atom. At present we estimate 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , assuming that the speed of the ther-
mal quantum decays at a distance of the order of the characteristic
size of crystal granules in copper 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ~ 0.7 ∙ 10−4 [cm].
Then 𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,Cu = 𝑘𝑘(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 )𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ~ 2.8 ∙ 107 [erg/(s ∙
cm ∙ K)], which matches the tabular value 𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,Cu ~ 4.01 ∙ 107 [erg/
(s ∙ cm ∙ K))], obtained by the Wiedemann – Franz formula in [121,
p. 342]. When comparing, it should be borne in mind that in the range
of non-extreme temperatures, the Wiedemann – Franz formula gives
overestimated values of the thermal conductivity for pure metals and
underestimated for alloys, see details in [121, p. 339].
Measurement of the temperature of a solid body occurs by regis-
tering the energy transferred by the thermal quanta, since there is

334
practically no direct contact of the lattice nodes of the measuring ele-
ment with the lattice nodes of the body. Therefore, the formula 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
3𝑘𝑘/𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (260) allows to find the mass of the thermal quantum 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 by
the known heat capacity at a constant volume 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 . In [121, p. 199]
heat capacities are presented at constant pressure 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 . Accounting
the relationship between 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 and 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , analogical to (252), we find
𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 4𝑘𝑘/𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 . For the mass of the thermal quantum in copper, we
obtain 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,Cu = 2.26 ∙ 10−21 [g].
We emphasize once again that there is no simple relationship be-
tween the mass of the object and the mass of the ether in it, since the
mass of the object (179) is determined by the emergence of the gen-
eralized Zhukovsky force.
Note that resonant influencing directly on the thermal quanta can
transfer a substance to a plasma or atomized state.

21.7. Ether viscosity

The phenomenon of viscosity (internal friction) is associated with

the emergence of friction forces between two layers of a gas or liquid,
moving parallel to each other with different speeds [36, p. 210]. In-
ternal friction is caused by the transfer of the medium particles mo-
mentum (impulse) from one layer to another. The internal friction
force acting on the surface area separating the two currents is equal to
the viscosity coefficient multiplied by the gradient of the layers ve-
locity in the direction perpendicular to this separating surface [36, p.
210; 147, p. 123].
At the end of sec. 21.5, on the basis of experimental data, it was
concluded that in the case of a strong difference in the size of atoms
(molecules) and newtonians and large distances between atoms, com-
pared with the size of the newtonian, the random motion of atoms and
newtonians can be studied almost independently of each other (see
also the discussion at the end of sec. 21.4). The viscosity of gases is

335
fairly well described by the molecular kinetic theory, see, for exam-
ple: [27, sec. 89; 146]. We study the viscosity of the ether by analogy
with the molecular kinetic approach. The equation of the ether state,
on the basis of which the ether thermal conductivity coefficient is ob-
tained in sec. 21.5, is not directly used here, since it describes the en-
ergy density of newtonians, and when studying viscosity it is neces-
sary to consider their momentum.
Repeating for the newtonians kinetic reasoning in the model of a
particle as a hard sphere [147, p. 122, 123; 27, p. 334–339; 146, ch.
1, sec. 2], we arrive at the following formula (see also [36, p. 211])
for the coefficient of internal friction of the ether

1
𝜂𝜂 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢�х 𝜆𝜆̅,
3
where 𝑢𝑢�х is the mean square speed of newtonians thermal motion
(246), 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 is the density of the ether, 𝜆𝜆̅ is the newtonians average free
path. We note that the averaging in the formula (89.5) from [27, p.
339] on a constant time interval 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 leads precisely to the mean square
speed: 〈𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣〉 = 〈𝑣𝑣 2 〉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑣𝑣̅ 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑣𝑣̅ 𝜆𝜆̅, 𝜆𝜆̅ ≡ 𝑣𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. However, in phys-
ics, the mean and mean square speeds are usually not distinguished,
see, for example: [27, p. 191, 253, 262; 28, p. 186; 36, p. 207].
In the condensed newtonians medium 𝜆𝜆̅ has the order of the new-
tonian radius 𝜆𝜆̅ ~ 𝑟𝑟э (256). A more accurate calculation of 𝜂𝜂 in this
case requires careful consideration of the media structure reorganiza-
tion details, see, for example: [147, p. 272–278].
From (251), as in physics [27, p. 340], we get
𝜒𝜒
= 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 .
𝜂𝜂
A more rigorous theory of the gas consisting of hard spheres noticea-
bly refines the coefficient in this relation [147, p. 125].
Let’s calculate 𝜂𝜂 at 𝜆𝜆̅ ~ 3𝑟𝑟э (256)

336
 𝜂𝜂 ~ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢�х 𝑟𝑟э .

According to (237), 𝑢𝑢�х = 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈ 1.35𝑐𝑐 for the ether temperature

𝑇𝑇� = 2.7 [𝐾𝐾]. Then at 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228) and 𝑟𝑟э (234) we find 𝜂𝜂 ~ 7.0 ∙
10−25 [Poise]. For comparison, the viscosity of air at atmospheric
pressure and the temperature 300 [𝐾𝐾] is ~2 ∙ 10−4 [Poise], see [121,
p. 369; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity].
Thus, the viscosity of the ether is 21 orders of magnitude lower
than that of air. Several fundamental conclusions can be drawn from
this.
Extremely low ether viscosity confirms the correctness of using
the ether motion equation (5) without taking viscosity into account.
The absence of noticeable viscosity in the ether allows for the
long existence of various flows in it, including vortices, and motion
of them over long distances without destruction, since the flow
boundary does not blur with time due to the small friction with the
surrounding ether. In particular, models of photons, electrons, protons
and other microworld objects can be constructed using objects of the
continuous media vortex dynamics: vortices, vortex sources, vortex
sinks, etc.

21.8. Self-diffusion in the ether

Diffusion is understood as the penetration of one substance into

another, due to the thermal motion of molecules, see, for example:
[147, p. 123]. Self-diffusion is spoken of when diffusion is considered
in the same substance [147, p. 124; 27, p. 343; 149, p. 366].
Acting within the framework of the simplest model of a medium
particle as a hard sphere, see, for example: [147, p. 124], we come for
newtonians to an analogue of Fick's law (the diffusion flow is propor-
tional to the concentration gradient [27, p. 344]) and to the following
formula for the diffusion coefficient of the ether

337
 1
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑢𝑢� 𝜆𝜆̅,
3 х

where 𝑢𝑢�х is the mean square speed of newtonians thermal motion

(246), 𝜆𝜆̅ is their mean free path.
As in physics, we have
𝜂𝜂 𝜒𝜒
= 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 , = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 ,
𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷

where 𝜂𝜂 is the coefficient of the ether viscosity, see sec. 21.7, 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 is
the ether density, 𝜒𝜒 is the coefficient of the ether thermal conductivity
(251) at 𝑢𝑢0 = 0. A more rigorous theory of the gas from hard spheres
noticeably refines the coefficients in these relations [147, p. 125].
A more accurate calculation of the diffusion flow [147, p. 125–
129] allows one to describe the so-called thermal diffusion, which dif-
fers from the ordinary diffusion in that particles (in particular, newto-
nians) rush from hot places to cold ones due to a higher rate of motion,
and not due to quantitative predominance.
The calculation of the diffusion coefficient in the concentrated
medium, when the mean free path 𝜆𝜆̅ is of the order of the media par-
ticle size, requires careful consideration of the media structure reor-
ganization details, see, for example: [147, p. 272–278].
Let’s estimate 𝐷𝐷 at 𝜆𝜆̅ ~ 3𝑟𝑟э (256)

𝐷𝐷 ~ 𝑢𝑢�х 𝑟𝑟э .

According to (237), 𝑢𝑢�х = 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈ 1.35𝑐𝑐 at the ether temperature

𝑇𝑇� = 2.7 [𝐾𝐾]. Then at 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228) and 𝑟𝑟э (234) we find 𝐷𝐷 ~ 3.5 ∙
10−16 [cm2 /s]. Comparing this value of 𝐷𝐷 with the self-diffusion co-
efficients of various gases [121, p. 375], we conclude that the ether
self-diffusion coefficient is smaller by ~15 orders of magnitude.

338
 Low self-diffusion and viscosity (sec. 21.7) in the ether provide
the possibility of the long existence in it of areas of high and low pres-
sure, as well as of various flows with pronounced boundaries. These
ether properties explain the possibility of long-term retention of the
electrostatic charge in the object, long-term existence and motion over
long distances of various vortices, which can be used as the basis for
models of photons, electrons, protons and other microworld objects.

21.9. Electrical conductivity of the ether and matter in the

absence of free charges

In sec.12.2, the formula (145) was obtained for the electrical con-
ductivity in the direction of the ether flow 𝐮𝐮/|𝐮𝐮|:
−1
2 𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 |𝐮𝐮|
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � � . (261)
2�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

This formula is derived for the steady flow of the ether and is valid
both in the absence and in the presence of substance, as it is a conse-
quence of the general equations of motion and state of the ether. Ac-
cording to (146), at 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 > 0 the directions of the current and the elec-
tric field coincide, and at 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 0 they are opposite.
The formula (261) is simplified if 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, which is
true, for example, at short distances,

2 −1
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑑𝑑|𝐮𝐮|
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � � . (262)
2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

We study the case when there are no free charges in the medium.
We estimate the speed gradient 𝑑𝑑|𝑢𝑢|/𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 by using data about the
details of newtonians motion in the medium. This will introduce new
information, additional to that used in the derivation of formula (261).

339
A similar approach is applied in the electronic theory of the conduc-
tivity of metals [28, p. 180, 181].
For electric current in the vacuum (in the ether without a sub-
stance), one can first consider the motion of one newtonian, as in the
standard approach. But for the current in the substance, the use of such
an approach causes difficulties because of the need to describe the
interaction of particles incomparable in volume and mass – newtoni-
ans and structural elements of substance. We bypass this complexity
as follows. Instead of studying the dynamics of a separate newtonian,
we solve the problem of describing in the continuous media model the
interaction of the newtonians flow with obstacles in the vacuum and
substance. Such a description will introduce new data about the de-
tails of newtonians motion. As a result, the electrical conductivity will
be expressed through the parameters of the media structure through
which electric current flows, what is required in the kinetic theory of
electrical conductivity.
Using the continuous media model to describe the interaction of
the newtonians flow with the medium in some cases can be even more
preferable, since it allows to take into account collective phenomena,
for example, the Zhukovsky force, which are difficult to describe in
the model of the individual particle motion.
Note that in the electron theory of conductivity, the motion of a
single electron is first considered, but then averaging is performed
over all electrons [28, sec. 42], that is, in the end, an analogue of the
continuous media model is also used for the electric current.
So, let us consider the motion of the ether Lagrangian particle
under the action of the external force density 𝐅𝐅 (5). With 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 in the mode when the ether pressure gradient 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 is small com-
pared with the density of the external force 𝐅𝐅, we have

𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ = 𝐅𝐅.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

340
 Taking 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 into account would lead to the necessity of solving a
more complicated problem with consideration of 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≠ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 and in-
volving the continuity equation (4). Such a problem for steady state
flow of the ether is solved in sec. 23.2.3, see the system of equations
(290).
A Lagrangian particle can participate in chaotic motion due, for
example, to boundary conditions. Therefore, we represent its velocity
as the sum of the chaotic (irregular) velocity caused by random influ-
ences and the drift velocity

𝐮𝐮 = 𝐮𝐮х + 𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 .

Let the density of the force 𝐅𝐅 consists of two components: accel-

erating 𝐅𝐅𝑎𝑎 and decelerating −𝐅𝐅𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 .
In the electric field 𝐄𝐄0 , created by an external current source, the
accelerating force density in the steady state is determined by the ex-
pression (72):

𝐅𝐅𝑎𝑎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄0 .

The 𝐄𝐄0 field may be a function of space and time.

We emphasize that the presence of a charge in the newtonian is
not assumed, and the effect of the electric field on it is explained by
the relation of the field to the pressure gradient (72).
To describe the resistance to a flow, we apply the pressure drop
model, which is usually used in continuous media mechanics, see, for
example: [9, p. 122, 389]. In the application of this model is the dif-
ference from the kinetic theory standard approach, operating with col-
lisions of particles.
By analogy with [152, sec. 6.2], we describe the flow of the flux
through the medium using the ratio of its structural elements area on
the transverse to the flow plane to the entire area.

341
 In the simplest model, we represent the pressure increment aris-
ing due to the resistance of the medium to flow, in the form

𝛼𝛼 𝜕𝜕𝑙𝑙
𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜌𝜌 𝐮𝐮2 .
1 − 𝛼𝛼 𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑

Here 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢2 is the kinetic pressure of the flow, see (15), 𝑙𝑙 is the coor-
dinate along the direction of the ether flow drift velocity 𝐢𝐢𝑑𝑑 =
𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 /|𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 | at this point, 𝐿𝐿 is the length of the considered part of the flow,
𝛼𝛼 is the ratio of the average area of impermeable obstacles in the trans-
verse to the flow section encountered on the length 𝐿𝐿, to the cross-
sectional area of the whole flow, 𝛼𝛼 ∈ [0,1). In the general case, the
ratio 𝛼𝛼 is the function of 𝐿𝐿. The coefficient 𝛼𝛼/(1 − 𝛼𝛼) models the re-
sistance of a segment of length 𝐿𝐿: when 𝛼𝛼 = 0, there is no resistance,
with full closing of the flow 𝛼𝛼 → 1, the resistance tends to infinity.
The expression

𝛼𝛼 1
≡ 𝛾𝛾 (263)
1 − 𝛼𝛼 𝐿𝐿

is the linear density of the resistance coefficient over a segment of

length 𝐿𝐿. We call 𝛾𝛾 the specific geometric resistance. At a certain be-
havior of 𝛼𝛼 as a function of 𝐿𝐿, the coefficient 𝛾𝛾 can be close to a con-
stant, for example, at 𝛼𝛼 ~ 𝐿𝐿 and 𝛼𝛼 ≪ 1: 𝛾𝛾 ~ 𝛼𝛼.
Thus, 𝛼𝛼𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙/�(1 − 𝛼𝛼)𝐿𝐿�𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢2 is the pressure increment created by
the resistance of the medium to the flow carrying the pressure 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢2.
As a result, we obtain the following equation of motion on the
segment 𝑙𝑙 ∈ [0, 𝐿𝐿]

𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ (𝐮𝐮х + 𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 ) = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄0 − 𝐢𝐢 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄0 (264)
(𝐮𝐮х + 𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 ) = − 𝛾𝛾𝐮𝐮2𝑑𝑑 𝐢𝐢𝑑𝑑 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗

342
 Let us average the equation (264) over all Lagrangian particles.
The mean derivative 〈𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮х /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑〉 vanishes (sec. 21.3). The density of
the external force does not depend on the particle properties, there-
fore, 〈𝐄𝐄0 〉 = 𝐄𝐄0 . The average of the mean drift velocity square, in ac-
cordance with (240), is 〈𝐮𝐮2𝑑𝑑 〉 = 𝐮𝐮2𝑑𝑑 = 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑2 .
The averaged equation takes the form

𝑑𝑑𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄0 1 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

= − 𝐢𝐢 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝜕𝜕𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑
1 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (265)
= 𝛾𝛾𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑2 .
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝜕𝜕𝑙𝑙

We turn to the Euler variables

𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄0 1 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

+ (𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 = − 𝐢𝐢 .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝜕𝜕𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑

Simplify this equation by assuming that all the vectors in it have

nonzero projections only on the direction of the flow velocity 𝐢𝐢𝑑𝑑 and
the dependence in space is determined only by the coordinate 𝑙𝑙 in this
direction

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 1 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

+ 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 = − ,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝜕𝜕𝑙𝑙

where 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 = 𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝑑𝑑 , 𝐸𝐸0 = 𝐄𝐄0 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝑑𝑑 The result is the Burgers – Hopf
equation with the nonzero right hand side. Recall that spontaneous
formation of discontinuities and shock waves is possible in the pro-
cesses described by the Burgers – Hopf equation (sec. 6.1).
With this simplification, the description of the magnetic field in-
side the conductor is lost, but it becomes possible to obtain relatively

343
simple analytical formulas for the distribution of the current along the
wire. The magnetic field inside the conductor is calculated in sec.
23.2.3 using the system (290) solution.
In the steady state regime we find for the ether drift speed gradient

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 1 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

= � − �,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝜕𝜕𝑙𝑙
(266)
𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0
= � − 𝛾𝛾𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑2 �.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗

Information about the behavior of individual newtonians is in-

cluded in the equation (266) through the coefficient of specific geo-
metric resistance 𝛾𝛾.
The approach proposed here differs from the kinetic theory of the
electron gas in a metal or ordinary gas, in which the time of attenua-
tion of a beam that does not have a constant feed from the source is
considered. In the traditional approach, it is assumed that the directed
motion of the beam particles is attenuated by a factor of 𝑒𝑒 at a distance
equal to the mean free path [27, p. 332] or for the mean time of free
run [28, p. 182]. However, such an assumption eventually leads to a
discrepancy with the experiment by thousands of times [32, p. 213;
154, ch. 3]. In our model, the electric current of newtonians has a con-
stantly operating source 𝐸𝐸0 and a specific geometric resistance 𝛾𝛾, the
resultant of which can move newtonians without stopping for a dis-
tance greater than the free path of the newtonian.
The equation (266) is solved analytically in the case of the gen-
eral dependencies 𝐸𝐸0 = 𝐸𝐸0 (𝑙𝑙) and 𝛾𝛾 = 𝛾𝛾(𝑙𝑙), for example, using the
Maple system.
Add the boundary condition to the equation (266). Let the ether
pressure gradient be set on the boundary 𝑙𝑙 = 0

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝
� = −𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙=0

344
 In accordance with the equation of state (15), at 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ ≈
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝛱𝛱 = 0, this means that the gradient of the speed squared is
created at the boundary

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑2 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0)

� = . (267)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙=0 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗

We have the problem (266), (267), describing on the interval 𝑙𝑙 ∈

[0, 𝐿𝐿] the distribution of the ether speed established in time under the
influence of the external electric field 𝐸𝐸0 in the wire.
Solving (266), (267) with respect to 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑2 , we find, at 𝛾𝛾 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 on
𝑙𝑙 ∈ [0, 𝐿𝐿]

1/2
𝑙𝑙
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0)
𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 = � � + 2𝑈𝑈�� 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 , 𝑈𝑈 ≡ � 𝑒𝑒 2𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝐸𝐸0 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 2𝛾𝛾 0
𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
= � (2𝐸𝐸0 (𝑙𝑙) − 𝐸𝐸0 (0)𝑒𝑒 −2𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 4𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝑒𝑒 −2𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 )�.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗

Here, the "+" sign is chosen for 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 , since the projection of velocity
on the direction of velocity 𝐢𝐢𝑑𝑑 is considered.
From the expressions obtained, it can be seen that the electric
current flow is determined by exponential dependencies and, there-
fore, in the general case is a rather sensitive process.
The obtained formulas for the function 𝐸𝐸0 (𝑙𝑙) of a general form
are difficult to analyze. We simplify them assuming a weak depend-
ence of 𝐸𝐸0 on 𝑙𝑙: 𝐸𝐸0 (𝑙𝑙) ≈ 𝐸𝐸0 (0). In this case, 𝑈𝑈 is calculated
analytically:

345
 1/2
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0)
𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 = � (2 − 𝑒𝑒 −2𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 )� ,
2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝛾𝛾
(268)
𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0) −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
= 𝑒𝑒 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗

The expression for 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 allows to find the distance 𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈1/ 𝛾𝛾, at
which the flow, having a given pressure gradient at the point 𝑙𝑙 = 0,
ceases to depend on space. However, taking into account the speed
change 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 (𝑙𝑙) of not more than in √2 ≈ 1.41 times on the interval 𝑙𝑙 ∈
[0, +∞), we can approximately consider 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 (𝑙𝑙) constant in the con-
sidered flow segment 𝑙𝑙 ∈ [0, 𝐿𝐿], that is, take 𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈ 𝐿𝐿.
The dependence of the derivative 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 on 𝑙𝑙 may be stronger.
But if 𝛾𝛾 ≪ 1/𝐿𝐿, then the derivative 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is almost constant over
the flow segment 𝐿𝐿, since 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 < 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 ≪ 1 and 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 ≈ 1. In sec. 21.10 it
will be shown that the ether flow in the metal and vacuum (in the
absence of a substance) satisfies the condition 𝛾𝛾 ≪ 1/𝐿𝐿 for those 𝐿𝐿
encountered in practice.
In the case of 𝛾𝛾 ≪ 1/𝐿𝐿

1/2 1/2
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0) 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 1 𝛾𝛾𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0)
𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 ≈ � � , ≈ � � . (269)
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝛾𝛾 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗

Hence, excluding 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0)/𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ , we find

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑
≈ 𝛾𝛾 . (270)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

That is, 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is determined by the medium structure 𝛾𝛾 and the
speed 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 in it, and 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (262), besides, by the characteristic ether den-
sity in this medium 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ .

346
 The relation (270) establishes the physical meaning of the ether
flow drift speed derivative along the direction of the flow in a sub-
stance as a quantity proportional to the coefficient of the specific ge-
ometric resistance and steady state flow velocity.
Note that |𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 | = 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 , since the direction 𝐢𝐢𝑑𝑑 of the coordinate 𝑙𝑙 is
chosen along 𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 . Therefore

𝑑𝑑|𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 | 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑
= .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

According to the formula (262), for the electrical conductivity of

the ether in the absence or presence of a substance, we obtain

2 −1 2
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑑𝑑|𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 | 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 1
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≈ � � ≈ . (271)
2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝛾𝛾𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑

The newtonians electric current speed 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 established in the me-

dium in the general case depends on the applied electric field 𝐸𝐸0 , the
ether density in the medium 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ and the specific geometric resistance
𝛾𝛾, see (269).
However, in the case when 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 is comparable with the speed of
light 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 ≲ 𝑐𝑐, we get
2
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 1
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≳ . (272)
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝛾𝛾𝑐𝑐

In this approximation, the dependence of 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 on the external

forces density did not get in the electrical conductivity 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 . This result
is appropriate to the experimental fact – weak dependence of the elec-
trical conductivity of many substances under normal conditions on
external forces causing an electric current.

347
 Due to the rapid thermal fluctuations of structural elements in
different directions, the area of obstacles 𝛼𝛼 increases as (𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡1 )2 ,
where 𝑡𝑡1 is the time of one thermal oscillation of the media structural
element, 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is the average speed of its thermal oscillations. Then, in
accordance with (237), 𝛼𝛼 ~ 𝑇𝑇. Therefore, for small 𝛼𝛼 (low density of
obstacles area), 𝛾𝛾 ~ 𝛼𝛼 (263) and

𝛾𝛾 ~ 𝑇𝑇. (273)

Then the electrical conductivity (272) decreases with increasing

𝑇𝑇 as 1/𝑇𝑇. This behavior is observed in experiments with metals [121,
p. 438; 32, p. 213].
Additional confirmation of the adequacy of the ether formula for
the electrical conductivity of the metal (272) is given in sec. 21.11,
where the experimental Wiedemann – Franz law is reproduced by
considering the kinetics of newtonians in the metal.
In the general case, the electrical conductivity 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 may be a more
complex function of 𝑇𝑇, since 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 may depend on 𝑇𝑇 and other kinetic
parameters, see (269). Substitute 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 (269) into (271)

2 1/2
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 1
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≈ � � . (274)
√𝛾𝛾 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0)

It was shown above that 𝛾𝛾 ~ 𝑇𝑇 for small 𝛼𝛼 (273). Therefore, the

electrical conductivity 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 behaves like 1/√𝑇𝑇.
The formula (274) for 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐 corresponds to some semiconductors,
since in experiments [121, p. 454, 458; 32, p. 228] their electrical con-
ductivity decreases with increasing of 𝑇𝑇 more slowly than 1/𝑇𝑇, for
example, behaves like 1/√𝑇𝑇, or even increases (which is possible
with a large fraction of obstacles area 𝛼𝛼), see [121, p. 438; 32, p. 228],
as well as theoretical estimates in [152, ch. 6].

348
 In good dielectrics, 𝛾𝛾 → ∞. Therefore, 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 → 0, 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → ∞,
see (269), and, according with (269), the electrical conductivity tends
to zero:

𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 → 0.

For superconductors, 𝛾𝛾 → 0. Then from (269) 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → 0 and

according with (262)

𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 → ∞.

Herewith, the drift speed 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 must be limited by the speed of light,
otherwise a shock wave arises, destroying the property of supercon-
ductivity or even the superconductor itself.
A distinctive feature of a superconductor is the disappearance of
the spatial dependence in 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 and 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (268) due to 𝛾𝛾 ~ 0 already
at very small distances. This corresponds to the nulling inside it of the
magnetic and electric fields determined by the ether flow density de-
rivatives (20), (21). This conclusion is confirmed by the consideration
of the limit 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 → ∞ from the solution of the problem (290), con-
structed for 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
In the general case, the specific geometric resistance 𝛾𝛾 (263) and
the electric field 𝐸𝐸0 , created by the current source, can strongly de-
pend on the coordinate along the velocity of the ether flow. As a re-
sult, the electrical conductivity 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 in the ether or substance can be a
complex function of a point in space. Regimes of the ether flow lock-
ing, amplifying, and etc. may occur.
In accordance with the general methodology of the kinetic theory,
a brief overview of which is given in sec. 21.4, in a relatively small
time interval in a region of relatively small size the ether state can be
considered quasi-equilibrium and the Clapeyron – Mendeleev equa-
tion (231), (243) can be used. Then 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (271) can be expressed in terms
of the thermodynamic parameters and the mass of the newtonian

349
 2
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≈ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 ,
𝑚𝑚э 𝑝𝑝 𝛾𝛾𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑

where 𝑇𝑇 and 𝑝𝑝 are the ether temperature and pressure in the electric
current. In the general case, when thermodynamic equilibrium is ab-
sent, the law (231), (243) cannot be used in the equation (265).
It is known that neither the classical nor the quantum approach
provides acceptable values of the electrical conductivity of substances
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 [32, p. 213; 152, ch. 6, p. 55; 154, ch. 3]. Therefore, in practice
empirical data are used [121]. It can be expected that the development
of ether concepts about atoms and their aggregates will lead to obtain-
ing adequate formulas for 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 .

21.10. Estimation of the ether electroconductivity model pa-

rameters according to experimental data

The electrical conductivities (261) of the ether itself and the ether
in a substance can be very different from each other due to strong
differences in the gradient of the motion speed and ether density,
which are determined by the specific structure of the substance struc-
tural elements, the architecture of their aggregates, and the presence
of obstacles, channels and nozzles, as well as external influences.
A detailed theoretical study of the ether flow in matter, as has
been repeatedly noted, requires the development of ether models of
atoms, molecules, etc., which is the direction of further research.
In the framework of the simplified model of electric current
(266)–(269) under consideration, to quantify the electrical conductiv-
ity, it is necessary to know the fraction of the obstacles area 𝛼𝛼 to the
ether flow in the flow segment 𝐿𝐿. Accurate calculation of 𝛼𝛼, as well
as viscosity and self-diffusion of the ether (see sec. 21.7 and 21.8),
requires careful consideration of the ether medium structural adjust-
ment details, see, for example: [147, p. 272–278]. And during the flow

350
of the ether in a substance, it is necessary to take into account the
details of its structural elements behavior. Such studies have not yet
been performed.
Therefore, we consider here the inverse problem of determining
the parameters of the electrical conductivity with ether model from
sec. 21.9 using experimental data. We will estimate these parameters
for metal and the ether and discuss their correspondence to experi-
ments. The values of some parameters will be needed in sec. 21.11.
Consider first the electric current in the metal on the copper sample.
In the etheric model of nature, the carrier of electric current in a
metal, as in other substances without free charges, is the ether, but in
a metal its flow has a number of special features. A metal, in contrast
to, for example, the ether, gases or many amorphous bodies, has a
well-ordered crystal structure consisting of atoms. Therefore, the
ether flow in a metal can occur through channels containing areas of
constriction and expansion, that is, structures like a Laval nozzle [9,
p. 118; 15, p. 46].
It is known from hydroaeromechanics that the presence of a pipe-
line facilitates the flow of the medium over longer distances. There-
fore, one should expect a higher electrical conductivity of the ether in
the metal compared to the electrical conductivity of the ether in the
vacuum.
It is possible to draw an analogy between the flow of the ether in
the metal through the channels and the tunnel effect in the electronic
theory of conductivity, according to which the electron must travel as
a wave much longer than its free path as a particle [32, p. 213]. How-
ever, in the ether theory of electric current there is no need to endow
the current carrier with partially mutually exclusive properties.
Considering that due to the presence of nozzles, the ether average
pressure in copper 𝑝𝑝 in the presence of current can be smaller than the
average pressure of the ether calculated in sec. 21.12 using the subli-
mation energy 𝑝𝑝int,Cu ≈ 0.634 ∙ 109 [Pa] = 0.634 ∙ 1010 [din/cm2 ].
Let us estimate 𝑝𝑝 in the current as ~0.9𝑝𝑝int,Cu . Then, by (243) and

351
(230), the characteristic density of the ether in the electric current in
copper can be estimated as

0.9𝑝𝑝int,Cu
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,Cu ≈ ≈ 0.52𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 . (275)
𝑝𝑝0

The magnitude of the ether flow velocity gradient 𝑑𝑑|𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 |/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is

found from the experimentally known electrical conductivity of cop-
per, which is 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,Cu ≈ 5.8 ∙ 1017 [1/s], at 𝑇𝑇 = 273 [K], see [121, p.
438]. For 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 (229) and density of the ether in copper 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,Cu
from the formula (262) we get

2
𝑑𝑑�𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑,Cu � 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 1
≈ ≈ 0.037 [1/s],
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,Cu 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,Cu

that is, the change of velocity over the length 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is only 𝑑𝑑�𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑,Cu � =
0.037 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [cm/s]. This result for 𝑑𝑑�𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑,Cu � corresponds to the high
electrical conductivity of copper known from experiments, that is, to
a very weak attenuation of the ether velocity in it.
The specific geometric resistance 𝛾𝛾 (263) for copper is also ex-
pressed through 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,Cu, using the formula (270). For this one needs to
know the characteristic speed 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 . It can be measured experimentally
by the speed of the electric current front propagation. But we could
not find such measurements. Therefore, we use the data on the highest
technically permissible current density in copper 𝑗𝑗Cu,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ~ 103 [𝐴𝐴/
cm2 ] = 3 ∙ 1012 [statA/cm2 ] [28, p. 184]. This current corresponds
to the ether speed 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑,Cu,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑗𝑗Cu,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 /𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 4.5 ∙ 108 [cm/s] ≈
1.5 ∙ 10−2 𝑐𝑐, see (133). From the formula (270) at 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑,Cu ≈
𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑,Cu,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 /100

𝑑𝑑�𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑,Cu � 200
𝛾𝛾Cu ~ ≈ 1.7 ∙ 10−8 [1/cm]. (276)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐
352
 The very low linear density of the specific geometric resistance
coefficient 𝛾𝛾 confirms the assumption about the flow of the ether in
copper over a set of channels.
Let us estimate 𝛼𝛼. In the formula (263), 𝛼𝛼 is the ratio of the aver-
age area of impermeable obstacles in the flow cross section, encoun-
tered on the length 𝐿𝐿 of the flow, to the entire flow sectional area. In
the general case, 𝛼𝛼 depends on 𝐿𝐿. However, for example, at small dis-
tances of the size order of the wire fragment with an ideal crystal, the
value of 𝛼𝛼 may weakly depend on 𝐿𝐿, since the geometric structure in
the crystal is constant.
The size of crystalline granules in copper is estimated as
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ~ 10−4 [cm]. Then from the formula (263) we find

𝛾𝛾Cu 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝛼𝛼Cu = ≈ 1.7 ∙ 10−12 .
1 + 𝛾𝛾Cu 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

If the ether flow between crystalline copper granules does not experi-
ence significant obstacles, then this 𝛼𝛼Cu value is preserved at large
distances 𝐿𝐿 ≫ 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 . A very small fraction 𝛼𝛼 of the obstacles to the
ether flow in copper is consistent with its high electrical conductivity.
We emphasize that the 𝛼𝛼Cu estimate through the size of the copper
atom and the interatomic distance would be too rough here, since it
would not take into account the details of the ether flow around the
atom and the influence of the flow created by the atom itself and its
neighbors.
Let us estimate the ether electrical conductivity 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,э in the ab-
sence of a substance (in the vacuum) from the measurements pre-
sented in sec. 23.9.1. The residual gas in the technical vacuum and
corpuscular phenomena at the electrodes may affect the electrical
conductivity of the ether, but, as shown in sec. 23.9.1, uncharged par-
ticles (newtonians) are the main current carrier in the experiments
considered there.

353
 At the potential difference of ~103 [V] on a vacuum gap of
4 [cm], the current in the circuit was ~10 [mA] for electrodes with a
cross section of 2.5 [mm2 ]. The potential difference is the differential
of the ether pressures (73). We take into account that the creation of
the current in the gap between the electrodes does not consume the
entire pressure difference, but only a part of it, since the outflow of
the ether from the cathode, observed by luminescence, goes in all di-
rections. Let us estimate this part approximately by the size of the area
transverse to the anode near it, the flow of the ether from which falls
on the anode. The size of this area can be estimated by the glow of the
lattice near the anode. In the experiment, this area was ~𝜋𝜋32 [cm2 ],
which is ~𝜋𝜋32 /(4𝜋𝜋42 ) ≈ 0.14 of the sphere area of radius 4 [cm],
equal to the distance between the electrodes. Thus, if the ether flow
outside the site under consideration does not fall on the anode, then
with a more or less uniform distribution of the ether pressure around
the cathode, the ether pressure difference actually used to create the
current between the electrodes is ~103 ∙ 0.14 [V].
From Ohm's law we find the electrical conductivity of the vac-
uum (ether) in this experiment

𝑗𝑗 10 ∙ 10−3 /(2.5 ∙ 10−6 )

𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,э ~ = ≈
𝐸𝐸 103 /(4 ∙ 10−2 ) ∙ 0.14
1.14 [Sm/m] ≈ 1.03 ∙ 1010 [1/s].

This value is extremely small compared to the conductivity of

metals, which, for example, for copper is 5.8 ∙ 1017 [1/s], see [121,
p. 438]. Herewith, an increase of 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,э by five orders of magnitude
does not change in principle this conclusion. The obtained estimate of
the ether electrical conductivity corresponds to the very high electri-
cal insulating property of the vacuum known from experiments.
From the formula (262) for 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 (229) and the ether density
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,э ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228) we have

354
 2
𝑑𝑑�𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑,э � 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
≈ ≈ 1.1 ∙ 106 [1/s],
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,э 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,э

that is, the velocity on the length 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 changes rather quickly, its incre-
ment is 𝑑𝑑�𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑,э � = 1.1 ∙ 106 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [cm/s]. This result for 𝑑𝑑�𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑,э � corre-
sponds to the known low vacuum electrical conductivity, that is, a
very strong resistance to the flow of the ether in it.
We express the specific geometric resistance 𝛾𝛾 (263) for the vac-
uum through 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,э . The characteristic speed in the ether is comparable
with the speed of light. Therefore, in (270) we take 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑,э ≈ 𝑐𝑐 and get

𝑑𝑑�𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑,э � 2
𝛾𝛾э ~ ≈ 7.3 ∙ 10−5 [1/cm]. (277)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐
The fraction of the obstacle area at the distance between the elec-
trodes 𝐿𝐿 ~ 4 [cm] is (263)
𝛾𝛾э 𝐿𝐿
𝛼𝛼э = ≈ 2.9 ∙ 10−4 .
1 + 𝛾𝛾э 𝐿𝐿

The technique presented in this section allows to study the geom-

etry 𝛾𝛾 and 𝛼𝛼 of the internal structure of substances using measured
electrical conductivity and the current velocity.

21.11. Wiedemann and Franz law in the metal and the ether

The Wiedemann – Franz law establishes a formula for the ratio

of the thermal conductivity and the electrical conductivity of metals
and plasma, see, for example: [28, p. 186, 423, 508],

𝜒𝜒 𝑘𝑘 2
≈ 𝛽𝛽 � � 𝑇𝑇. (278)
𝜎𝜎 𝑒𝑒

355
Calculations in the classical and quantum theories of electrons give
𝛽𝛽 = 3 and 𝛽𝛽 = 𝜋𝜋 2 /3 respectively [28, p. 185, 186].
However, the experiment demonstrates the good fulfillment of
the Wiedemann – Franz law for metals only at temperatures of several
Kelvins and above room temperature. In the intermediate values, it is
unjust, see, for example: [121, p. 339; 154, p. 71] and review [en.wik-
ipedia.org/wiki/Wiedemann%E2%80%93Franz_law]. In this temper-
ature range, the divergence of 𝛽𝛽 with experiments can be up to 10
times: for pure metals, the theoretically calculated 𝛽𝛽 ≈ 3 overesti-
mates the real value, for alloys it underestimates [121, p. 339]. There-
fore, the essential in this law is the proportionality of the 𝜒𝜒/𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ratio
to the temperature and the relatively weak dependence of the coeffi-
cient 𝛽𝛽 on it in a certain temperature range, and not the value of 𝛽𝛽.
The kinetic theory of the ether reveals a single basis for the origin
of the thermal and electrical conductivity phenomena as the ether mo-
tion, caused by an energy density gradient, see (147), (249). Herewith,
the physical reasons for the appearance of the energy density gradient
in the ether can be different.
From the standpoint of the ether theory, the thermal conductivity
of a macroscopic object, such as a metal, is explained by the chaotic
oscillations of its structural elements (atoms) interacting through the
ether flow (sec. 21.5). The electrical conductivity of a macroscopic
object that does not have free charges inside is caused by the ether
flow created in it as the continuous medium (sec. 12.2, 21.9).
Thermal conductivity, viscosity, diffusion, and electrical conduc-
tivity of macroscopic objects under ordinary laboratory conditions
can be considered independently of thermal conductivity, viscosity,
diffusion, and electrical conductivity of the ether, see the discussion
in sec. 21.5–21.8.
Let’s calculate the ratio of thermal conductivity and electrical
conductivity for the metal. The formula for electrical conductivity
(271) is quite universal, that is, it has this form for any substance. In

356
the case of metal, as discussed in sec. 21.9, estimate (272) is more
appropriate, since in experiments the speed of the current propagation
in the metal is comparable with the speed of light. The formula for
thermal conductivity of metals (260) differs from the formula for the
ether (254) by taking into account the kinetics of thermal quanta in
the metal.
We represent the ratio 𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 for a metal in the form

2
𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘
=� � 𝑇𝑇, (279)
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

where 𝑇𝑇 is the metal temperature (see the end of sec. 21.5), and the
parameters of the ether are collected in the coefficient 𝑒𝑒∗ , having the
dimension of charge,

1/2
2
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑒𝑒∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≡ �𝑘𝑘 𝑇𝑇 � =
𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
1/2
2
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 1
⎛ 2 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝛾𝛾𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 ⎞
⎜ 𝑘𝑘 𝑇𝑇 ⎟ = (280)
𝑘𝑘 ̅
𝜌𝜌 𝑢𝑢
� 𝜆𝜆
𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
⎝ ⎠
2 1/2
1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑘𝑘𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
� � .
𝛾𝛾/𝑇𝑇 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

In a metal, 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 and 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 are comparable with the speed of light
and 𝛾𝛾/𝑇𝑇 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (273). Therefore, the coefficient 𝑒𝑒∗ (280) in (279)
depends weakly on 𝑇𝑇. From this it follows that the behavior of the
ether in a metal reproduces the Wiedemann – Franz law (278), known
from experiments: 𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ~ 𝑇𝑇.

357
 Consider the ratio 𝜒𝜒/𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 in the vacuum (ether without substance)
for the coefficient of ether thermal conductivity 𝜒𝜒 in the form (254)
at 𝜆𝜆̅ ~ 𝛼𝛼𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟э (256) and the ether electrical conductivity 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (271). As
for a metal, we represent 𝜒𝜒/𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 in the form

𝜒𝜒 𝑘𝑘 2
= � � 𝑇𝑇�, (281)
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒∗

where 𝑇𝑇� is the ether temperature, 𝑒𝑒∗ is the coefficient with the dimen-
sion of charge:

𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 1/2
𝑒𝑒∗ ≡ �𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇� � =
𝜒𝜒
1/2
2
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 1
⎛ 2 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝛾𝛾𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 ⎞
�
⎜𝑘𝑘 𝑇𝑇 3/2 ⎟ = (282)
𝑘𝑘
�𝑚𝑚 � 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ (3𝑇𝑇� + 𝑈𝑈0 )1/2 𝛼𝛼𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟э
э
⎝ ⎠
2 3/2 1/2
1 1 𝑘𝑘1/2 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑚𝑚э
� � .
𝛾𝛾/𝑇𝑇� (3𝑇𝑇� 2 𝛼𝛼 𝑟𝑟
+ 𝑈𝑈0 )1/2 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑟𝑟 э

In (281), the coefficient 𝑒𝑒∗ (282) weakly depends on 𝑇𝑇�, since

𝛾𝛾/𝑇𝑇� ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (273), and (3𝑇𝑇� + 𝑈𝑈0 )1/2 ~ 𝑐𝑐, since the mean square
root thermal velocity (237) and the velocity 𝑢𝑢0 of the directional flow
in the ether are of the order of the speed of light. Thus, the Wiedemann
– Franz law (278) 𝜒𝜒/𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ~ 𝑇𝑇� is also valid in the vacuum.
The reproduction of the Wiedemann – Franz law in the metal and
the vacuum is explained by the very small specific geometric re-
sistance 𝛾𝛾 in them, in which the ratio 𝛾𝛾/T is close to a constant (273),
and by the velocities of ether currents in these media comparable with
the speed of light. It is important to emphasize that, unlike the electron

358
theory of electric current, consideration of the newtonians kinetics
does not require the introduction of free charges in the metal and the
force acting on them, since the electric field in the understanding of
the ether is caused namely by the directional motion of newtonians,
see formulas (21), (146).
Let us compare 𝑒𝑒∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 and 𝑒𝑒∗ with the electron charge 𝑒𝑒, which
appears in the Wiedemann – Franz law (278).
The concentration 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 and the mean free path of thermal
quanta in copper 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 are estimated in sec. 21.6. At 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 ≈
𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑,Cu,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 /100, characteristic density of the ether 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,Cu
(275), 𝛾𝛾 ≈ 𝛾𝛾Cu (276), 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈ 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 in (260), 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 (229), 𝑇𝑇 =
273 [K]:

1 1
𝑒𝑒∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈ 3.0 ∙ 10−11 � [statCoulomb] ≈ 0.063� 𝑒𝑒,
𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑

where 𝑒𝑒 is electron charge.

Then the formula (279) takes the form

𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘 2
≈ 𝛽𝛽𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � � 𝑇𝑇, 𝛽𝛽𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≡ 256𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 .
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒

For example, with 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 = 0.013, we get 𝛽𝛽𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈ 3.3, which is

close to the value of 𝛽𝛽 in the formula (278).
From (282) for the constants 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 (229), 𝑚𝑚э (233), 𝑟𝑟э (234), the char-
acteristic ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228), the ether current flow speed
𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 ≈ 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑,э ≈ 𝑐𝑐, 𝛾𝛾 ≈ 𝛾𝛾э (277), the ether temperature 2.7 [K] we have

1 1
𝑒𝑒∗ ≈ 1.47 ∙ 10−9 � [statCoulomb] ≈ 3.1� 𝑒𝑒.
𝛼𝛼𝑟𝑟 𝛼𝛼𝑟𝑟

359
Then the formula (281) takes the form

𝜒𝜒 𝑘𝑘 2
≈ 𝛽𝛽э � � 𝑇𝑇�, 𝛽𝛽э ≡ 0.11 𝛼𝛼𝑟𝑟 . (283)
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒

The length of the free path in the ether under the influence of ex-
ternal forces may increase. Therefore, in (256) we take 𝛼𝛼𝑟𝑟 = 10 and
𝛽𝛽э ≈ 1.1. This value lies within the range of the experimentally known
error for 𝛽𝛽 in the formula (278), see, for example: [121, p. 339].
Thus, one can conclude that the Wiedemann – Franz law is re-
produced in the ether theory for metals and the vacuum not only qual-
itatively but also quantitatively.
From here an important conclusion follows: the fulfillment of the
Wiedemann – Franz law in some media does not entail the obligatory
existence of free electrons in it.
However, in physics, the Wiedemann – Franz law (278) is ac-
cepted as one of the main confirmations of the metals conductivity
electronic theory [154, p. 71]. The derivation given here of this law
for the ether flow in a medium in the absence of free electrons shows
the logical inconsistency of such justification.
We emphasize that in deriving the Wiedemann – Franz law for
some medium, it is important to take account in the thermal conduc-
tivity coefficient the directional motion of this medium particles,
which is present in the electric current, that is, to consider the thermal
and electrical conductivities of the same kinetic process. However, in
physics, when considering the Wiedemann – Franz law, the directed
motion of particles in the thermal conductivity coefficient is not taken
into account [28, p. 185]. This circumstance is an addition to the free
electrons hypothesis, that cause the discrepancy between the coeffi-
cient 𝛽𝛽 in (278) theoretically calculated in physics and its experi-
mental values in the temperature range from several Kelvins to room
temperature.

360
 We emphasize once again that in the ether theory, the mechanism
of electric current in the ether and in metals is explained by the crea-
tion of a pressure gradient of newtonians (147) and does not require
the presence of free electrons.

21.12. Ether pressure inside solid materials and liquids

Let us estimate the internal pressure of the ether 𝑝𝑝int in materials,

assuming that the transition of the solid or liquid phase to the gaseous
one occurs at equalization the ether pressure in them with the external
pressure of the ether.
Data [120, p. 304] and [121, p. 99, 289] for the substance density
𝜌𝜌̅ and the sublimation energy 𝑄𝑄 or evaporation (boiling) energy,
which is close to the sublimation energy [121, p. 288], allow us to
calculate the sublimation pressure 𝑝𝑝s = 𝜌𝜌̅ 𝑄𝑄 , see sec. 18.10. When the
pressure 𝑝𝑝s is reached, the material transfers to the gas phase.
The formation of the gas phase during a rapid supply of energy
may be accompanied by the dissociation of a part of the material
structural elements. For example, if the gas in the liquid phase con-
sists of the same molecules as in normal conditions, for example, H2 ,
O2 , and etc., then boiling at the "instantaneous" switching on of high
power (as in the sublimation of the solid body) can lead to the disso-
ciation of molecules or gas clusters with energy absorption.
Thus, the destruction of the material occurs at equalizing of the
external pressure of the ether, consisting of the unperturbed ether
pressure 𝑝𝑝0 ≈ 1.1 ∙ 1011 [Pa] (230) and the external pressure 𝑝𝑝ext ,
with the sum of the internal pressure of the ether in the material 𝑝𝑝int
and transferred to the material pressure 𝑝𝑝s , minus the pressure 𝑝𝑝dis ,
spent on dissociation or other processes with energy absorption: 𝑝𝑝0 +
𝑝𝑝ext = 𝑝𝑝int + 𝑝𝑝s − 𝑝𝑝dis . Hence, for the internal pressure of the ether,
we find 𝑝𝑝int = 𝑝𝑝0 + 𝑝𝑝ext − 𝑝𝑝s + 𝑝𝑝dis . In the case of processes with
energy release, the sign in front of 𝑝𝑝dis changes to the opposite.

361
 Por-
Pressure Ether int.
Energy of tion
Density of sublim. pressure
sublim. or 𝛼𝛼,
Material 𝜌𝜌̅ , 103 or vapor. 𝑝𝑝int =
vapor. 𝑄𝑄, trans-
[kg/m3] 𝑝𝑝s = 𝛼𝛼𝜌𝜌̅ 𝑄𝑄 , 𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝s ,
106 [J/kg] ferred
1011 [Pa] 1011 [Pa]
to gas
vap.
Titanium 4.505 1 0.386 0.714
8.56
vap.
Uranium 92U 19.04 1 0.395 0.705
2.075
Electrolytic subl.
6.88 1 0.516 0.584
iron 7.5
Copper Elec- subl.
8.32 1 0.466 0.634
trolytic 5.6
Aluminum subl.
2.38 1 0.288 0.812
99.5 % 12.1
vap.
Plumbum 11.3 1 0.0972 1.003
0.86
vap.
Bismuth 9.78 1 0.0828 1.017
0.85
vap.
Antimony 6.691 1 0.0683 1.032
1.022
vap.
Mercury 13.7 1 0.0400 1.060
0.292
vap.
Sodium 0.928 1 0.0390 1.061
4.2
vap.
Water H2 O 1.00 1 0.0226 1.077
2.258
lic.
vap. 6.4211
Hydrogen H2 2∙ 1 1.09936
0.453 ∙ 10−4
0.0708
lic. vap. 2.5549
Helium 1 1.099975
0.1221 0.0209 ∙ 10−5
lic. vap.
Nitrogen N2 1 0.003226 1.0968
2 ∙ 0.808 0.1996
lic. vap.
Oxygen O2 1 0.004869 1.0951
2 ∙ 1.14 0.2135

362
 The results of the ether pressure estimates 𝑝𝑝int in some materials
at 𝑝𝑝ext ≪ 𝑝𝑝0 , 𝑝𝑝dis ≪ 𝑝𝑝s are given in the table. The coefficient 𝛼𝛼 ∈
[0,1] specifies the fraction of a material that is in the vapor state dur-
ing evaporation. It is assumed that the energy of evaporation (or sub-
limation) 𝑄𝑄 is spent on exactly the evaporated substance 𝛼𝛼𝜌𝜌̅ . Then the
energy density (pressure) of evaporation is 𝑝𝑝s = 𝛼𝛼𝜌𝜌̅ 𝑄𝑄 . In the tables
[120, p. 304] and [121, p. 99, 289] the value of the coefficient 𝛼𝛼 is not
given. Here it is assumed to be equal to unity, that is, it is believed
that all the material has undergone evaporation.
It can be seen that, despite the different sublimation energies and
densities, the sublimation pressures and the internal pressures of the
metals in the solid phase Ti, 92U, Cu, Al, Fe are close to each other.
The same takes place for the "soft" metals Pb, Hg, Na and water, but
with a noticeably lower sublimation pressure. There is a tendency: the
harder the metal, the less the internal pressure of the ether in it. How-
ever, the hardness of a substance is also determined by the bonding
force of the structural elements of the metal.
The ether pressure inside the liquid phases of the gaseous sub-
stances H2 , He, N2 , O2 is close to the pressure of the unperturbed ether
𝑝𝑝0 . The especial proximity to 𝑝𝑝0 of the ether internal pressure in the
liquid phase of helium explains the lack of its solid phase at normal
pressure [121, p. 289]: already in the liquid phase, the internal pressure
in helium is compared with the pressure of the unperturbed ether, and
to transfer helium into the solid phase, it is necessary to create a no-
ticeable additional external pressure 𝑝𝑝ext = 3 ∙ 106 [Pa] [121, p. 289].
Experiments [172] on the destruction of crystals by the laser ra-
diation for a time shorter than the thermal oscillations of atoms can
also be explained by the creation of the ether pressure in the crystal
that exceeds 𝑝𝑝0 , see sec. 23.8.
The internal pressure of the ether in the material is defined by the
flow of the ether between its structural elements. A more detailed
study of the internal pressure requires the development of the ether

363
model of atoms and molecules, as well as conducting new experi-
ments with accurate measurement of the sublimation pressure of var-
ious materials.

21.13. Sticking of plates with smooth surfaces, Casimir effect.

Phase transition of object states. Radioactive decay

The Casimir effect consists in strongly attracting well-polished

plates to each other at small distances between them [97].
In addition to the atomic forces, a significant contribution to the
Kazimir effect can be made by the ether flows outside and inside the
bodies.
The ether in the bodies can move faster due to the nature of the
structure of their structural elements. Near the surface of the body, the
regular structure is disturbed, which prevents the ether from flowing
out. As a result, according to the equation of the ether state (15), the
ether, external to the body, compresses the body.
At the approach of bodies with well-polished surfaces, the veloc-
ity of the ether flow between them increases. Therefore, the external
pressure of the ether presses the bodies to each other.
In amorphous bodies, the ether moves more slowly and the Kazi-
mir effect is not so noticeable.
The etheric interpretation of the Kazimir effect is confirmed by
experiments with the explosion of wires and emitters (see. sec. 18.10),
in which their destruction occurs as the ether pressure created in the
material approaches the ether external pressure, as well as by analysis
in sec. 21.12 and experiments from sec. 23.8, where an unexpected
collapse of a solid body is observed.
The etheric interpretation of the Kazimir effect, in addition to the
action of interatomic forces, can be used to explain the phase transi-
tion of a gaseous or liquid state into a solid state. Reducing the thermal
motion of molecules leads to an increase in the ether flow velocity

364
between them. As a result, the pressure inside the object drops, and
the external ether compresses the object to the solid state.
This raises the problem of the ether interpretation of the Van der
Waals forces of interatomic interaction and surface effects.
The decay of radioactive objects can be interpreted as a process
of decreasing the ether speed inside them for one reason or another,
leading to a decrease of the difference in the ether pressure outside
and inside the object, which leads to the weakening of the force hold-
ing its structural elements.

21.14. Phenomena in contacts

When two different solid conductors come into contact, a poten-

tial difference is observed, which is called contact (see, for example:
[28, ch. VIII], as well as a review [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_po-
tential] and the indicated there literature). To explain the contact po-
tential difference in physics, the model of free electrons and the quan-
tum mechanical theory of the electrons motion in a solid body (zone
theory) are used. However, as shown, for example, in sec. 18.13,
23.2.1, 23.2.2, the attribution of the main role in the electrical proper-
ties of conductors to electrons leads to great problems with the inter-
pretation of many experiments.
The etheric interpretation of contact phenomena is simple and
visual. In sec. 18.10, 18.13, 21.12, 23.8, 23.9.6, on the basis of ana-
lyzing a large number of experiments, it was established that the pres-
sure of ether in substances differs from the pressure of unperturbed
ether and has different values for different substances. Therefore, at
the boundaries of different materials the ether has its own pressure,
according to (74), its own potential. At contact of the conductors, the
pressure difference leads to the flow of the ether (5), and an electric
current is observed. The equalization of the pressures of the ether dur-
ing contact can be a very long process, since the pressure in the sub-
stance is determined by the stable ether flow created by the energy-
intensive structural elements of the substance.

365
 The absence of an electromotive force in a ring of different met-
als [28, p. 450] in the case when there are no external influences, is a
consequence of the ether momentum conservation law (5).
In the closed circuit consisting of series-connected dissimilar
conductors, the contacts between which are located at different tem-
peratures, an electric current is observed (Seebeck effect [28, p. 454;
36, p. 417]). From the etheric point of view, the amplification of the
thermoelectric current when the contact between two different mate-
rials is heated can be explained by one or some combination of the
following effects: a decrease in the throughput capability of the con-
ductor boundary due to the increase in thermal vibrations of its con-
stituting atoms; effusion [27, sec. 95; 155, ch. 4] of the ether through
the porous boundary in the direction from the colder region to the hot-
ter one; different dependence of the ether pressure 𝑝𝑝 (15) on the tem-
perature rise for different materials.
For example, by a decrease in the throughput capability of the
boundary between the conductors it is quite simple to explain the
known experiment with a contour of an antimony plate and a copper
plate, which are fused at the ends [28, p. 455, fig. 239]. In this exper-
iment, the direction of the electric current is determined using a mag-
netic needle located between the plates. When one of the junctions is
heated, a current through it from antimony to copper is observed. Dur-
ing junction cooling, current direction changes to opposite.
The ether pressure in antimony is about one and a half times
higher than in copper, see the table on p. 362. At the same temperature
of the contacts, the ether flows over each contact from antimony to
copper (in the direction of lower pressure) and the total current
through both contacts is zero. Heating of the first contact makes it
difficult for the ether to flow through it due to the increased oscilla-
tions of atoms near the contact. The current over the second contact,
which determines the total flow in the closed contour, becomes dom-
inant. As a result, in the first contact, the ether flow occurs from cop-
per to antimony. The cooling of the first contact, on the contrary, fa-
cilitates the ether flow over it in comparison with the second contact.

366
The total ether flow in the contour occurs in the opposite direction:
from antimony to copper at the first contact.
The electric current passage through the boundary of two con-
ductors of different materials is accompanied, depending on the di-
rection of the current, by the release or absorption of heat, which is
additional to that emitted in accordance with the Joule-Lenz law (Pel-
tier effect [28, p. 454; 36, p. 419]). Peltier heat is proportional to the
strength of the current, and the Joule – Lenz heat dissipation – to the
square of the current strength. Besides, the heat released or absorbed
depends on the temperature difference between the two conductors at
the point of contact (Thomson effect [28, p. 420]).
The ether equations are close to the gas dynamics equations (see
sec. 1.2). Therefore, we analyze the Peltier effect, drawing an analogy
with the behavior of a gas (see also sec. 21.2). The equation of state
for an ideal gas from solid particles (analogue of a flowing loose-
granular media) is: 𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅� 𝑇𝑇/𝑀𝑀э , where 𝑝𝑝 is the ether pressure, 𝑅𝑅� is
the universal gas constant, 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 is the ether density in mechanical units
(sec. 20.1), 𝑀𝑀э is the molar mass of the ether particles (see, for exam-
ple: [36, p. 151]). Then, at a small change in the ether molar volume
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 /𝑀𝑀э at the contact (that is, a small change in the ether), the Peltier
effect of heat 𝑇𝑇 release or absorption at the contact can be associated
with a sharp change in the ether pressure: cooling as 𝑝𝑝 falls and heat-
ing as 𝑝𝑝 increases.
The internal pressure of the ether in the material is defined by the
ether flow created by its structural elements. Therefore, a detailed
quantitative study of the contact phenomena requires the development
of an etheric model of atoms and molecules, and models of substance
internal structure and surface layer.

21.15. Electronegativity of chemical elements

The electronegativity of a chemical element (nuclide) is defined

in physics and chemistry as the ability of an atom to pull away the

367
electrons of other atoms to itself [36, p. 780; en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/Electronegativity; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactivity_se-
ries]. However, the fundamental details of appearance of such an abil-
ity mechanism are not disclosed.
Each nuclide is characterized by the strictly defined number of
protons and neutrons, as well as a certain energy state of the nucleus.
Therefore, in the etheric understanding, each nuclide generates its
own ether flow, associated with the specific features of its organiza-
tion. According to (15), each nuclide forms around its own ether pres-
sure, and hence its own electrical potential (74). When different types
of nuclides approach each other, an ether pressure difference occurs.
The pressure gradient generates an electric field (72). An electrical
force arises that affects the electrons of the nuclides.
Thus, in the etheric understanding, the electronegativity between
chemical elements is due to the individual ether pressure around the
chemical element associated with its unique structure and state.
Here we again come to the need of developing detailed quantita-
tive ether models of the microworld objects: electron, proton, neutron,
nucleus, atom, molecule. It is necessary to adequately describe the
ether motion inside, on the boundary and outside these objects, to
thoroughly study the emerging force interaction of the ether flows of
approaching each other objects. Solving such problems is the direc-
tion of further research.

21.16. The ether current density in a gas discharge

Let's show that for the ether flow in a gas discharge the same
formula is valid as for a wire (133), which relates the characteristic
current density and the characteristic velocity of the ether flow

𝐣𝐣э = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 . (284)

The justification is proposed by F.S. Zaitsev.

368
 Formulas (269) are applicable both for a wire and for a gas dis-
charge, since their derivation did not use the assumption of current
flow in any particular medium.
Excluding the specific geometric resistance 𝛾𝛾 from these formulas

1/2
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0) 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 1 𝛾𝛾𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0)
𝛾𝛾 ≈ , ≈ � � ,
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗

we get

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0)

≈ .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑

We define the ether electrical conductivity in the gas discharge in

the same way as the electrical conductivity of the wire (145)

2 −1
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑑𝑑|𝐮𝐮𝑑𝑑 |
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,э ≡ � � .
2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Substitute here the found expression for 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

2
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,э = = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 .
2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸0 (0) 𝐸𝐸0 (0)

Then, if we consider Ohm's law for a discharge without charged

particles (case of small currents)

𝑗𝑗э = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,э 𝐸𝐸0 (0)

as an experimental fact and not as a conclusion from theoretical con-

siderations (sec. 12.2), we obtain the required formula

369
 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑
𝑗𝑗э = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,э 𝐸𝐸0 (0) = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐸𝐸 (0) = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢𝑑𝑑 .
𝐸𝐸0 (0) 0

In deriving this formula, it is essential to apply Ohm's law to the ether

flow in the gas discharge as an experimental fact. The formula (146)
cannot be used to justify (284) because the derivation of (146) in-
volves the relation 𝐣𝐣 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮, obtained for a wire. 21.17.

21.17. Inexpediency of the thermodynamic entropy concept

application in the ether model

Let’s consider the concept of Clausius' thermodynamic entropy.

We show that the content of this concept and the experience of its
application in thermodynamics and continuous mechanics do not al-
low to hope for obtaining practically significant results for the ether
in the continuous media model.
We will first give a brief overview of the models of thermody-
namics and statistical physics, and compare these models with the
ether model proposed in the book.
Classical thermodynamics was created by Carnot, Clausius, Thom-
son (Lord Kelvin) and other scientists. It was developed as a macro-
scopic, phenomenological theory of heat, see, for example: [249, p. 13].
A physical system in thermodynamics is represented by a set of macro-
scopically measurable parameters. The relationship between these pa-
rameters and the general laws to which they obey are derived from axi-
oms based on experimental facts. Thermodynamics is actually a theory
of equilibrium states, see, for example: [27, p. 129], and therefore it is
more correct to call it thermostatics by analogy with electrostatics.
In statistical physics, in contrast to thermodynamics, all macro-
scopic thermodynamic quantities and the relations between them are
obtained as statistical averages of probability density.

370
 In classical statistical physics, it is believed that atoms and mol-
ecules that make up the system move according to the laws of classi-
cal mechanics [249, p.14]. In this sense, the model of classical statis-
tical physics is similar to the model of the ether proposed here, which
assumes that the ether moves according to Newton's second law for
the medium.
However, the criteria of correctness of any statistical theory con-
structed for ordinary macroscopic systems is the reproduction of phe-
nomenological laws of thermodynamics. Therefore the microscopic
atomistic model for these systems is a priori endowed with properties,
which in the statistical description would not lead to the violation of
the thermodynamics laws. At the same time, as many researchers
note, one cannot directly equate thermodynamic and statistical param-
eters [249, p. 14].
Besides, despite the assumptions of the classical kinetic theory of
gases that all particles possess only the kinetic form of motion and the
internal energy of gas depends only on it, the reasoning of the rela-
tionship of pressure and the average kinetic energy of one molecule
translational motion actually involves three forms of matter motion:
thermal, mechanical (volume) and kinetic [250, p. 276].
The ether model proposed in the book (4)–(6), (15) describes not
only equilibrium or quasi-equilibrium, but also non-equilibrium pro-
cesses. The equation of state of the ether introduced in sec. 1.4 uses
only the assumption 𝓅𝓅 = 𝓅𝓅(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 ), and its interpretation as a se-
quence of quasi-equilibrium states is not mandatory. Moreover, this
ether model includes not only mechanical and kinetic forms of matter
motion, but also supplements the quantitative treatment of its thermal
form of motion with the transfer of momentum (kinetic energy) in the
ether by the thermal quanta, see p. 331. In addition, the ether theory
describes both reversible and irreversible processes.
We now turn to the analysis of the thermodynamic entropy concept.
The basic laws of thermodynamics – the first and second princi-
ples – were formulated by Clausius.

371
 The first principle of thermodynamics is the energy conservation
law for thermal and mechanical properties (see, for example: [27, p. 59]):

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, (285)

where 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the amount of heat transferred to the system, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the
change in its internal energy, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 is the work against pressure 𝑝𝑝 as
the volume increments in 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
The term "second principle of thermodynamics", which includes
the concept of the entropy, has been used in physics for more than a
hundred years. However, up to now different authors put different
content in it, see, for example: [27, sec. 44; 251].
In 1865, Clausius deciphered the amount of heat 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 by the formula

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇, (286)

where 𝑇𝑇 is the absolute temperature and 𝑆𝑆 is the Clausius entropy.

This expression is called the equation of the second principle of ther-
modynamics, see, for example: [27, p. 222–229].
The basis of classical thermodynamics consists of equations
(285), (286), supplemented by Gibbs' expression for the chemical de-
gree of freedom.
More than 150 years have passed since the concept of the ther-
modynamic entropy (286) was introduced. However, there is still dis-
satisfaction with the formulation of the second law of thermodynam-
ics, which is expressed in discussions about its most adequate presen-
tation and about the absence of the need to use the entropy concept
[251; 250; 252, p. 371; 253].
Let us list some reasons for the problems associated with the con-
cept of the thermodynamic entropy.
1. Lack of clear physical meaning of entropy, see, for example,
discussion in [251(a)]. Usually the entropy (286) is introduced
formally as some computational characteristic of two-parame-
ter media, see, for example: [14, p. 229, 230]. The entropy of

372
 the system can change, but it is not able to pass from body to
body, only the heat passes [14, p. 229]. It is enough to take 𝑈𝑈
and 𝑉𝑉 as defining thermodynamic variables of two-parameter
medium [14, p. 241].
2. Inconsistency of Clausius' "justification" of equation (286),
see [252, p. 371–373]. This conclusion also follows from [254,
p. 41–49].
3. Some discrepancy between the formal definition of the entropy
(285), (286) and the physical understanding of heat transfer.
Consider (285), (286) for the increment 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of an arbitrarily
small elementary volume Δ𝑉𝑉 (as it is done in [14, p. 230]). For-
mula (285) assumes that the heat 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is transferred to Δ𝑉𝑉. Ac-
cording to formula (286), the increment 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 creates the incre-
ment of the entropy 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 without changing the temperature 𝑇𝑇. As
a result, we get that the heat 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is transferred to an arbitrarily
small volume Δ𝑉𝑉, but the temperature 𝑇𝑇 of this volume does not
change, it is the entropy that changes in this volume.
4. In the phenomenological thermodynamics, all processes in a
closed system occur in the direction of increasing entropy. As a
result, entropy reaches a maximum and all processes stop. How-
ever, this conclusion contradicts the basic ideas of the molecu-
lar-kinetic theory [27, p. 285], according to which fluctuations
in a closed system are possible leading to the entropy decrease.
5. Elimination of the contradiction 4 is carried out in physics by
postulating the relation of the entropy and the probability, see,
for example: [27, sec. 80; 147, p. 61–67]. In such approach the
concept of the thermodynamic entropy is replaced with the
concept of the statistical entropy [27, p. 289]. However, the
statistical entropy has a different content – it is related to the
probability, and not to the presentation (286) for the heat in-
crement. The entropy in the statistical interpretation is a meas-
ure of chaos, a measure of system disorder. The more distinct
microstates it has, the greater the entropy [14, p. 61].

373
6. The inconsistency with reality of the mathematical way of in-
troducing the concept of the entropy, see. [251(b)]. This
method relies on the existence for the expression (285), con-
sidered as the Pfaff form of two variables 𝑈𝑈 and 𝑉𝑉, of an inte-
grating factor 1/𝑇𝑇, where 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇(𝑈𝑈, 𝑉𝑉), turning this form into
a complete differential

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

= +
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇

of some function 𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆(𝑈𝑈, 𝑉𝑉):

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≡ = + .
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇

The function 𝑆𝑆(𝑈𝑈, 𝑉𝑉) is associated with the entropy, and 𝑇𝑇(𝑈𝑈, 𝑉𝑉)
is associated with the absolute thermodynamic temperature. To
the problems, described in [251(a)] of such introduction of the
entropy concept, another one can be added: the increments of the
internal energy 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and volume 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, generally speaking, are not
independent. In this case, equation (285) is the Pfaff form of one
variable, not two, and 𝑄𝑄 can be calculated without introducing
the concept of the entropy.
7. For 150 years there have been no serious, practically important
examples of meaningful use of the concept of the entropy. In
fact, the main application of the entropy is reduced to conclu-
sions based on calculating the sign of its increment, see, for
example: [14, p. 239, 240, sec. 5–11; 9, p. 100].
Herewith, the analysis of the adiabatic irreversible pro-
cess uses reasoning similar to that proposed by Clausius, see,
for example: [14, p. 230, 231]. Let the temperature 𝑇𝑇′ of the
first infinitesimal volume be less than the temperature 𝑇𝑇′′ of
the second infinitesimal volume. The volumes are brought into

374
 contact. Since the process of the heat transfer is irreversible
and there are no losses from the system, the second body loses
the amount of heat −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, and the first body gains heat 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. As
a result of such a heat transfer, the entropy of the first volume
increases by

𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆 ′ = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑇𝑇′,

and the entropy of the second volume decreases by

𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆 ′′ = −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑇𝑇′′.

Assuming that the total entropy 𝑆𝑆 of the system of two vol-

umes is an additive function

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆 ′ + 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆 ′′

and given 𝑇𝑇 ′′ > 𝑇𝑇′, we get

1 1 𝑇𝑇 ′′ − 𝑇𝑇 ′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � ′ − ′′ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 > 0.
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 ′ 𝑇𝑇 ′′

From here, it is concluded that the irreversible adiabatic inter-

action is accompanied by an increase in the entropy.
In classical thermodynamics, adiabatic irreversible pro-
cesses can occur only in the direction of the entropy growth,
and non-adiabatic irreversible processes occur only in such a
way that the increment of uncompensated heat (heat loss) is
non-negative [14, p. 240]. In statistical physics, this position
can be violated.
8. In continuous mechanics, the change in the entropy is de-
scribed by a separate equation, while the entropy is not in-
cluded in other equations [14, p. 396, 235]. In practice, the

375
 equation of state, which does not contain the entropy, and the
experimental values of the heat capacities are usually used for
calculations.
9. The presence of irreversible heat loss in the system is usually
clear without calculating 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. In practice, the heat loss is
calculated without the entropy, using the solution of the heat
transfer equation with the empirically determined heat transfer
coefficient.
10. Different understanding of heat and the process of its transfer:
caloric theory [27, sec. 16; ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Теплород,
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloric_theory], energeticism [249, p.
13], molecular-kinetic theory.
Thus, the thermodynamic entropy does not have a clear physical
interpretation, does not reveal the essence of general laws, and is not
actually used in practice. Therefore, the use of the entropy concept for
the analysis of energy processes in the etheric model of nature is in-
expedient.
In our opinion, excessive attention to the concept of the thermo-
dynamic entropy, as well as to the concept of the wave function, only
distracts researchers from advancing in the knowledge of nature, un-
derstanding real processes and predicting useful effects for applica-
tion in practice.
Basing on the qualitative and quantitative analysis of many ex-
perimental facts carried out in the book, it can be concluded that at
the current level of the ether studying, the simplest form of the equa-
tion of its state 𝓅𝓅 = 𝓅𝓅(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 ), which takes into account only the me-
chanical properties, is sufficient, see sec. 1.4.
In conclusion, we emphasize once again that the ether model es-
sentially supplements and generalizes, including quantitatively, ther-
modynamic and statistical representations of the matter motion. In
particular, it generalizes and clarifies the process of heat transfer us-
ing the concept of a thermal quantum, see p. 331, 332.

376
 22. Estimation of the boundary layers radii causing the emer-
gence of the Lorentz force and the force of gravitation

In general, the flow of the ether around the object, the size of the
boundary layer and the force of impact on the object arising from the
ether must be calculated on the basis of the solution of the initial sys-
tem of ether equations (4)–(6). However, the theoretical results of sec.
16.1 and 16.2 allow one to estimate approximately the values of the
boundary layers radii.

22.1. Charged objects

The ether representation of the charge of an object, obtained in

sec. 16.1, allows, using a given charge value, to estimate the charac-
teristic distance from the center of the charged object to the outer
boundary of the boundary layer.
Consider a spherical object with a characteristic radius 𝑟𝑟0 . Let 𝑎𝑎∗
denote the characteristic distance from the center of the object to the
outer boundary of the boundary layer, in which a vortex or discontin-
uous flow forms, leading to the appearance of the generalized Zhu-
kovsky force 𝐅𝐅obj (174). Here, to obtain estimates, in contrast to the
classical theory of lift, where concrete wing shapes are studied, the
geometry of an object streamlined by a flow is approximately de-
scribed by two effective sizes 𝑟𝑟0 and 𝑎𝑎∗ .
Simplify the expression (173), by assuming such behavior of 𝐮𝐮obj
and 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,obj, that 𝑓𝑓 ≈ ±1 (see the formula for 𝑓𝑓 at p. 192). Then

4𝜋𝜋 3
𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ≈ ±𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝑉𝑉 = ±𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟03 ).
𝑉𝑉 3 ∗

In this estimate, 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 is defined by the difference 𝑎𝑎∗3 − 𝑟𝑟03 , which

contains the characteristic values of the size of the boundary layer and
the size of the object. We find from it

377
 3 3 �𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓 �
𝑎𝑎∗ = �𝑟𝑟03 + .
4𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

For example, for a sphere of radius 𝑟𝑟0 = 2 [cm] with a uniformly

distributed charge |𝑞𝑞| = 29.979 [cm3/2 g 1/2 /s = statCoulomb =
10−8 Cl] the size of the boundary layer is close to 𝑟𝑟0 : 𝑎𝑎∗ ≈ 2.0001
[cm]. The proximity of 𝑎𝑎∗ to 𝑟𝑟0 is appropriate to the experiment, since
when macroscopic charged bodies approach each other, there is no
strong change in the law of their interaction.
Let us estimate the characteristic distance from the center of an
elementary charged particle to the outer boundary of the boundary
layer from the equality |𝑒𝑒| = 4𝜋𝜋(𝑎𝑎∗3 − 𝑟𝑟03 )𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 /3 by the known
value of the elementary charge |𝑒𝑒| = 4.8032 ∙ 10−10 [statCoulomb].
For a distance 𝑟𝑟0 , equal to the radius of the electron or proton

𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = ℏ/(𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐) = 3.8617 ∙ 10−11 [cm],

𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 = ℏ/(𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐) = 2.1032 ∙ 10−14 [cm],

the boundary layer radius is approximately the same and is 𝑎𝑎∗ ≈ 2.6 ∙
10−5 [cm].
The value 𝑎𝑎∗ turned out to be much larger than the radii of the
electron and proton. However, it is possible that the used approxima-
tion 𝑓𝑓 ≈ ±1 gives an overestimated value of 𝑎𝑎∗ . To obtain an accurate
estimate, it is necessary to understand the structure of the electron and
the proton and calculate the ether flow in the boundary layer of each
of them basing on the solution of the original ether equations.
The 𝑎𝑎∗ value turned out to be much smaller than the characteristic
distance 𝑎𝑎 ~ 10−3 [cm] between the ether vortices in the magnetic
field model considered in sec. 19.2. Such a relationship of the dis-
tances 𝑎𝑎∗ and 𝑎𝑎 confirms the possibility of using the formula (174)

378
for elementary particles, upon derivation of which a slight change in
the force field in the boundary layer region was assumed. For smaller
𝑎𝑎∗ , such assumption is all the more fulfilled.
The etheric representation of the Lorentz force (174) and the 𝑎𝑎∗
estimates allow us to conclude that the effect of electric and magnetic
fields on a charged object can take place at distances different from
the size of the object itself, since the force interaction of the corre-
sponding ether flows occurs in the boundary layer.
In the general case, the calculation of the force requires a more
accurate description of the boundary layer, for example, using the nu-
merical solution of the original ether equations for finding the ether
motion around a particular object model. Here it is necessary to accu-
rately set the boundary conditions, including taking into account the
possible penetration of the ether flow through the object boundary.

22.2. Objects with a mass. Estimation of the ether gravita-

tional flow rotation speed around the Earth, its pressure
gradient and pressure

In sec. 16.2, an estimate of the gravitational boundary layer size

𝑎𝑎∗ was obtained:

1 3 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏
𝑎𝑎∗ = � ,
2 𝜋𝜋 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵

which allows to approximately calculate 𝑎𝑎∗ by the given mass of the

object 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏 .
For example, the characteristic size of the boundary layer for an
object of the mass 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏 = 104 [g] = 10 [kg] on the Earth’s surface
𝑟𝑟 ≈ 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 ≈ 6.37 ∙ 108 [cm] with the unperturbed ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 =
2 ∙ 10−9 [g/cm3 ] is 𝑎𝑎∗ ≈ 43 [cm].
The characteristic sizes of the gravitational boundary layers of the
electron and proton in the ether flow near the surface of the Earth are

379
 1 3 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒
𝑎𝑎∗,𝑒𝑒 = � ≈ 1.3 ∙ 10−14 [cm], 𝑎𝑎∗,𝑒𝑒 /𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ≈ 3.4 ∙ 10−4 ,
2 𝜋𝜋 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵

1 3 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝
𝑎𝑎∗,𝑝𝑝 = � ≈ 5.6 ∙ 10−13 [cm], 𝑎𝑎∗,𝑝𝑝 /𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝 ≈ 27.
2 𝜋𝜋 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵

Thus, according to these approximate estimates, the gravitational

boundary layer is located inside the electron and outside the proton.
Let us estimate the value of the ether azimuthal velocity �𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 �
with respect to the object 𝑏𝑏, assuming that around the Earth there is a
gravitational ether flow from sec. 16.2 with the center 𝐵𝐵, coinciding
with the center of the Earth. For the free fall acceleration g ≈ 9.8 ∙
102 [cm/s 2 ] and the Earth average radius 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 ≈ 6.37 ∙ 108 [cm] we
get near its surface �𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 � = �𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 /𝜆𝜆 ≈ 7.9 ∙ 105 /√𝜆𝜆 [cm/s].
The numerator turned out to be equal to the first cosmic velocity,
which is required to deliver to the object in order to turn it into a sat-
ellite of the Earth, rotating with a circular orbit of a close to 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 radius.
Let us estimate the value of �𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 �, defined by the constant 𝜆𝜆,
basing on the available experimental data.
Missile launches in the direction of rotation and against the rota-
tion of the Earth show [80] that the difference in their trajectories is
relevant to the linear velocity of the Earth's surface rotation ≈
(2𝜋𝜋/(24 ∙ 60 ∙ 60)) ∙ 6.37 ∙ 108 sin 𝜃𝜃 ≈ 4.6 ∙ 104 sin 𝜃𝜃 [cm/s].
If the ether speed �𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 � was comparable with the speed of a
rocket, then with such launches there would be differences in trajec-
tories due to a change in rocket velocity relative to the ether, see (179).
If the ether speed would be much smaller than the speed of the rocket,
then differences in the trajectories would be observed for bodies mov-
ing with "usual" speeds. From here we conclude that the speed of
ether rotation around the Earth �𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 � must be much greater than the

380
first cosmic velocity, for example, greater than the second cosmic ve-
locity of 11.2 ∙ 105 [cm/s], but limited by the speed of light:
7.9 ∙ 105 < �𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 � ≪ 3 ∙ 1010 [cm/s].
We obtain a more accurate estimate of the ether rotation speed
𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 around the Earth near its surface. We use the average values and
directions of the magnetic and electric fields near the surface of the
Earth [121, p. 1183, 1196]
𝐁𝐁 ≈ −0.6 ∙ 10−4 𝐢𝐢𝜃𝜃 [T], 𝐄𝐄 ≈ −130𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 [V/m],

where 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 and 𝐢𝐢𝜃𝜃 are the unit radial and meridional vectors of the spher-
ical coordinate system with the origin at the center of the Earth, the
angle θ is measured starting from the axis of its rotation.
According to the classification of ether flows, in a gravitational
flow (162) we have

𝐄𝐄 + 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 ≈ 0.

From here we find

𝐮𝐮 ≈ 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 ≈ 2.17 ∙ 108 [cm/s], (287)

where 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 is the azimuthal unit vector.

The use of the found from measurements estimates of the veloc-
ity 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 in theoretical results allows one to verify the adequacy of the
theory by comparing its consequences with experimental data. For
example, formulas (72) and (176) give the theoretical representation
of the electric field of the Earth

2
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵
𝐄𝐄 = −𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑟𝑟 2 𝑟𝑟

381
Substituting 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 here, we get 𝐄𝐄� ~ − 1 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 [V/m] at distances of the
order of the Earth's radius 𝑟𝑟 ~ 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 . Taking into account many simplifi-
cations done at the derivation of (176), a significant scatter of direc-
tions and values of the magnetic field [121, fig. 44.1–44.5, table 44.9],
the rapid fall of the electric field, which at a height of more than
10 [km] is smaller than 1 [V/m] [28, p. 82], we conclude that 𝐄𝐄� is
appropriate to the average over measurements in 10 [km] field of the
Earth. Such a conclusion, according to the methodology of mathemat-
ical modeling, testifies the adequacy of the theoretical concepts used
in the formulas (72) and (176) about the classification of the ether
gravitational flow (162) and the understanding of the gravitational at-
traction as the ether pressure force (154).
The analysis performed in sec. 23.12 provides another confirma-
tion of the value 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 found here.
By the known speed 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 and the free fall acceleration, one can
find from (182) the magnitude of the factor 𝜆𝜆 for typical objects

𝜆𝜆 ≈ 1.33 ∙ 10−5 .

The value of 𝜆𝜆 allows to estimate the ether velocity in the bound-

ary layer of the object 𝑢𝑢�0,𝜑𝜑 using formula (177). For the considered
above object with the mass of 10 [kg], we obtain 𝑢𝑢�0,𝜑𝜑 ≈ 3.0 ∙
109 [cm/s]. The exceeding of the ether velocity 𝑢𝑢�0,𝜑𝜑 in the object
boundary layer over the ether rotation velocity around the Earth 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 ,
one can relate to creation of vortices caused by the object’s structural
elements organization.
Near the Earth’s surface, 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 ≈ 6.37 ∙ 108 [cm], the gradient of the
ether gravitational pressure (a volume density of the ether gravitational
force), according to (176), (228), (287), has the following order

382
 2
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 2
1
𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 𝐢𝐢 𝑟𝑟 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢 𝐢𝐢 ≈ 0.147 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 [dyn/cm3 ] =
𝑟𝑟 2 0,𝜑𝜑
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑟𝑟
1.47 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 [N/m] ≈ 0.15 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 [kgf/m3 ] = 0.15 ∙ 10−3 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 [gf/cm3 ].

The density of the gravitational force is relatively small, but its action
is enhanced in the boundary layer of the object, see formulas (177),
(178). It will be of great interest to learn how to reduce this force, for
example, by creating an obstacle from of a material that is hard per-
meable for the ether gravitational flow or reducing (disturbing) the
ether velocity 𝑢𝑢�0,𝜑𝜑 (177) in the boundary layer of the object, see sec.
23.10.
The ether gravitational pressure near the surface of the Earth
compared to the infinitely distant point is large enough
+∞
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 2
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 2
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵
∆𝑝𝑝∞ = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 � + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 � =
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟 +∞ 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵
2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 ≈ 9.38 ∙ 107 [dyn/cm2 ] = 9.38 ∙ 106 [N/m2 ] =
9.56 ∙ 105 [kgf/m2 ] = 9.56 ∙ 104 [gf/cm2 ].

At a small distance compared to the Earth’s radius, for example

𝑟𝑟∗ = 100 [cm], the gravitational pressure is small
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 +𝑟𝑟∗
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 2
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵
∆𝑝𝑝∗ = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 �1 − �=
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 + 𝑟𝑟∗
𝑟𝑟∗ 𝑟𝑟∗
2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 2
≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 ≈ (288)
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 + 𝑟𝑟∗ 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵
14.7 [dyn/cm2 ] = 1.47 [N/m2 ] = 0.15 [kgf/m2 ] =
0.015 [gf/cm2 ].

However, it should be borne in mind that the ether gravitational pres-

sure increases in the boundary layer of the object.

383
 23. Summary of experimental facts confirming the presence
of the ether

The methodology of physics, as a science that generalizes exper-

imental facts in order to substantiate one or another statement, re-
quires conducting and analyzing a multitude of experiments. In this
section, numerous well-known and new experimental facts are col-
lected that allow to make a physical conclusion about the presence of
the ether as the medium in which all processes take place. In order to
increase the reliability of this conclusion, it is advisable to reproduce
once again a part of the experiments described below, the available
information about which is not complete enough, using the very mod-
ern experimental and measuring equipment, as well as to conduct new
experiments proposed in this and other sections of the book, numbers
of which are listed on p. 584.
The material presented here is important not only to confirm the
existence of the ether, but also as a demonstration of the ether theory
methodology application to the analysis of specific physical phenom-
ena and experiments.

23.1. Basic general laws of electrodynamics and gravitation

It has been shown above that the basic general laws of electrody-
namics and gravity are mathematical consequences of laws (4)–(6)
for the conservation of matter and the quantity of ether motion (equa-
tions of the ether motion). These consequences include: Maxwell's
equations (sec. 2.1), the Lorentz force (sec. 2.1 and 16.1), the Gauss
theorem and Coulomb's law (sec. 3), the Bio-Savard law (sec. 7), the
law of electromagnetic induction (sec. 9), Ampere's laws (sec. 12.1),
effects and formulas of electrical engineering and electrochemistry
(sec. 18), magnetic phenomena (sec. 19), the law of gravitational at-
traction (sec. 16.2 and 17.2).

384
 The listed laws are confirmed in numerous experiments and are
used in practice in technical devices. Therefore, their logical deriva-
tion from the equations of the ether motion is one of the serious argu-
ments in favor of recognizing the existence of the ether in the meth-
odology of physics, generalizing the experimental facts.

23.2. Electric current in a wire

In physics, it is believed that the carriers of electric current in

metals are exclusively free electrons [28, p. 173], relatively weakly
bound to the ions of the crystal lattice, inside which they can move
freely [28, p. 178].
From the etheric positions, the electric current in the metal is in-
terpreted as the vortex flow of the newtonians (ether) and its interac-
tion with the structural elements of the metal crystal lattice. The mo-
tion of free electrons, if any, is not excluded, but they are not the main
current carriers.
The following three sections show the internal inconsistency of
the model of free electrons, describe the problems of interpreting ex-
periments using the electronic theory of conductivity, and present the
calculation of the ether flow in the wire.

23.2.1. Internal inconsistency of the free electron model in a

solid conductor

In the classical electronic theory of the conductivity of solid con-

ductors (including metals) and their thermal conductivity, it is as-
sumed that there are free electrons whose motion obeys the laws of
classical Newtonian mechanics. The interaction of free electrons be-
tween themselves is neglected, and the interaction with positive ions
of the crystal lattice is reduced only to collisions [34, sec. 147–150;
36, p. 376–378]. In the electronic theory of conductivity, it is assumed
that there is no electron hopping from the orbit of one atom to the
orbit of another atom. We also will not consider such an effect.

385
 In other words, conduction electrons are represented as an elec-
tron gas, similar to the ideal atomic gas of molecular physics [34, p.
336; 36, p. 376]. Therefore, during the motion of free electrons in a
solid, there should appear areas of their accumulation or rarefaction,
that is, a separation of negative and positive charges, as in a plasma.
However, when considering the motion of free electrons in a solid
body, this effect is hushed up, and, apparently, not accidentally, since
it will be seen later that it makes free electrons non-free.
Let us estimate the spatial scale of charge separation, following
the approach typical for plasma physics [160, sec. 1.2].
Imagine that electroneutrality is violated in some layer. To sim-
plify the calculations, we will assume that this violation occurs as a
result of the displacement of the electron layer with the formation of
a negative layer and a layer of positive space charges. The positive
charge is formed by atoms of the crystal lattice of a solid (analog of
ions), from which free electrons have shifted.
The electric field between the layers is equivalent to the field of
a flat capacitor [160, p. 11]. The strength of this field 𝐸𝐸 is defined by
the surface charge density 𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 on the "plates" of the capacitor:
𝐸𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 = 4𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,
where 𝑒𝑒 is the electron charge, 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 is the electron concentration, 𝑥𝑥 is
the layer displacement.
The electron in the layer is affected by the attractive force from
the side of the ions: 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 2 𝑥𝑥. The movement of electrons un-
der its influence leads to a change in the displacement of the layer.
The equation of motion of an electron in the field of this force is
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 2 𝑥𝑥,
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
where 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 is the electron mass. It describes harmonic oscillations with
a frequency

386
 𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝 = �4𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 2 /𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 .

This frequency is called plasma or Langmuir frequency.

The electron layer is attracted to the positive layer, passes it by
inertia, is again attracted, and so on.
The oscillations of the electron layer determine the mechanism
for restoring quasi-neutrality. On average, for many periods of oscil-
lations, the considered region of a solid can be considered neutral.
Therefore, the time scale of charges separation in a solid body is de-
termined by the value
𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 = 1/𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝 ,

as in the plasma.
The distance by which an electron with a thermal velocity 𝑣𝑣𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒 =
�𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒 /𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 , where 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒 is the temperature of electrons in [K], is displaced
during 1/𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝 , characterizes the spatial scale of charge separation as-
sociated with thermal motion of charged particles [160, p. 12]:

𝑣𝑣𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒
𝑟𝑟𝐷𝐷 = =� .
𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝 4𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 2

Using this formula, we find the spatial scale of charge separation

in copper at typical electron temperatures: room 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒 = 0.025 [eV] =
293o [K] = 20o [C] and corresponding to the electron energy in an
external electric field 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒 = 10 [eV], that is, when passing a potential
difference of 10 [V]. The concentration of free electrons in copper
𝑛𝑛Cu is estimated in sec. 23.6.1, p. 441: 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 ~ 2⋅1023 [1/cm3 ]. In the
first case, we get 𝑟𝑟𝐷𝐷 = 2.6⋅10−10 [cm], in the second – 𝑟𝑟𝐷𝐷 =
5.3⋅10−9 [cm]. The 𝑟𝑟𝐷𝐷 found turn out to be smaller than the intera-
tomic distance in copper 𝑟𝑟Cu ~ 2⋅10−8 [cm] (see p. 441).). The reason

387
for such small 𝑟𝑟𝐷𝐷 is the relatively low temperature and high concen-
tration of electrons in the solid compared with the plasma.
It follows from this that atoms in the solid will not allow free
electrons to break electroneutrality at interatomic distances, that is,
they will be allowed to move only at distances smaller than intera-
tomic ones.
So, if free electrons are present in a conductor, then they are al-
most immobile at interatomic distances and the application of a small
potential difference to the conductor (or placing a conductor in a field
with a small potential difference) cannot cause an electric current re-
sulted by the motion of free electrons, and charge concentration in
certain parts of the conductor. But the current and concentration of
charges are observed in experiments with conductors even at very low
voltages.
Thus, the electron theory of conductivity in the solid body con-
tains an internal contradiction: on the one hand, free electrons are con-
sidered to be moving freely between collisions with atoms, on the
other hand, free electrons in the absence of significant external forces
cannot move from atoms at distances greater than interatomic, and
cannot form clusters on scales larger than interatomic.

23.2.2. Problems of experiments interpretation in the elec-

tronic theory of conductivity

In modern physics, the excitation and flow of electric current in

a conductor are associated exclusively with the free electrons motion
in it [28, 31, 34]. In experiments with electrolytes and gas discharges,
the motion of charged particles is observed directly. However, the
study of publications for two hundred years on the fundamental re-
search of the electric current in the wires shows that the direct motion
of electrons inside the metal has never been observed.
We note once again, that the theory of free electrons in the solid
conductor contains an internal contradiction, see sec. 23.2.1.

388
 Besides, the attribution of the main role to electrons in the trans-
fer of electric current in the conductor leads to great problems with
the interpretation of many experiments. Here are some examples.
In the physics of the XX century, the Tolman – Stewart experiment
is regarded as the main evidence of the electric current transport in met-
als by electrons [32, p. 226; 34, p. 332]. However, as shown in sec.
23.6.1, if in the generally accepted interpretation of this experiment to
take into account the basic equation of the electronic theory of conduc-
tivity 𝐣𝐣 = 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝐯𝐯𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (where 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 is the number of conduction electrons per
unit volume, 𝐯𝐯𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is the average speed of their ordered motion) and take
into account in Newton’s second law, used in this interpretation, the
collision of electrons with conductor atoms, a large number of which
occurs at times of the order of coil braking time (see p. 442), then the
conclusion from the Tolman – Stewart experiments about the current
transport in the conductor by free electrons cannot be done.
The Kettering and Scott experiment is considered as a generali-
zation of the Tolman – Stewart experiment [28, p. 413]. The basic
equation of the electronic theory of conductivity is already used in the
interpretation of the Kettering – Scott experiment. However, the col-
lision of electrons with atoms is still not taken into account. During
the characteristic time of the coil vibration, a huge number of such
collisions occur (see p. 442), which makes to be wrong the assump-
tion, used in the analysis of the experience, that the electrons move
only under the action of an electric field.
From the etheric point of view, in the Kettering – Scott experi-
ment, as in the Tolman – Stewart experiment, the ether flow plays a
major role (see sec. 23.6.1), and the motion of free electrons in the
conductor, if any, is a secondary effect. That is, these experiments can
be considered as confirmation of the existence of the ether.
Another important confirmation of the electronic theory of the
conductance of metals is assumed in physics to be the Wiedemann –
Franz law. However, it is shown in sec. 21.11 that for its explanation
the presence of free electrons in the metal is not required.

389
 As already noted in sec. 9, it is known from experiments that the
excited current at one end of a long conductor appears at the other end
much faster than the characteristic time of electrons motion in it. Ac-
cording to, for example, [28, p. 214], the speed of the ordered motion
of electrons in metals is not more than a few centimeters per second,
and in electrolytes it is even smaller. Therefore, the almost instanta-
neous transfer of energy through the wire is not explained by the pos-
sible motion of electrons in it.
In experiments with the explosion of wires by electric current
(sec. 18.10), electrons cannot be the main carrier of the electric cur-
rent energy, since the electrons have time to pass through only a small
part of the wire length before the explosion of the entire wire.
Thus, in the generally accepted interpretation of the current flow
in the wire there is an inconsistency: on the one hand, free electrons
inside the conductor are considered to be the current carrier, on the
other hand, we quote [32, p. 398]: “the energy transmitted by the elec-
tric current moves in the space surrounding the conductor”, and “the
electro-magnetic energy flows into the conductor from the surround-
ing space through its side surface”. In this interpretation, natural ques-
tions arise. Why, for example, in the Joule – Lenz law for the current
thermal power density [36, p. 462], in the expression for the circuit
power (185) and in the formula for the current energy [36, p. 462],
values of the current density and total current are considered inside
the wire, and not in the outer area of the wire? If energy flows into the
wire through the side surface, then how does it forms around this sur-
face, what is the mechanism of its propagation along the surface and
what exactly happens with the energy when it flows into the wire? If
the electromagnetic field is transferred outside the wire and can exist
without electrons, then why do we need to introduce the concept of
free electrons? The penetration of the magnetic field into the metal,
including the skin effect of the high-frequency current, is described
by the magnetic field diffusion equation [28, p. 63], which does not

390
include the parameters of electrons. Then why is it necessary to asso-
ciate the energy of an electric current in a metal with the motion of
free electrons? If free electrons in a conductor are not needed to ex-
plain the current energy, and only an electromagnetic field is needed,
then this confirms the etheric current mechanism, since the field is a
manifestation of the ether motion.
Finding answers to these and other questions under the refusal
from the concept of media, where all processes take place, led physics
to the need of constructing a difficult to interpret quantum theory,
based on the Schrödinger equation. In physics, it is believed that only
quantum theory allows one to construct a dynamic theory of electrical
conductivity, consistent with experiment [28, p. 185].
However, as shown in this book, almost all problems of interpre-
tation and contradictions in physics are easily resolved by accepting
that the processes in nature do not occur in the vacuum, but in some
media – the ether. Herewith, instead of postulating the principles and
the Schrödinger equation for a hard to interpret wave function, only
two initial completely natural conservation laws (4)–(6) are applied:
for the quantity of matter and the quantity of its momentum.
In the etheric interpretation, the electric current in the conductor
is a vortex flow of the ether, see details in sec. 12. All the experimen-
tally known electrodynamic formulas remain in force or are refined
and, as extremely important for understanding the basics of the world,
receive a single theoretical substantiation as a logical consequence of
a very small number of initial premises – the ether equations (4)–(6).
In the etheric representation, the transport of the electric current
energy density, as well as the energy density of any other ether mo-
tion, is described by the vector potential, see sec. 2.3. Sec. 18.9 shows
that the Umov – Poynting vector, used in physics, was introduced ar-
tificially. Therefore, considering on its basis the current energy in a
conductor, see, for example: [32, p. 398], does not reveal the essence
of the general laws.

391
 As another example, consider the elimination of contradictions in
the generally accepted interpretation of the transmission of electric
current from a power plant over long distances. The question is that if
the alternating current energy in the wire (phase) is carried by free
electrons that oscillate under the action of an alternating electric field,
then why do we need a second grounded wire (neutral), which, ac-
cording to electrical engineering, acts as a separate conductor
[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_grid]? After all, the electrons in the
wire phase, as in the electrolyte, should be able to perform work due
to their vibrations.
In the etheric sense, a power station is a source of excess or re-
duced ether pressure (electric potential, see formula (74)), and the
Earth is a very large volume reservoir having its own quasi-constant
ether pressure (quasi-constant potential). Naturally, by equalizing the
ether overpressure or underpressure (or energy density, see sec. 1.4),
work is done in the phase wire. Such an equalization takes place, for
example, if the free ether flow between the wire and the external en-
vironment is ensured, which is done, for example, in the case of good
grounding.
Generally speaking, the ether understanding of electric current
does not require a closed contour or contact with the Earth to perform
work. It is necessary only to ensure in one way or another the outflow
of the ether from the wire or its inflow into the wire.
Thus, seemingly at first glance, the philosophical understanding
of the matter nature as the ether motion allows to begin the justified
development of fundamentally new sources of electric current and
single-conductor energy transfer systems, ignoring the questions from
where the free electrons appear and where will they go.
In other words, it is necessary to learn how to use the ether flow
in nature. For example, near the surface of the Earth there is a fairly
strong electric field ~130 [V/m] (see, for example: [28, p. 82]),
which at a person’s height gives a voltage drop (difference of the ether

392
pressure) ~200 [V] (see also a discussion on p. 587). And the poten-
tial difference between the surface of the Earth and the upper layers
of the atmosphere is ~400 [kV]. The presence of a steady state elec-
tric field, according to (72), means the presence of the ether pressure
gradient. In order to use such potential (pressure) differences, it is
necessary to create somehow the conditions for equalizing the ether
pressure between the end of the grounded wire placed above the
Earth’s surface (the pressure of the ether in the Earth) and the pressure
of the ether in the air surrounding this end. At present, the main known
method of equalizing the ether pressures is the direct contact of two
conductors of electric current or dense bodies. But the air is neither a
good conductor, nor a dense body, therefore the transfer of the ether
pressure in the air to the wire is hampered.
Note interesting studies on the development and application of
single-conductor power transmission systems [156]. However, in
these systems, the task of creating a resonant motion of the ether in
the conductor is considered, but not the task of providing a free ether
flow through the end or surface of the conductor.

23.2.3. Calculation of the ether flow inside the wire

In the general case, the calculation of the ether flow inside the wire
requires an accurate formulation of a mathematical problem for the
ether equations. It is necessary to adequately describe the effect of the
current source; set boundary conditions at the ends and the surface of
the wire, describing the interaction of the ether flow with the external
media; build a model of the atomic structure of the conductor, affecting
the ether flow; put the initial conditions. In the simplest approximation,
such a problem is solved in sec. 21.9. However, the consideration of
this problem in the general case is a matter of further research.
Here we will demonstrate the application of the ether theory meth-
odology with the example of a quantitative analysis of another simpli-
fied problem: finding the radial dependences of the ether velocity and

393
density in the wire and related quantities. We will look for steady state
density 𝜌𝜌 and velocity 𝐮𝐮 of the ether inside an infinite rectilinear cylin-
drical wire that does not have free charges. We introduce a cylindrical
coordinate system (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑, 𝑧𝑧) with unit basis vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 , 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 where the
vector 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 is directed along the wire. Let the current source create inside
the conductor an electric field 𝐄𝐄0 = 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 (1 + 𝛼𝛼)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ,, where 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 is a
given constant, and the function 𝛼𝛼, to be determined from the solution
of the problem, describes the self-consistency of the current source
field and the ether flow. The interaction of the ether flow with the struc-
tural elements of the wire will be described using Ohm's law (146)

𝐣𝐣 = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐄𝐄, (289)

where 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 is the electrical conductivity, 𝐄𝐄 is the electric field resulting

from the motion of the ether in the wire.
In the steady state, at the absence of sources of the ether density
and the presence of the external impact 𝐄𝐄0 , the density and speed of
the ether in the wire must satisfy the equations of state (15), continuity
(22), Ampere (34), motion (72), the ether representation of the current
density (133) and Ohm's Law (146)

𝑝𝑝 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 (𝜌𝜌∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 − 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 )

⎧
⎪ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = 0
⎪
𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐮𝐮|2 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣
. (290)
⎨ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐄𝐄0
⎪
⎪ 𝐣𝐣 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮
⎩ 𝐣𝐣 = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐄𝐄

Take the gradient from the first equation. Substitute 𝐄𝐄 from the
fourth equation into Ohm's law. We obtain the expression for 𝐣𝐣, which
we use in the fifth equation. And we have

394
 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = −𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 )
⎧
⎪ 𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = 0
2
𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐮𝐮| 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = 4𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 .
⎨ 1
⎪ 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 + 𝐄𝐄0 � = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮
⎩ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Take into account the formula for 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 in the fourth equation

𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = 0
2
�𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐮𝐮| 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = 4𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 .
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ) + 𝐄𝐄0 ) = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮

Substituting 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 from the third equation into the right side of
the second, we come to a system of four equations with four unknowns

𝛁𝛁 ∙ (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = 0
� . (291)
𝛁𝛁 × �|𝐮𝐮| 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = 4𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ) + 𝐄𝐄0 )
2

These equations have a large variety of different solutions. This

means that in the wire one can organize many different ether flows.
Some analytical formulas for the sought functions 𝜌𝜌, 𝐮𝐮, 𝛼𝛼 can be
constructed using, for example, the Maple symbolic computation sys-
tem. However, in general, these formulas are very cumbersome.
In order to obtain simple expressions, we will search for a solu-
tion of (291) in the form 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟), 𝐮𝐮 = 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑟𝑟)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , 𝛼𝛼 = 𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟), |𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟)| ≪
1. The flow model with a constant ether flow density 𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟)𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 (𝑟𝑟)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧
along the wire corresponds to the steady state flow, resulting from the
balance between accelerating it force and the decelerating force
caused by the resistance of the medium. Besides, in the second equa-
tion of the system (291) we neglect the function 𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟) compared to
unity, that is, consider the source of the field in the form 𝐄𝐄0 = 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .

395
In this case, the following functions satisfy the system (291) with
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

64
𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟) = ,
(𝐶𝐶1 𝑟𝑟 2 − 2𝐶𝐶2 ln 𝑟𝑟 − 𝐶𝐶2 + 2𝐶𝐶3 )2
1 (292)
�𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 𝐶𝐶12 �3
𝐮𝐮(𝑟𝑟) = (𝐶𝐶1 𝑟𝑟 2 − 2𝐶𝐶2 ln 𝑟𝑟 − 𝐶𝐶2 + 2𝐶𝐶3 )𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ,
4𝐶𝐶1

where 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , 𝐶𝐶3 are arbitrary constants.

Such a current of the ether does not create an electric field in the
wire additional to the source, since 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = 0. The electric field calcu-
lated by the solution (292) is directed along the wire

1
𝐄𝐄 = − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 + 𝐄𝐄0 = 𝛁𝛁(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮2 ) + 𝐄𝐄0 = 𝐄𝐄0 = 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 . (293)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

This field, up to the small terms |𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟)| ≪ 1, omitted to simplify the

solution of the system (291), coincides with the original, not simpli-
fied field of the current source 𝐄𝐄0 = 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 (1 + 𝛼𝛼)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧

𝐄𝐄 = 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ≈ 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 (1 + 𝛼𝛼)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 . (294)

We emphasize once again that the approximation |𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟)| ≪ 1 for

𝐄𝐄0 , used for solving the system (292), was introduced only because
of the desire to obtain relatively simple expressions for 𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟) and 𝐮𝐮(𝑟𝑟).
The Maple system finds solutions 𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟), 𝐮𝐮(𝑟𝑟) for an arbitrary function
𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟), but gives too cumbersome to analyze formulas.
In the general case, the 𝐄𝐄 field in the wire may be different from
𝐄𝐄0 due to the appearance of a nonzero ether pressure gradient 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝.
The magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) (20) inside the wire on the
solution (292) has only the azimuth component

396
 1/3
32𝑐𝑐�𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 𝐶𝐶12 � 𝐶𝐶1 𝑟𝑟 2 − 𝐶𝐶2
𝐁𝐁(𝑟𝑟) = 𝐢𝐢 .
𝐶𝐶1 𝑟𝑟(𝐶𝐶1 𝑟𝑟 2 − 2𝐶𝐶2 ln 𝑟𝑟 − 𝐶𝐶2 + 2𝐶𝐶3 )2 𝜑𝜑

Let us analyze formulas (292) in the case of the limited speed at

small 𝑟𝑟, that is, at 𝐶𝐶2 = 0:

64
𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟) = ,
(𝐶𝐶1 𝑟𝑟 2 + 2𝐶𝐶3 )2
1/3
�𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 𝐶𝐶12 �
𝐮𝐮(𝑟𝑟) = (𝐶𝐶1 𝑟𝑟 2 + 2𝐶𝐶3 )𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .
4𝐶𝐶1

The constants 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶3 can be found, for example, by the known
(measured) current density on the wire axis 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 |𝑟𝑟=0 = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 (1 +
𝛼𝛼(0)) ≈ 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 and the equality of the ether density 𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟) on the sur-
face of the wire 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟0 to some characteristic density 𝜌𝜌∗ : 𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟0 ) ≈ 𝜌𝜌∗ .
However, the second condition leads to too bulky formulas. Compact
formulas are obtained if 𝐶𝐶3 is determined from the condition of prox-
imity for all small 𝑟𝑟 of the ether density to the characteristic density:
𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟) ≈ 𝜌𝜌∗ . Then
3
4 8𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝐶𝐶3 ≈ , 𝐶𝐶1 ≈ 2,
�𝜌𝜌∗ �𝜌𝜌∗3 �𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 �
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧
𝜌𝜌(𝑟𝑟) = 𝜌𝜌∗ 𝜉𝜉 −2 (𝑟𝑟), 𝐮𝐮(𝑟𝑟) = 𝜉𝜉(𝑟𝑟)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , (295)
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
3
𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 2
𝜉𝜉(𝑟𝑟) ≡ 1 + 2 𝑟𝑟 .
𝜌𝜌∗ �𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 �

At that
2
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝐁𝐁(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟𝜉𝜉 −2 (𝑟𝑟)𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 . (296)
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧

397
 It remains to find the function 𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟), which describes the effect of
the ether flow on the electric field created in the wire by the current
source. This function fell out of solution (292) as a result of using the
condition | α (r) | ≪1 in the fourth equation of the system (290), which
greatly simplifies the formulas for its solution. In the remaining equa-
tions of the system (290), we will not apply this approximation. We
define 𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟) so that Ohm's law (289) (the sixth equation in (290))
holds true with not simplified electric field (293), but with a field
(294), that takes into account the correction 𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟).
The consistency of the electric field, created by the source, with
the ether flow in the wire is described by the last two equations of the
system (290)

𝐣𝐣 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮,
𝐣𝐣 = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐄𝐄 = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 (1 + 𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟))𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .

From here

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 �1 + 𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟)�𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .

Substituting the solution 𝐮𝐮 = 𝐮𝐮(𝑟𝑟) into (295), we find 𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟)

𝜉𝜉(𝑟𝑟)𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 = �1 + 𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟)�𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ,
𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟) = 𝜉𝜉(𝑟𝑟) − 1.

The condition |𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟)| ≪ 1, partially used to solve the system

(290), is satisfied, at least, at the sufficiently small wire radius 𝑟𝑟0 , that
is, for a thin conductor:

𝜌𝜌∗
𝑟𝑟0 < 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 �� 3 .
𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

398
 Formulas (295), (296) allow to draw important conclusions.
At an increase of the current density |𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 | = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 (1 + 𝛼𝛼(𝑟𝑟))�
the magnetic field inside the conductor falls. This explains the Meiss-
ner – Ochsenfeld effect, according to which the magnetic field is
pushed out of the conductor during the transition to the superconduc-
tivity mode 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 → ∞, see, for example: [28, p. 320].
The increase of conductivity 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 leads to a weakening of the ether
density and velocity dependences on the radius. That is, the ether flow
density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 becomes constant along the radius.
Maximum magnetic field inside the thin conductor

3√3𝜋𝜋
𝐵𝐵max = 𝑐𝑐�𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌∗
8

is achieved either in the conductor at

𝜌𝜌∗
𝑟𝑟max = 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸0,𝑧𝑧 � 3 , if 𝑟𝑟max ≤ 𝑟𝑟0 ,
3𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

or on the surface of the conductor 𝑟𝑟0 , if 𝑟𝑟max > 𝑟𝑟0 .

The maximum value of |𝐁𝐁| at 𝑟𝑟max < 𝑟𝑟0 is determined only by
the characteristic ether density 𝜌𝜌∗ . If the value of 𝜌𝜌∗ is close to the
density of the unperturbed ether 𝜌𝜌∗ ≈ 𝜌𝜌0 (227), then |𝐁𝐁| < 𝐵𝐵max ≈
1.6 [MGauss] = 160 [T]. This result resolves the problem of the un-
limited increase of the magnetic field in Oersted's law (105) near the
wire axis, since inside the wire the expression for the magnetic field
(296) has a different dependence on the radius, which does not contain
a singularity on the axis.
The influence of the ether velocity distribution inside the wire on
the magnetic field and the current density created in it in the presence
of various external influences is discussed in sec. 12.4.

399
 The presence of the formula relating the velocity 𝐮𝐮(𝑟𝑟) with other
ether parameters allows to propose an experiment for estimating the
characteristic ether density inside the wire 𝜌𝜌∗ . Herewith, one should
apply the most accurate formula for 𝐮𝐮(𝑟𝑟) without using the simplifi-
cations made by us only to obtain simple expressions.
If in the steady state to create a small constant current disturbance
at one end of the wire and measure the time of this disturbance arrival
to the other end, then the ratio of the wire length to this time will give
an estimate of the ether motion speed in the wire. According to (133),
the ether speed the wire with a cross section of 2.5 [mm2 ] at the cur-
rent of 0.1 [A] is ~1.8 ∙ 106 [cm/s], which is much smaller than the
speed of light. Therefore, it is possible to estimate the time of disturb-
ance arrival by the delay relative to the light signal. Substituting the
found speed and the measured current density 𝐣𝐣 into the formula for
𝐮𝐮(𝑟𝑟), we find 𝜌𝜌∗ . The results of the proposed experiment will serve
as additional evidence of the existence of the ether.
We emphasize once again that only the simplest problem of the
constant along a wire electric current has been considered and ana-
lyzed here. The formulation and solution of more complex problems,
including for alternating current, will allow a deep study of the elec-
tric current flow mechanism. New knowledge will open the way for
improving the current transmission methods and developing new de-
vices for its generation.

23.3. Experiments with a unipolar generator.

Aspden's effect

Particular interest to experiments with a unipolar generator is

caused by the absence in physics of a convincing explanation for the
emf arising in it. Such difficulties usually indicate the need to take
into account the ether effects, since modern physics completely ex-
cludes them from consideration. Sec. 18.11 gives a clear etheric inter-
pretation of the emf appearance in a unipolar generator as a result of

400
the generalized Zhukovsky force emergence in a disk rotating in a
magnetic field.
In order to compare the electron and the ether theories of conduc-
tivity and the application of the ether theory of the unipolar generator
(sec. 18.11) to the analysis of experimental data, the authors, together
with I.N. Stepanov and V.A. Chizhov designed a unipolar generator
and conducted a series of experiments with it. The design is based on
the ideas of the unipolar N-machine of Bruce de Palma, see, for exam-
ple: [125, p. 72–75]. The scheme of this machine is shown in fig. 10.

Fig. 10. Scheme of the N-machine of Bruce de Palma.

Below is a fairly detailed description of the installation and meas-

urements so that similar experiments can be replicated in any laboratory.
A copper disk 6.5 [mm] thick and two magnets close to it on both
sides are fixed on a copper shaft with a diameter of 15 [mm], con-
nected through an insulator with an electric motor. Each magnet has

401
thickness of 15 [mm] and radius of 𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢 = 40 [mm]. Copper disk also
has radius 𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢 .
We emphasize that the use of a copper disk with larger than mag-
net diameter, leads to the weakening of the generated current, since in
the protruding from the surface of the magnet part of the disk the
countercurrent occurs due to a change of the direction of the magnetic
field to opposite near the side surface of the magnet.
The change of the magnetic field to the opposite also takes place
on the side surface of the hole in the center of the magnet, fig. 10. Such
a change also weakens the current if it is taken off from the contact
with the axis. However, this current attenuation is less noticeable due
to the lower linear speed of rotation around the axis (207) for 𝛼𝛼 > 0.
Magnetic field measurements were carried out using an ATE-
8702 magnetometer, which has an error of ±0.0001 [T]. Prior to in-
stallation of the magnets on the axis, the magnitude of the magnetic
field was determined when their planes approached 6.5 [mm ]. The
magnitude of the field in this gap was ≈ 0.4 [T]. Measurements par-
allel to the axis of rotation of the field near the external planes of the
magnets in a configuration mounted with a copper disk yielded
0.34 ± 0.001 [T]. This field rapidly decreases with distance from the
magnet and at a distance of ~7 [cm] becomes equal to ~0.01 [T]. The
field perpendicular to the axis of rotation near the flat and lateral sides
of the magnet is also small ~0.007 [T]. The magnetic field at the lo-
cation of the measuring devices is close to zero. The magnetic field
from the electric motor at a distance from which begins part of the
axis, having a conductive contact with the magnets, is negligible. The
results of measurements of the magnetic field in stationary and rotat-
ing states with different angular speeds practically do not differ.
The rotational frequency of the disks 𝑛𝑛 was determined with the
DT2234B tachometer. The magnitude of the angular speed of rotation
|𝛚𝛚| is associated with the frequency 𝑛𝑛, measured in [rotations/min],
by the equation |𝛚𝛚| = 2π𝑛𝑛/60 [rad/s].

402
 To improve the reliability of the measurements, various digital and
analogue multimeters were used, including: UT71E, MAS838, M890G,
SP-110. The multimeter UT71E is 5-digid, MAS838 is 3.5-digit.
Instrument readings were taken by connecting copper wires with
a cross section of 1.5 [mm2 ] to the axis of rotation and the outer con-
tour of the copper disk. The contact resistance at the point of contact
with the rotating elements of the installation was controlled and did
not have a significant effect on the measurements.
In the stationary state of the generator, the measurement of the
resistance of the circuit between the axis and the outer side of the cop-
per disk using a UT71E multimeter gave a value of the order of this
device error – smaller than 0.009 [Ω]. Measurements with other mul-
timeters using shunts showed a similar magnitude. Estimation using
the table value of copper resistivity 0.17 ∙ 10−9 [Ohm ∙ m] on a sec-
tion of a chain with a length of 0.08 [m] with the cross section of
probes contact 0.2 [mm2 ] gives a value of 0.007 [Ω]. Thus, accord-
ing to measurements and theoretical calculations, the resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑢𝑢 of
the considered unipolar generator is small.
It is known from experiments that the magnetoresistance of most
metals, including copper, is small at temperatures of ~20 C0 in a con-
stant magnetic field of up to 2 [T]. The increment of resistance in such
conditions is only ~0.01 % [121, p. 738, left column, bottom]. There-
fore, the resistance of the copper disk, located in the unipolar generator
between the magnets, remains almost the same as without the magnets.
The inductive resistance, according to the equation (195), does
not affect the current in the steady state, when the parameters of the
circuit cease to vary in time (see also [28, p. 541]).
Thus, due to the smallness of 𝑅𝑅𝑢𝑢 , the recorded electric current
can strongly depend on the resistance 𝑅𝑅 of the electrical circuit 𝐼𝐼 =
ℰЖ / (𝑅𝑅𝑢𝑢 + 𝑅𝑅) connected to it in series.
Digital multimeters have a feature that must be considered when
measuring the electric current in the unipolar generator. With the help
of two multimeters, one of which is in the ohmmeter mode, and the

403
second in ampermeter mode, one can verify that the internal resistance
of the digital ampermeter decreases with decreasing sensitivity. For
example, in the multimeter MAS838, the modes 2, 20, 200,
10000 [10−3 A] correspond to its internal resistances 105, 15, 6.4,
0.7 [Ohm]. As a result, in 10 [A] mode, a much higher current will be
registered in the circuit consisting only of a unipolar generator and
this digital ampermeter, than in the mode 2 [10−3 A].
At an increase in the rotation frequency 𝑛𝑛 from 200 ± 5 to
2500 ± 25 [rpm] a voltage ℰЖ and a current measured by MAS838
in the mode 2 [10−3 A], changed linearly from 0.00400 ± 0.0001 to
0.0710 ± 0.0005 [V] and from 0.051±0.001 to 0.687±0.001 [10−3 A].
The linear dependence of the voltage on the angular speed in the ex-
periment is appropriate to the formula (208) obtained in sec. 18.11 for
the Zhukovsky emf ℰЖ . Changing of rotation direction led to a change
in the sign of the voltage and the current to the opposite. Herewith,
their absolute values differed only in the third significant figure.
The resistance of a circuit section is equal to the ratio of the volt-
age and current measured on it. For all considered rotational frequen-
cies, it turned out to be approximately 100 [Ohm], which corresponds
to the internal resistance of MAS838 in the mode 2 [10−3 A]. That is,
the resistance of the circuit consisting of a unipolar generator and a
digital ampermeter is determined by the resistance of the ampermeter.
We emphasize that the current in the circuit with a unipolar gen-
erator can be very large even at low emf. For example, in the case of
a short circuit of the axis and the external circumference of a unipolar
generator, the resistance of the circuit is determined by the resistance
of the generator and the current 𝐼𝐼 = ℰЖ /𝑅𝑅𝑢𝑢 can be greater than
0.071 [V] / 0.007 [Ohm] = 10 [A] at a rotation frequency of 2500
[rpm]. However, the flow of such a current can be impeded by an
increased resistance at the contacts, which can be worse "penetrated"
at low voltage. In practice, liquid conductors are used in the contacts
of unipolar generators.

404
 The electronic theory of conductivity explains the various prop-
erties of matter by the existence and motion of electrons in it, see, for
example: [34, sec. 147–150; 36, p. 376–378]. In the classical electron
theory of metals, it is assumed that the motion of electrons obeys the
laws of classical Newtonian mechanics, the interaction of electrons
between themselves is neglected, and the interaction of electrons with
positive ions of the crystal lattice is reduced only to collisions. In other
words, conduction electrons are considered as an electron gas, similar
to an ideal atomic gas of molecular physics [34, p. 336; 36, p. 376].
Here are the experimental facts showing that the electric current
in the copper disk of the considered unipolar generator is not ex-
plained by the rotation of the magnet and is not explained by the elec-
tronic theory of conductivity.
1. The impact of a permanent magnet, rotating along the north –
south axis and having a cylindrically symmetric relative to this
axis magnetic field, is considered in physics, which general-
izes experimental facts, equivalent to the effect of a motion-
less magnet field. For example, such a rotation does not create
a current in a unipolar machine with the still copper disk [127;
157, sec. 2, example 1], does not affect differently the needle
and the other magnet [157, sec. 3.2], does not change the lo-
cation of the metal shavings. This effect can be explained by
the fact that even at rotation with low speed, the domain's cur-
rent in a relatively small area of space inside the magnet
quickly changes to the current of another domain, and the field
outside the magnet, determined by a very large number of do-
mains, depends weakly on this change. Thus, the action of the
magnetic field in a rotating and stationary generator is the
same. Therefore, the rotation of the magnet does not explain
the appearance of the current in the copper disk.
2. The electric current cannot be explained by the centrifugal ef-
fect of free electrons, since then the sign of the current would

405
 not depend on the direction of the rotation, but in the experi-
ment the sign of the current changes when the direction of ro-
tation of the generator changes. Besides, a simple analysis per-
formed in sec. 23.2.1, shows that free electrons in a solid con-
ductor, in the absence of strong external influences, can devi-
ate from the ions of the crystal lattice only by distances smaller
than the interatomic ones.
3. The effect of circular motion of electrons together with a disk
also does not explain the appearance of a current.
Before the start of rotation, there is no electric field.
If we assume that free electrons begin to rotate in an or-
derly manner together with the disk, then the magnetic com-
ponent of the Lorentz force begins to act on them. However,
the magnetic field prevents the motion of charged particles
across it due to occurrence of the Larmor rotation under the
action of the magnetic component of the Lorentz force (mag-
netic trap). In the unipolar generator, for a linear velocity
~5 [m/s] of electrons rotating with disk across the magnetic
field of 0.4 [T], the Larmor radius would be 7. 1 ∙ 10−11 [m],
which is significantly less than the average interatomic dis-
tance in copper (see sec. 23.6.1, p. 441). Under such condi-
tions, electrons would be trapped by a magnetic field in copper
and could not move radially in an orderly manner. Therefore,
the radial electric current should not occur during rotation. A
radial electric field that was absent before the start of rotation
should not appear as well, since according to Ohm’s law it is
proportional to the current.
Besides, if in the unipolar generator the current was carried
by electrons as a result of some effect different from the Lorentz
force, then a large current would be observed when turning off
the longitudinal to the rotating axis magnetic field, which ob-

406
 structs motion of electrons along the radius. However, shut-
down of the magnetic field does not increase the current, but,
on the contrary, reduces it to barely noticeable values [167].
In the general case, to test the role of electrons in the
transport of the electric current in a conductor, one can suggest
an experiment similar to [171, p. 478–480], in which the com-
plete disappearance of the anode current is achieved by in-
creasing of the magnetic field. To carry out such an experi-
ment, it is necessary to ensure the possibility of the constant
magnetic field creating of different magnitudes in the direction
transverse to the wire. Emf source should be taken sufficiently
weak so that the electric term in the Lorentz force can be made
noticeably smaller than the magnetic term, in which the aver-
age velocity of the directed motion of the electrons is set from
the electronic theory of conductance. If the electric current in
the circuit does not depend on the magnitude of the magnetic
field transverse to the wire, it is not the electrons that deter-
mine the current flow, since, according to the equation of the
charge motion under the action of the magnetic component of
the Lorentz force, the electron is locked due to Larmor rotation
and its motion along the wire in a weak electric field is signif-
icantly hampered. It should be expected that the proposed ex-
periment will confirm the etheric nature of the electrical con-
ductivity of metals, since it is already known from experi-
ments that their magnetoresistance under typical conditions is
extremely small [121, p. 738, left column, bottom].
4. The electric current in the unipolar generator cannot be ex-
plained by the electromagnetic induction law, since in the con-
struction under consideration the flux of the magnetic field
through the plane of the closed measuring circuit (frame) is
zero. Moreover, the experiment with a frame rotating with a
magnet and a disk (that is, fixed relative to them) shows the

407
 appearance of emf and the current, despite the fact that the
frame in this case does not move relative to the field.
So, in the rotating state of the generator the same magnetic field
acts in the copper disk as in the stationary state. The appearing current
cannot be explained by the centrifugal motion of electrons or their
rotation with the disk. The law of electromagnetic induction gives
zero current. However, the electric current is observed during rota-
tion. Thus, the electron theory of conductivity cannot explain the ap-
pearance of a current in the unipolar generator, that is, not electrons
are the main carrier of the current. A different model is required to
describe the mechanism of this effect.
The ether theory gives a simple and understandable explanation
of the electric current occurrence in the unipolar generator. Since emf
is not explained by the motion of electrons, the rotating disk should
create a circular ether flow with a non-zero linear velocity 𝐕𝐕, other-
wise at 𝐕𝐕 = 0 emf would be absent, as in the case of a non-rotating
disk. The overlay of a circular ether flow and the vortex flow of the
magnetic field leads to the appearance in the radial direction of the
generalized Zhukovsky force (121), which creates different pressures
of the ether on the axis and the edge of the disk. The Zhukovsky emf
arises (208). A highly vortical (131) ether flow in the radial direction
appears – the electric current.
The circular ether motion, caused by the rotation of the disk struc-
tural elements, in combination with the radial one, induced by Zhu-
kovsky force, forms a spiral flow of the ether in the copper disk of the
unipolar generator. Let us estimate the parameters of this flow.
Measurement of a voltage, angular velocity and magnetic field
allows to calculate with formula (208) the value of the parameter 𝛼𝛼,
which describes the radial distribution of the ether tangential velocity
𝐕𝐕 (207). The value of 𝛼𝛼 is defined by the structure of the disk material
through which the ether radial flow moves. The value of 𝛼𝛼 turned out
to be equal to 1.3 for the whole considered range of rotational fre-
quencies 𝑛𝑛 ∈ [200,2500] [rpm]. The function (𝑟𝑟/𝑅𝑅)𝛼𝛼 at 𝛼𝛼 = 1.3 on

408
the interval 𝑟𝑟 ∈ [0.75,4] [cm] is close to linear. That is, the ether ro-
tates almost together with the disk. The nonlinearity at small 𝑟𝑟 can be
explained by a lower linear speed of the disk rotation near the axis, at
which it becomes more difficult for the circular motion of the disk
material structural elements to rotate the ether at the speed 𝐕𝐕.
The unipolar generator at 𝛼𝛼 ≠ −1 creates a vortex in the ether,
since 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕 ≠ 0, if 𝛼𝛼 ≠ −1. The magnitude of the magnetic field ap-
propriate to this vortex is calculated by the formula (20)
𝑟𝑟 𝛼𝛼
𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕) = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × �𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 � � 𝛚𝛚 × 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 �. (297)
𝑅𝑅
The vector 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 is directed along the axis of rotation in the case of the
ether density 𝜌𝜌, independent of the coordinate along this axis. For
𝜌𝜌 ~ 𝜌𝜌0 , where 𝜌𝜌0 is the unperturbed ether density (227), at the fre-
quency 𝑛𝑛 = 2500 [rpm] in the considered unipolar generator
|𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 | ~ 4 ∙ 10−4 [T] (see also sec. 23.6.6), which is much smaller than
the magnet field value.
The measured radial electric current density 𝑗𝑗𝑟𝑟 allows to find the
ether velocity in the radial direction 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 by the formula (133)

𝑗𝑗𝑟𝑟
𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 = .
𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

At a frequency of 𝑛𝑛 = 2500 [rpm], we get 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 ≈ ±3 [m/s]. The ra-

dial speed is comparable to the linear speed of the disk edge rotation
≈ ±10 [m/s] at the same frequency 𝑛𝑛, but when the resistance of the
circuit (ampermeter) decreases, the radial velocity can significantly
exceed the linear velocity.
Interesting experiments on the big unipolar generator with an
electromagnet are presented in video [158]. In these experiments, at
the frequency of 6000 [rpm], a significant current of 5000 [A] was
generated at a voltage of 1 [V]. Turning off and turning on the elec-
tromagnet led to a change in the generated current from zero to

409
5000 [A], but had practically no effect on the power consumption of
the motor driving the generator. It seemed that after re-turning on the
magnetic field, a power of 5000[W] appeared from nowhere. This re-
sult is explained with creation by the unipolar generator of the stable
ether vortex, which, due to the vortex momentum (magnetic field mo-
ment) conservation law, see sec. 10, tends to persist when the mag-
netic field is turned off. As a result, when the magnetic field is
switched on again, significantly smaller energy from the drive is re-
quired to maintain the ether vortex, which creates a current of
5000 [A] when interacting with the magnetic field vortex.
The conservation of the vortex momentum can also explain the
Aspden experiment [159; 125, p. 69]. In this experiment, the energy
of the electric motor spent on bringing the massive magnet into rota-
tion was analyzed. It is claimed that the energy required to spinup the
magnet turns out to be 20 times greater than the spinup energy of a
non-magnetic material of the same mass and shape, and after stopping
and restarting the system, no later than in a minute, 10 times smaller
energy is required to spinup the magnet. Unfortunately, the authors
could not find a detailed description of Aspden's experiments, allow-
ing to reproduce them. Nevertheless, in sec. 23.6.4, the possibility of
creating a phantom in the ether is demonstrated experimentally.

23.4. Electromagnetic wave impulse. About the EmDrive

engine

The corpuscular-wave duality of an electromagnetic wave ob-

served in experiments has a simple etheric interpretation. In the
etheric representation of an electromagnetic wave, the corpuscular ef-
fect refers to the manifestation of the longitudinal component of the
wave velocity (see, for example, the components 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧,0 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 and 𝑐𝑐𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 in for-
mulas (80), (220)), and wave effects – to the manifestation of the
transverse component of velocity.

410
 Podkletnov's experiment on counteracting gravity is explained by
transferring of an impulse of the ether to an object, see sec. 23.10.1.
In physics, these effects do not find a clear explanation.
For a full-value perception of a quasi-permanent ether flow 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 ≈
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, a material is required that poorly passes the ether through itself
(see in this connection sec. 23.10.2, 23.10.3), or, according to the
equation of motion (23), a barrier in the form of a strong ether pres-
sure gradient.
Therefore, from the etheric point of view, attempts to develop
engines based on the transmission of an electromagnetic wave im-
pulse to an object look quite natural.
Such attempts include the widely announced EmDrive project
[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF_resonant_cavity_thruster]. Information
about the strength of the EmDrive is contradictory: in some experi-
ments, including NASA, it is claimed that it exists, in others – that it
is absent [hi-news.ru/technology/nevozmozhnyj-dvigatel-okazalsya-
dejstvitelno-nevozmozh ny.html].
Physics, which has thrown out the concept of media (ether) from
the arsenal of its concepts, denies the possibility of creating EmDrive
by referring to the violation of the momentum conservation law
[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF_resonant_cavity_thruster]. In the etheric
sense, on the contrary, EmDrive is possible precisely in accordance
with the momentum conservation law.
The absence of emitted radiation in EmDrive, as well as the use
of a resonator chamber and superconducting plates [hi-tech.mail.ru/
news/emdrive] confirm the ether principle of its operation: the quasi-
constant ether flow is difficult to register, and a superconductor makes
it difficult for such a flow to move (sec. 23.10.2).
The exchange of momentum between the ether flow and matter,
as well as the general conditions for the effectiveness of this exchange
formulated in this section, should allow to purposefully improve the
design of the EmDrive for obtaining significant thrust. For example,
the strengthening of the barrier to the ether flow can be attempted to
achieve by rotating of the superconductor (sec. 23.6).

411
 23.5. Thermal conductivity of metals

In physics, it is believed that the heat carrier in metals is the ran-

dom motion of free electrons, and the role of ions in this process is
negligible [28, p. 185]. The random electron velocity in the metal 𝑣𝑣х
is estimated by the formula (237) for 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , see [28, p. 183].
However, sec. 21.6 shows that the thermal conductivity of met-
als, like other substances, can be explained without introducing the
hypothesis of the free electrons presence. Besides, the Wiedemann –
Franz law, according to sec. 21.11, does not require the existence of
free electrons in the metal, and is also carried out in the ether without
a substance.
The effect of heat conduction in a metal from the ether positions
is explained by the flow of newtonians in the form of thermal quanta
(sec. 21.6) and their interaction with the structural elements of the
metal crystal lattice.
Below, we compare the consequences of the ether model of ther-
mal conductivity with experimental data. The quantitative agreement
between the theory and the experiment confirms the adequacy of the
ether model of metals thermal conductivity.
In this section, the simplest problems of heat conduction in a
metal are solved accounting the ether processes and the technique of
applying the ether theory to study this phenomenon is demonstrated.

23.5.1. Thermal conductivity in a field of gravitational force

Important for the understanding of fundamental processes in na-

ture and at the same time relatively simple experiment was conducted
by A.R. Lepeshkin, see his report dated 02.22.2017 on the site
[шаровая-молния.орг]. The thermal conductivity (more precisely,
temperature conductivity) of chrome-plated nickel alloy wire parts
was studied – a material similar to that used in an aircraft turbine

412
blade. A piece of wire with a length of 2𝑙𝑙 = 20 [cm] was placed in-
side a tube with a good vacuum. A microheater was located in the
middle of the wire, see fig. 11. During the experiment, the tempera-
ture of the microheater changed from 20o to 70o [C]. Thermocouples
were installed at the ends 1 and 2 of the wire. In the vertical position
of the wire, the temperature ~30o [C] on the lower thermocouple was
established in 𝑡𝑡1 ≈ 52 [s], on the upper one – in 𝑡𝑡2 ≈ 48 [s], that is,
the difference was ∆𝑡𝑡 ≡ 𝑡𝑡1 − 𝑡𝑡2 ≈ 4 [s], and the ratio 𝑡𝑡2 /𝑡𝑡1 ≈ 0.92.
Turning the wire by 180o did not change the result. In the horizontal
position of the wire (fig. 11, right), the heat establishment times on
thermocouples were equal 𝑡𝑡1 = 𝑡𝑡2 ≈ 50 [s].
At the wire length of 2𝑙𝑙 = 100 [cm], the ∆𝑡𝑡 difference in the ver-
tical position has significantly decreased.

Fig. 11. Scheme of the experiment with a wire in the vertical and
horizontal positions. The microheater is at point 0.

413
 The theory of free electrons in a metal does not explain the effect
of differences in the establishment of heat at points 1 and 2. The ex-
ternal electric field, including the electric field of the negatively
charged Earth, inside the metal tube, where the conductor is located,
is absent in a quasi-equilibrium state (sec. 18.13), so it does not influ-
ence the electrons motion inside the conductor. Gravity should move
free electrons down. Then, if we ignore the Archimedes force in the
electron gas and the Coulomb interaction of free electrons with posi-
tively charged nuclei of the lattice atoms (ions), then the lower end of
the wire, rather than the upper, would have to heat up. However, tak-
ing into account the Coulomb interaction leads to the conclusion that
in a fairly wide range of the external force values (including the Ar-
chimedes force), free electrons can shift relative to positively charged
nuclei only by very small distances comparable to atomic, see sec.
23.2.1. Therefore, according to the electronic theory of heat conduc-
tion, the time for establishing the heat transferred by the chaotic mo-
tion of free electrons to the lower and upper ends of the wire should
be the same, despite the presence of gravity and Archimedes forces.
Sec. 21.6 considers the simplest model of heat transfer in a sub-
stance with a crystal lattice. The concept of a thermal quantum is for-
mulated there – the ether flow, generated by thermal oscillations of a
structural element (node) of the crystal lattice, in a small region with
a certain direction of velocity. The speed of the thermal quantum mo-
tion in the direction of heat propagation 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 is introduced (260):

𝐮𝐮
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 + �𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 � ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 ,

where 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = �3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚se is the average speed of the chaotic thermal

motion of the thermal quanta, 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is the average velocity of their
directional motion, 𝑚𝑚se is the mass of the node of the crystal lattice,
T is the material temperature.

414
 The thermal conductivity coefficient 𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (260) of the solid sub-
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 :
stance is proportional to the square of the velocity 𝐮𝐮
2
� 2𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝐮𝐮 2
+ 2𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 �𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 � + �𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 � . (298)

Therefore, the average velocity 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 in the direction of the heat flow
𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 increases the thermal conductivity coefficient, and against the heat
flow decreases it.
Under this experiment conditions, the vector 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 is directed up-
wards in the upper part of the rod (wire) and downwards in the lower
part, see fig. 11. From the following it will be clear that throughout
the entire wire the average velocity of the thermal quanta directional
motion 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is directed upwards. Therefore, in the lower part 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∙
𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 = −𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ,
1/2
2
𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,1 = �𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2
− 2𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � , (299)

and at the top part 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 = 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ,

1/2
2
𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,2 = �𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2
+ 2𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � . (300)

Here 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≡ �𝐮𝐮

� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 �, 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≡ �𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 �.
Since the temperature behavior in time usually has an exponential
dependence on the thermal conductivity 𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 [62, p. 192, 233], even
relatively small changes in 𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 can affect the time of heat appearance
at a point.
The calculation of heat transfer in the experiment under study is
reduced to solving the standard problem of the rod temperature
𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥) finding in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑙𝑙 with a thermally insulated
side surface at a constant initial temperature 𝑇𝑇(0, 𝑥𝑥) = 0o [C], at one
end 𝑥𝑥 = 0 of which the given fixed temperature 𝑇𝑇0 [C] is maintained,
and the end 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙 is thermally insulated.

415
 The equation of thermal conductivity includes the temperature
conductivity coefficient [62, p. 192]
𝜒𝜒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑎𝑎2 = .
𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

In accordance with (260),

1
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 1 1 2
2
𝑎𝑎 = 3 = 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (301)
𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 3 3

If in a certain temperature range 𝑎𝑎2 is close to a constant, then the

problem is linear. The solution of the linear problem is obtained, for
example, in [130, example № 27, p. 48, 290]:

𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥) =
∞ 2
4 1 (2𝑘𝑘+1)𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 (2𝑘𝑘 + 1)𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
−� � 𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇0 �1 − � 𝑒𝑒 2𝑙𝑙 sin �.
𝜋𝜋 2𝑘𝑘 + 1 2𝑙𝑙
𝑘𝑘=0

Also, the time point 𝑡𝑡 ∗ is found there, from which the so-called
regular mode begins [130, example № 22, p. 47]: the ratio of the sum
of all the series terms, starting from the second, to the first term be-
comes less than the preset number 𝜀𝜀 > 0, that is, less than the speci-
fied relative error 𝜀𝜀. The following formula is obtained for 𝑡𝑡 ∗
2
𝑙𝑙
∗
𝑡𝑡 ≥ 𝑡𝑡 = − � � ln(3𝜀𝜀). (302)
√2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

That is, at 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 𝑡𝑡 ∗ , the temperature can be approximated by the

first term of the series with the relative error 𝜀𝜀:

416
 4 −�𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋�2𝑡𝑡 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥) ≈ 𝑇𝑇0 �1 − 𝑒𝑒 2𝑙𝑙 sin �. (303)
𝜋𝜋 2𝑙𝑙

The times 𝑡𝑡1 and 𝑡𝑡2 of registration of the same temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙 at
points 1 and 2, fig. 11, are determined by the temperature conductiv-
ity 𝑎𝑎12 and 𝑎𝑎22 of the lower and upper sections of the wire
4 −�𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 �2𝑡𝑡𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙 ≈ 𝑇𝑇0 �1 − 𝑒𝑒 2𝑙𝑙 � , 𝑘𝑘 = 1,2. (304)
𝜋𝜋
From the condition 𝑇𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑇2 we find
𝑡𝑡2 𝑎𝑎12
𝑎𝑎12 𝑡𝑡1 ≈ 𝑎𝑎22 𝑡𝑡2 or ≈ .
𝑡𝑡1 𝑎𝑎22
Using the formula (301), we obtain on one and the same free path
time interval 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
𝑡𝑡2 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,1
≈ 2 . (305)
𝑡𝑡1 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,2

Then according to (299), (300),

2
𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
2 2 1 − 2 𝑢𝑢� + 2
𝑡𝑡2 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 2𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
≈ 2 2 = 2 . (306)
𝑡𝑡1 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑞𝑞 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
1 + 2 𝑢𝑢� + 2
х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Let us consider the simplest model for the velocity 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 arising
in this experiment in addition to the average velocity of the thermal
chaotic motion 𝐮𝐮
� х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 .
The micro source of heat generates thermal quanta, the speed of
which

417
 3𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇)
𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = �
𝑚𝑚se

is higher than speed of motion (260)

3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = �
𝑚𝑚se

generated by not yet heated lattice nodes. The thermal quanta of speed
𝑢𝑢� х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , colliding with the lattice nodes, transmit impulse to them. Ex-
cited in such a way, the nodes themselves begin to generate thermal
quanta with an increased thermal velocity.
Let us estimate with the help of the equation of state (15) the ratio
of the ether densities in the thermal quanta, which have different
speeds of thermal motion. We take the space velocity average from
(15), assuming the Maxwell distribution of newtonians in the thermal
quantum (238), (239), and obtain for average values in the thermal
quanta moving at different speeds

� , 𝑝𝑝∗ = 𝑝𝑝̅� + 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮

� 2 + 𝛱𝛱
𝑝𝑝∗ = 𝑝𝑝̅ + 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 �,
� 2 + 𝛱𝛱

where 𝑝𝑝̅, 𝑝𝑝̅� and 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 , 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 are the mean pressures and densities, 𝐮𝐮
� 2 and
� 2 are the mean square velocities of newtonians (246).
𝐮𝐮
The change of the thermal quantum volume in the quasi-equilib-
rium state does not occur; therefore, the pressure inside it must be
equal to the pressure of the surrounding ether 𝑝𝑝̅ = 𝑝𝑝̅� = 𝑝𝑝.
Subtracting the first averaged equation of state from the second,
we get

418
 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮
�2
𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮
� 2 − 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮
� 2 = 0 or = 2.
𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮
�

Newtonians move together with the thermal quantum, therefore

the average quadratic velocity of newtonians motion in the thermal
quantum is equal to the average quadratic velocity of the thermal
� 2𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (260). Then (see (246), (298))
quantum motion 𝐮𝐮

2 2
𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 � 2𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑇𝑇)
𝐮𝐮 �𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ± 2𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 �
𝑇𝑇=𝑇𝑇
≈ 2 = 2 .
𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 2
� 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇) �𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ± 2𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 �
𝑇𝑇=𝑇𝑇+∆𝑇𝑇

In the case of a low average speed of the directional motion of

newtonians 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 compared with the average speed of thermal chaotic
motion 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 we have

𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 2 (𝑇𝑇)
𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑇𝑇
≈ 2 = , at 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≪ 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 . (307)
𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢� х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇) 𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇

The same relation can be also obtained from the Clapeyron – Men-
deleev equation (243), which directly operates with average values.
It can be seen from the formula (307) that at ∆𝑇𝑇 > 0, the ether
density in the thermal quantum decreases. The Archimedes force, act-
ing on the thermal quantum, turns out to be greater than the force of
gravity applied to it. Floating up of the heated thermal quantum oc-
curs, similar to the rise of warm air from a heat source.
In the simplest model of the thermal quantum floating up we take
into account only Archimedes force 𝐅𝐅𝐴𝐴 = 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐠𝐠𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 acting on it (see,
for example: [26, p. 477]), gravity force 𝑀𝑀𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐠𝐠, where 𝐠𝐠 is the free fall
acceleration, and the resistance force from the crystal lattice. The ap-
pearance of the ether added mass motion carried along by the thermal
quantum is neglected, taking into account the extremely low viscosity

419
and self-diffusion of the ether (sec. 21.7, 21.8). We also neglect the
centrifugal acceleration (Coriolis force), considering that due to the
low angular speed of the Earth's rotation, the motion of the entire ex-
perimental setup during the observation time is close to the uniform
straight line.
Besides, we will not consider the details of the thermal quanta
disappearance process when they transfer their kinetic energy to the
lattice nodes and the subsequent regeneration of the thermal quanta
by the lattice nodes. We only take into account that after the transfer
of the impulse by the thermal quantum to the lattice node, the direc-
tional velocity 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is reproduced by this node in the new thermal
quantum generated by it. In the simplest model, we represent such a
process as the floating up of the thermal quantum at a greater length
compared with its average free path 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 .
We use the pressure drop model (265) to describe a resistance to
motion, as in sec. 21.9. Define the linear density of the resistance co-
efficient, provided by the crystal lattice to the thermal quantum mo-
tion, by analogy with its resistance to the flow of newtonians 𝛾𝛾 (263):

𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 1
𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≡ , (308)
1 − 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿

where 𝐿𝐿 is the length of the considered portion of the thermal quanta

flow, 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is the ratio of the average on the length 𝐿𝐿 obstacle area (in
the cross section to the flow direction), that is not leaking for the ther-
mal quanta, to the sectional area of the entire flow, 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∈ [0,1). By
analogy with 𝛾𝛾, 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is called the specific geometric resistance of the
lattice to the thermal quanta flow.
In the general case, 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 depends on temperature, since the fraction
of obstacles 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 grows with an increase in the amplitude of the crystal
lattice nodes thermal oscillations.

420
 So, the projection on the 𝑥𝑥 axis of Newton's second law for the
motion of the heated thermal quantum surrounded by the ether, having
a density of 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 , under the action of the considered forces has the form

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔 − 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔 − 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
2
,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is the weight of the thermal quantum, 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is the weight
of the displaced ether. Per unit volume of the thermal quantum we get

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 = (𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 − 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 )𝑔𝑔 − 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
2
,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 2

= �1 − � 𝑔𝑔 − 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 .
𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚

Accounting (307)

𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∆𝑇𝑇 2
= 𝑔𝑔 − 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 .
𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡 𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇

For the steady thermal quantum floating up velocity 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =

0 and we have

∆𝑇𝑇 2
0= 𝑔𝑔 − 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ,
𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇

∆𝑇𝑇 𝑔𝑔
𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈ � .
𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

In the estimate (307), 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≪ 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 has already been used. In this
case, the formula (306) is simplified.

421
 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
1 − 2 𝑢𝑢�
𝑡𝑡2 х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
≈ .
𝑡𝑡1 1 + 2 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑢𝑢� х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Thus, at 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≪ 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 in the framework of solving linear heat dis-

tribution problems in the lower and upper sections of the rod, differing
only in the value of the thermal conductivity, we get for the ratio of times
𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
1 − 2 𝑢𝑢�
𝑡𝑡2 х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∆𝑇𝑇 𝑔𝑔
≈ , 𝑢𝑢
� = � , 𝑢𝑢 ≈ � . (309)
𝑡𝑡1 1 + 2 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑚𝑚se 0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑢𝑢� х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

In contrast to newtonians, the size of the thermal quanta is com-

parable with the size of atoms, therefore, 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 and 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 can be estimated
from geometrical considerations.
Fig. 12 shows a section of a cubic crystal lattice in the plane of
the face. A solid line indicates a regular (repeating) fragment of the
lattice section. Parts of the atomic nuclei that create obstacles to the
thermal quanta motion on this fragment are marked in black. It can be
seen that the ratio of the area of the obstacles and the area of the reg-
ular fragment is 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖2 /𝑟𝑟м2, where 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 is the nucleus radius of the lattice
atom, 𝑟𝑟м is the interatomic distance.
A thermal quantum, which is the ether motion, can flow around
an obstacle, that is, the fraction of the area that is not leaking for it can
be smaller than the fraction of the obstacles geometric area. We take
this effect into account in the model of resistance, reducing the radius
of the leak-free part of the atom 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 by ~4.5:

1 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖2
𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0 ~ . (310)
20 𝑟𝑟м2

422
 Fig. 12. Section of the cubic crystal lattice in the face plane. The
solid lines give its regular fragment. The areas that impede the
thermal quanta motion are filled black.

As noted above, the equation of the thermal quantum directional

motion is considered in this model at the greater length as compared
with the mean free path 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 . Therefore, here we are interested in the
resistance of the lattice 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 to the directional motion of the thermal
quantum at longer distances than 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 . For well heat-conducting mate-
rials, it can be assumed that the fraction of the leak-free area remains
constant 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0 on a small segment of length 𝑙𝑙1 > 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 . Further,
the portion of 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 should increase due to the increase in the area of
obstacles. At a certain length 𝑙𝑙2 , the property of the thermal quanta
directional motion is completely lost due to the weakening of the re-
generation (scattering) of the directional velocity of the thermal quan-
tum flow, as well as their exit from the wire through the side surface
(radiation). This corresponds to the achievement of 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 1.

423
 The described model of 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 behavior can be presented in the form
of a piecewise linear function

𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0 , 0 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 𝑙𝑙1
𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑦𝑦) ≈ � 𝑙𝑙 − 𝑙𝑙2 , (311)
1 + �1 − 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0 � , 𝑙𝑙1 < 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 𝑙𝑙2
𝑙𝑙2 − 𝑙𝑙1

where 𝑦𝑦 is the coordinate along the direction of the thermal quantum

motion.
The formula (308) for 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑦𝑦) includes the parameter 𝐿𝐿 – the
length of the section of the thermal quanta flow, in which the average
fraction of the obstacle area is 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 . The exact value of 𝐿𝐿 can be calcu-
lated only by knowing the details of the laws for the formation of the
thermal quanta and their interaction with the lattice nodes. This prob-
lem has not been solved yet. Therefore, presently we can only talk
about a reasonable choice of the 𝐿𝐿 value. In the considered model of
𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is natural to set 𝐿𝐿 equal to the length 𝑙𝑙1, on which 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is conserved
𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0. The uncertainty of 𝐿𝐿 choice is to some extent compen-
sated by the relatively weak dependence of 𝑡𝑡2 /𝑡𝑡1 (309) on 𝐿𝐿 – as the
square root.
For nickel, we have: the ion radius and interatomic distance are
𝑟𝑟Ni = 0.69⋅10−8 [cm] and 𝑟𝑟м,Ni = 3.525⋅10−8 [cm], see, for exam-
ple, the review [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel], hereof 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0 ≈ 0.0060.
The length 𝑙𝑙1, at which the fraction of the leak-free area is pre-
served 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0, can be established experimentally. For example,
gradually increasing the length of the wire, find such length 𝑙𝑙, at
which the growth rate of the ratio 𝑡𝑡2 /𝑡𝑡1 begins to decrease, and
take 𝑙𝑙1 = 𝑙𝑙.
From experiments with wires of various lengths we conclude:
𝑙𝑙1 ~ 10 [cm], 𝑙𝑙2 ~ 50 [cm]. Therefore, 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈ 6.0⋅10−4 [1/cm].

424
 Under the experimental conditions 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙 = 10 [cm], 𝑇𝑇 =
300o [K], the formula (303) has a relative error of no greater than 𝜀𝜀 =
0.1, starting from the time 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 𝑡𝑡 ∗ ≈ 8 [s] (302).
For the average speed of the thermal quanta chaotic motion, the
average rate of flowing up of the thermal quantum and the ratio of the
heat setting time at the top point and the time of setting at the bottom
point (309) at ∆𝑇𝑇 in the range 20 − 70o [K] we get

𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = �3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚se ≈ 3.57⋅104 [cm/s],

𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈ �∆𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔/(𝑇𝑇𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ) ≈ 3.18⋅102 − 5.53⋅102 [cm/s],
𝑡𝑡2 /𝑡𝑡1 ~ 0.96 − 0.94.
From the formula (304), it is possible to find the arrival time 𝑡𝑡𝑘𝑘 of
the given temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙 [C] at the end of the rod in the linear problem.
At 𝑇𝑇0 = ∆𝑇𝑇 = 60o [𝐶𝐶], 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘2 = 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑘𝑘 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /3 (301), 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑘𝑘 (299),
(300) and 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ~ 0.64 ∙ 10−4 [cm] the temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙 = ∆𝑇𝑇/2 appears
at

2𝑙𝑙 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙
𝑡𝑡𝑘𝑘 = − � � ln � �1 − �� , 𝑘𝑘 = 1,2,
𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 4 𝑇𝑇0
𝑡𝑡1 ~ 51 [s], 𝑡𝑡2 ~ 49 [s].

Here, the 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 value is chosen so that the thermal conductivity of

chrome-plated nickel alloy wire is high, almost like copper, see p.
334, since the wire of two metals can have the high thermal conduc-
tivity and electrical conductivity due to the formation of an interlayer
tube layer between metals with practically perfect surfaces. Such an
effect occurs, for example, in copper-nickel wire used in industry.
In the framework of the linear model approximation, the theoret-
ically found values of 𝑡𝑡2 /𝑡𝑡1 , 𝑡𝑡1 , 𝑡𝑡2 are appropriate to the experimental

425
data. In the methodology of mathematical modeling, this confirms the
correctness of the ether model of heat propagation in the conductor.
We emphasize that the method presented in this section allows,
using the measured time ratio 𝑡𝑡2 /𝑡𝑡1 (309), to study the geometry of
𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 and 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑞𝑞 , which determines the resistance of the internal structure
of substances to the directional motion of the ether thermal quanta.
The role of electrons in the heat transfer from the source can be
checked in the following modification of the experiment considered.
At the upper end of the wire place a contact for removing excess elec-
trons compared to the lower end of the wire. Then periodically close
this contact. If a faster arrival of heat to the upper point is ensured by
an increase in the concentration of free electrons there, then with time,
with an electrically isolated micro source, a positive charge should
remain on the wire, and a negative charge on the contact.
From the ether position, the closure of the contact ensures the
transfer of the ether pressure between the conductors. At a higher tem-
perature of the upper end, the newtonians motion increases in it, and
therefore, according to the equation of state (15), the pressure should
fall. This situation corresponds to the occurrence of a positive charge
(sec. 18.13), that is, in the etheric sense, the positive charge must be
removed from the upper end, not the negative one.
The experiment of A.R. Lepeshkin analyzed in this section is ac-
tually a modification of the experiment proposed by K.E. Tsiolkovsky
on the study of heat conduction in a vertical column of the solid body
in the gravity field [161]. The result was the opposite of what was
expected by K.E. Tsiolkovsky – the heat goes up first. In the etheric
interpretation, this is explained by taking into account the action of
Archimedes' force.
Consider the thermal quanta motion in the vertically positioned
wire in the absence of heating. The ether flow in the thermal quantum
has an increased velocity 𝐮𝐮, since it is created as a result of the "push"
of the ether by a lattice node. If in equilibrium the ether pressure in
the thermal quantum does not differ much from the pressure of the

426
surrounding ether 𝑝𝑝, then, according to the equation of state (15), the
ether density in the thermal quantum 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 must be smaller than the
density of the surrounding ether. Then, under the influence of Archi-
medes force, the thermal quantum will flow up and a pressure differ-
ence will form at the ends of the wire, that is, a potential difference
(75). It would be interesting to measure this difference in an experi-
ment, as suggested by K.E. Tsiolkovsky [161], and see how long it
can last. We emphasize that, according to the results of the A.R. Lep-
eshkin experiments, one should start study with a short wire.

23.5.2. Thermal conductivity in a rotating disk

Let us analyze the results of Lepeshkin experiment on the study

of a thermal conductivity in the rotating disk, see his report dated
02.22.2017 on the website [шаровая-молния.орг], slide 19. The idea
of this modification of the experiment was proposed by F.S. Zaitsev.
A stainless steel disk with a radius of 12.5 [cm] and a thickness
of 0.5 [cm] unwound in vacuum to a high angular velocity. At point
0 on the radius 𝑟𝑟0 = 7.5 [cm], a microheater was located in the hole
on the disk, see fig. 13. At points 1, … ,4 thermocouples were placed
on the disk surface at the same distance 𝑙𝑙 = 2 [cm] from the point 0.
The wires from the thermocouples, wrapped in foil, went into the hole
of the disk shaft. Thermocouples and foils were spot welded to avoid
tearing during fast rotation. Preparation of equipment for the experi-
ment took more than one month.
According to the indications of additional thermocouples, it was
clear that the disk did not heat up due to rotation at times up to 10 −
20 [min].
In the steady state mode at different speeds of rotation, up to
8000 [rpm], the time 𝑡𝑡𝑘𝑘 of the heat transfer (temperature) to the
points 𝑘𝑘 = 1, … ,4. was measured during ~1 [min]. The ratio of the
time of the heat transfer in a non-rotating disk 𝑡𝑡0 ≈ 25 [s] and time
𝑡𝑡𝑘𝑘 was calculated. At the frequency of 6000 [rpm] the rations were:
𝑡𝑡0 /𝑡𝑡1 = 2.4, 𝑡𝑡0 /𝑡𝑡2 = 1.8, 𝑡𝑡0 /𝑡𝑡3 = 1.4, 𝑡𝑡0 /𝑡𝑡4 = 0.8.

427
 Fig. 13. The scheme of the experiment on the thermal conductivity
study in the rotating disk.

As in sec. 23.5.1, we will conduct etheric analysis of this experi-

ment taking into account of the thermal quantum average velocity
𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (260) in the thermal conductivity coefficient. In the general case,
it is necessary to solve a two-dimensional non-linear heat conduction
equation with a thermal diffusivity coefficient non-isotropic along the
disk radius. However, the simplest estimates can be obtained by con-
sidering the one-dimensional heat conduction equations separately in
the radial and azimuthal directions.
To analyze the radial motion, we move into the polar coordinate
system (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑) with the beginning at the center of the disk and rotating
with the disk. The centripetal 𝐅𝐅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 and centrifugal 𝐅𝐅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 forces act on the
object of mass 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 resting in such a system, which in total give
zero, see, for example: [26, sec. 64],

𝐅𝐅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 ,

where 𝜔𝜔 is the angular speed of the disk rotation, 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 is the unit vector
in the direction of the radius.

428
 The thermal quantum does not have a rigid connection with the
crystal lattice of the disk and can shift under the action of various
forces. Let's compose the equation of the thermal quantum directional
motion in the radial direction relative to the rotating reference frame.
In the experiment under consideration, centrifugal acceleration
2
𝜔𝜔 𝑟𝑟𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 due to the high angular speed of rotation 𝜔𝜔 greatly exceeds the
acceleration caused by gravity and the generalized Zhukovsky force
that occurs when the conductor rotates in the Earth’s magnetic field.
Therefore, we will not take into account these forces.
In the non-uniform force field, the analogue of Archimedes' law
is in effect (see, for example: [9, sec. 26, 27; 15, ch. VIII, sec. 1;
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle]). Let us calculate
the Archimedes force directed inward the thermal quantum, caused
by the pressure 𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴 = 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 (𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟)𝑟𝑟/2 [9, sec. 26, 27; 15, ch. VIII] in the
field of the centrifugal force:

1
𝐅𝐅𝐴𝐴 = − � 𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝐒𝐒 = − � 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 (𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟)𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝐒𝐒 =
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
1
− 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔2 � 𝛁𝛁(𝑟𝑟 2 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔2 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 � 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≈
2 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

−𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 .

𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Here the gradient theorem is applied [51, sec. 5.6.1; 55, formula (27)]
and 𝑟𝑟 is taken out from under the integral sign due to the small volume
of the thermal quantum 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 .
In sec. 23.3, based on the analysis of experiments with the unipo-
lar generator, it was shown that in the steady state the ether rotates
practically together with the disk at a speed (207), that is with 𝛼𝛼 ~ 1:
𝐕𝐕 = 𝛚𝛚 × 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 ,

where 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 is the unit vector in the azimuthal direction.

429
 At the periphery of the disk the ether moves faster. Therefore,
according to the equation of state (15), the pressure there is smaller:

𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑢𝑢∗2 − 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)2.

The ether pressure gradient appears

𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉 = −2𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 ,

which pushes the thermal quanta to the edge with the force

𝐅𝐅𝑉𝑉 = −𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉 = 2𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 .

In the radial component of the equation of motion, we take into

account only the Archimedes force, the 𝐅𝐅𝑉𝑉 force caused by the pres-
sure difference, the centrifugal force, and the resistance force of the
crystal lattice.
As in sec. 23.5.1, we consider the simplest model of the directed
velocity 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 reproduction during the regeneration of the thermal
quanta by lattice nodes as the motion of the thermal quantum with the
velocity 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 at a greater length than its mean free path 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 .
So, the radial component of the second Newton's law for the
heated thermal quantum motion surrounded by the ether, having the
density of 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 , under the action of the considered forces has the form

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟
𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = −𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟 + 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟 +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
2𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟 − 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟 ,

where 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is the mass of the thermal quantum, 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is the mass of
the supplanted ether. Per unit volume of the thermal quantum we get

430
 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟
𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 = −𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟 + 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟 + 2𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟 − 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟
2
,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟 𝜌𝜌̅�𝑚𝑚 2

= 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟 �1 + � + 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟 .
𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚

For the steady state speed of radial motion, taking into account
the formula (307), we find

𝑇𝑇
𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟 ≈ �𝜔𝜔 2 𝑟𝑟 �1 + � /𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 .
𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇

From formulas (298), (305), taking into account the coincidence

of the heat flow 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 and the radial velocity vector 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟 directions on
the segment 01 and the opposite of these directions on the segment04,
we obtain
2
𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,4 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,4
2 2 1 − 2 𝑢𝑢� + 2
𝑡𝑡1 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 2𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,4 + 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,4 х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
≈ 2 2 = 2 .
𝑡𝑡4 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,1 + 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,1 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,1 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,1
1 + 2 𝑢𝑢� + 2
х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑞𝑞

In case 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≪ 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,4
1 − 2 𝑢𝑢�
𝑡𝑡1 х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
≈ 𝑢𝑢 . (312)
𝑡𝑡4 1 + 2 0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,1
𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

The brand of steel used in the disk is unknown to us. Therefore,

we estimate 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0, using data for iron: the ion radius and interatomic

431
distance 𝑟𝑟Fe = 0.74⋅10−8 [cm] and 𝑟𝑟м,Fe = 2.866⋅ 10−8 [cm] (see,
for example, a review [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron]). The thermal
conductivity of steels is usually lower than the thermal conductivity
of iron, that is, in the alloy the proportion of obstacles to the motion
of the thermal quanta increases. We take this into account in 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0 0,
which we set equal to the ratio of a thermal conductivity of well-con-
ducting materials 400 [W/(m · K)] and the typical thermal conduc-
tivity of some steels 40 [W/(m · K)] (see. [121, p. 347–350])
2 2
1 400 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟Fe 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟Fe
𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0 ~ 2 ~ 0.5 2 .
20 40 𝑟𝑟м,Fe 𝑟𝑟м,Fe

Hence, 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0 ≈ 0.11.

The scattering of the thermal quantum directional motion in steel
is stronger than in nickel, therefore in the formula (311) one should
take 𝑙𝑙1 ~ 2 [cm], 𝑙𝑙2 ~ 10 [cm]. Values of 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 can be determined
more precisely from the experiment with steel wires of different
lengths as described in sec. 23.5.1.
Thermocouples are located close enough to the micro source of
heat. In such a region the first line of the model (311) works:
𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑦𝑦) = 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,0 at 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 2 [cm]. Equation (308) gives 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈
5.9⋅10−2 [1/cm] at 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑙𝑙1 = 2 [cm].
From the formula (312) for 𝑇𝑇 = 300o [K], ∆𝑇𝑇 = 40o [K], 𝜔𝜔 =
6000 [rpm] = 628 [rad/s], 𝑟𝑟1 ~ 8.5 [cm], 𝑟𝑟4 ~ 6.5 [cm] we get

𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = �3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚se ≈ 3.66⋅104 [cm/s],

𝑇𝑇
𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,1 ≈ �𝜔𝜔 2 𝑟𝑟1 �1 + � /𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈ 1.04⋅104 [cm/s],
𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇

𝑇𝑇
𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑟𝑟,4 ≈ �𝜔𝜔 2 𝑟𝑟4 �1 + � /𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈ 9.09⋅103 [cm/s],
𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇

432
 𝑡𝑡4 /𝑡𝑡1 ~ 0.32.

The formula (303), used in obtaining of these results, has a rela-

tive error of no greater than 𝜀𝜀 = 0.1, starting from the time 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 𝑡𝑡 ∗ ≈
2.9 [s] (302) at 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ~ 7.0 ∙ 10−6 [cm], where the thermal quantum
mean free path 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is reduced for steel in proportion to the ratio of the
thermal conductivity of steel and the thermal conductivity of copper,
estimated at the end sec. 21.6 on p. 334.
From the formula (304), it is possible to find the time for estab-
lishing of the given temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙 [C] on the thermocouple in the
approximation of a linear problem. In the absence of heating, 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
0 in (298) and for 𝑇𝑇0 = ∆𝑇𝑇 = 40o [C], 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘2 = 𝑢𝑢�𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑘𝑘 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /3 (301) the
temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙 = ∆𝑇𝑇/2 is achieved by 𝑡𝑡0 ≈ 18 [s]. Thus, the condi-
tion of applicability of the formula (303) 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 𝑡𝑡 ∗ is satisfied.
The ratio of times 𝑡𝑡4 /𝑡𝑡1 and time 𝑡𝑡0 correspond in the order of
magnitude to measured in the experiment ratio 0.33 and time 25 [s].
It is interesting that, despite the coincidence of Archimedes force
𝐅𝐅𝐴𝐴 in segment 04 and the direction of heat propagation 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 , the heat
establishment time at point 4 is longer than its establishment time at
point 1 (fig. 13). This is due to the formation at the periphery of the
reduced pressure area due to the rotation of the ether with the disk,
which entails drawing the thermal quanta there with the force 𝐅𝐅𝑉𝑉 ,
greater in magnitude than the value of the force 𝐅𝐅𝐴𝐴 .
Let us now consider the thermal quantum motion in the azimuthal
direction. As before, we apply the simplest model of the directional
velocity 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 reproduction in regeneration of the thermal quanta by
lattice nodes as the thermal quantum motion with the velocity 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 at
a greater length compared to its mean free path 𝜆𝜆̅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 .
When studying the azimuthal motion of the thermal quanta, it be-
comes important to take into account their mutual influence on the
segment between the micro source and the thermocouple. Such ac-
counting occurs in the continuous media model.

433
 As well as above, we will carry out the analysis in the mobile
polar coordinate system rotating together with the disk. For conven-
ience, we direct the 𝑥𝑥 axis from the point 0 to the point 2 in the section
02, and from the point 0 to the point 3 in the section 03, fig. 13.
The radial displacement rate of the thermal quantum estimated
above is much smaller than the speed of its thermal motion. Therefore,
it can be neglected when studying the thermal quantum motion in seg-
ments 02 and 03.
The micro source of heat in the stationary state generates at the
point 0 the thermal quanta with the root-mean-square speed of thermal
motion

3𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇)
𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑 = � .
𝑚𝑚Fe

In the coordinate system rotating with the disk, the linear rotation
velocity |𝜔𝜔|𝑟𝑟0, where 𝑟𝑟0 is the radius of the micro source, is not added
at generating of the thermal quantum in the direction of the point 2 and
is not subtracted at generating in the direction of the point 3 (fig. 13):

𝑈𝑈0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,2 = 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑 , 𝑈𝑈0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,3 = 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑 . (313)

The thermal quantum is acted upon from the lattice by the re-
sistance force, depending on its speed relative to the lattice, which
tends to equalize the speed of the thermal quantum with the speed of
the lattice, that is, to zero the speed of the thermal quantum in the
rotating coordinate system. Due to the deformation of the disk in the
azimuthal direction at the fast rotation, the resistance of the material
to the thermal quanta motion in the directions along and against the
rotation can be different: 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑘𝑘 , 𝑘𝑘 = 2, 3.
In the simplest model of the thermal quantum motion in azimuth,
we take into account only the force of the lattice resistance and the
transport velocity of the flow, which enters the total time derivative.

434
 For the azimuthal component of the second equation of motion
in segments 02 and 03, we have

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 2
𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = −𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑘𝑘 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 , 𝑘𝑘 = 2, 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

or per unit volume

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 2
𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 = −𝜌𝜌̅𝑚𝑚 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑘𝑘 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 2
= −𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑘𝑘 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 2
+ 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 = −𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑘𝑘 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥

In steady state

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 2
𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 = −𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑘𝑘 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 .
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥

The solution of this equation with the corresponding initial con-

dition (313) is

𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑 𝑒𝑒 −𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑘𝑘 = 2, 3.

For average speeds in segments 02 and 03, we have

𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 (0) + 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 (𝑙𝑙)

𝑢𝑢�0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 = .
2

The directions of the heat flow 𝐢𝐢𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 and the azimuthal velocity vec-
tor 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑 in segments 02 and 03 coincide. Therefore, from the formu-
las (298), (305) we obtain

435
 2
�𝑢𝑢�0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,3 � 𝑢𝑢�0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,3
1 + 2 𝑢𝑢� + 2
𝑡𝑡2 х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
≈ 2 .
𝑡𝑡3 �𝑢𝑢�0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,2 � 𝑢𝑢�0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,2
1 + 2 𝑢𝑢� + 2
х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

If the properties of the rotating disk are the same in the directions
along and against the rotation 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,2 = 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,3 , then the difference in time
does not occur 𝑡𝑡2 /𝑡𝑡3 = 1. However, a steel alloy is usually non-uni-
form and contains many defects. During fast rotation, deformations
of the disk regions can occur with the grid being pressed in the direc-
tion opposite to the rotation and depressed along the rotation. As a
result, it is more difficult for the thermal quanta to move in the direc-
tion of pressing and easier in the other direction. A similar situation
can occur when the speed of the thermal quantum is generated by a
micro source. We take into account this effect in the solution using
the coefficient 𝛽𝛽𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜔𝜔

𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,2 (𝑥𝑥) = �1 + 𝛽𝛽𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜔𝜔 �𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑 𝑒𝑒 −�1−𝛽𝛽𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜔𝜔 �𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 ,

𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,3 (𝑥𝑥) = �1 − 𝛽𝛽𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜔𝜔 �𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑 𝑒𝑒 −�1+𝛽𝛽𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜔𝜔 �𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 .

The study of the coefficient 𝛽𝛽𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜔𝜔 properties requires additional

experiments with the rotation of various steels, as well as homogene-
ous crystalline materials with a small number of defects.
For the parameters considered at the calculation of the radial ve-
locity, the ratio of times 𝑡𝑡2 /𝑡𝑡3 , obtained in the framework of the linear
heat conduction problem, gives approximately the experimental value
of 0.78 at 𝛽𝛽𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜔𝜔 ~ 0.1:

𝑢𝑢�х,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = �3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚se ≈ 3.66⋅104 [cm/s],

436
 𝑢𝑢0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑 = �3𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇)/𝑚𝑚se ≈ 3.90⋅104 [cm/s],
𝑢𝑢�0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,2 ≈ 4.07⋅104 [cm/s],
𝑢𝑢�0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝜑𝜑,3 ≈ 3.29⋅104 [cm/s],
𝑡𝑡2 /𝑡𝑡3 ~ 0.81.

In the methodology of mathematical modeling, the correspond-

ence of 𝑡𝑡4 /𝑡𝑡1, 𝑡𝑡2 /𝑡𝑡3, 𝑡𝑡0 to the experimental data confirms the validity
of the ether model of heat distribution in the conductor.
We emphasize once again that in the considered problem, the pa-
rameters 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 and 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 were chosen from some intuitive considerations,
since the ether theory of the matter atomic structure has not yet been
constructed. Nevertheless, a fairly good agreement between the cal-
culations and the measurements was obtained. In practice, it is natural
to set parameters 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 and 𝛾𝛾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 of substances internal structure re-
sistance to the directional ether motion at distances greater than the
mean free path of a thermal quantum, based on the condition that the
calculations exactly match the measurements.

23.5.3. Thermal conductivity at the presence of vibration

Experiments on measuring of the thermal conductivity of a vi-

brating rod and rod with a fixed end (tuning fork) were carried out by
A.R. Lepeshkin, see [168–170], as well as his report on May 24, 2018
at CIAM. Different frequencies were considered. It has been shown
that the thermal conductivities of the rod and tuning fork increase no-
ticeably in the presence of vibrations.
The explanation of such a result by the inertia of free electrons is
untenable, since under conditions of quasi-neutrality of the conductor
and the absence of significant external forces, free electrons, if pre-
sent, cannot shift relative to the nodes of the conductor crystal lattice
by distances larger than interatomic, see sec. 23.2.1. Besides, the clas-
sical theory of the electron thermal conductivity, according to the

437
Wiedemann – Franz formula (278), underestimates the coefficient of
the thermal conductivity by a factor of several thousands, since by as
many times it decreases the conductivity [32, p. 213].
In the etheric interpretation, an increase in the thermal conduc-
tivity in the presence of vibrations is explained by the appearance of
the directional velocity 𝐮𝐮0,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 of the thermal quanta in addition to their
chaotic thermal velocity (260).
Quantitative study of this effect is carried out with the method
presented in sec. 23.5.1, 23.5.2. For a vibrating rod, it is necessary to
take into account the force of inertia in the coordinate system relative
to which the rod is stationary. For a vibrating tuning fork – account
for the centrifugal force, since in each period of oscillation its free end
motion is close to motion along a circle.
A quantitative analysis of experiments with vibrating rods does
not bring anything essentially new to the illustration of the ether the-
ory technique application to practical problems solving. Therefore,
such an analysis is not given here.

23.6. Rotation of bodies in the absence of an external mag-

netic field

An important research area is the study mechanical interaction of

the matter with the ether, since understanding of this process details
can lead to the creation of fundamentally new technical devices based
on the use of the ether properties and flows.
Rotating objects interact better with the ether, since during the
rotation of a particular structure, the effective volume, through which
newtonians can pass unhindered, is significantly reduced. Therefore,
the study of the ether motion, caused by the objects rotation is of great
interest.
In this section, the external magnetic field is assumed to be small
compared with that used in the experiments, compensated or weakly
influencing the studied processes.

438
 23.6.1. The experiment of Tolman and Stewart with a ro-
tating coil

The Tolman – Stewart experiment is considered in twentieth-cen-

tury physics as the main proof of the statement that the electric current
in metals is due to the motion of electrons [173; 174; 32, p. 226, 227;
28, p. 411–413; 34, sec. 145]. We show the inadequacy of the inter-
pretation of this experiment.
In this experiment, the main coil with a large number of turns of
the thin wire was brought into the rapid rotation around its axis. The
magnetic field of the Earth within this coil was carefully compensated
by special fixed coils with electric current so that, with a uniform ro-
tation of the main coil, the galvanometer did not detect induction cur-
rents [28, p. 413]. The total length of the windings of the main coil
was ~530 [m], and the linear speed of the wire reached ~56 [m/s]
[174]. The ends of the winding were attached to a sensitive galvanom-
eter using long flexible wires. The main coil was unwound and then
sharply decelerated. A short-term current was observed in the circuit.
Its sign depended on the direction of the coil rotation.
The theoretical explanation of this experiment in physics is based
on the hypothesis of the existence of free electrons in a metal, which,
when metal is decelerated, move according to the second Newton’s
law under the action of inertial force. From this assumption, the fol-
lowing relation is obtained, see, for example: [32, p. 227; 28, p. 412;
34, p. 334]
𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣0 𝐿𝐿
= , (314)
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
where 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 and 𝑒𝑒 are the electron mass and charge, 𝑣𝑣0 is the linear
speed of the outer coil before braking, 𝐿𝐿 is the length of the wire in
the coil winding, 𝑅𝑅 is the resistance of the whole circuit, 𝑄𝑄 is the

439
amount of electricity flowing through the coil decelerating during
time 𝑡𝑡0 until complete stop.
It is stated that the readings of the galvanometer 𝑄𝑄 and the known
values of 𝑣𝑣0 , 𝐿𝐿, 𝑅𝑅 in the experiment give the sign and the value of the
ratio 𝑒𝑒/𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 , which correspond to the ratio of the electron charge and
its mass.
Let us analyze in detail the expression (314). Express 𝑅𝑅 through
the specific resistivity 𝑅𝑅0 : 𝑅𝑅 = (1 + 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼)𝑅𝑅0 𝐿𝐿/𝑆𝑆, where 𝛼𝛼 is the tem-
perature coefficient of resistance [36, p. 380], 𝑇𝑇 is the temperature, 𝑆𝑆
is the transversal cross-section of the wire. We use the formula (194):
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 = 𝑗𝑗(𝑡𝑡)𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, where 𝑗𝑗(𝑡𝑡) is the current density. According
to the electronic theory of conductivity, 𝑗𝑗(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡), where 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 is
the number of conduction electrons per unit volume, 𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡) is the av-
erage speed of their ordered motion.
According to the original hypothesis, the electrons rotate with the
coil wire, therefore their speed 𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡) should be proportional to the
speed of the coil contour 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡): 𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡) = 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂(𝑡𝑡), where 𝜂𝜂 is some con-
stant of the order of unity. For the charge flowing during deceleration,
we have
𝑡𝑡0 𝑡𝑡0 𝑡𝑡0
𝑄𝑄 = � 𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝑆 � 𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝑆𝜂𝜂 � 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (315)
0 0 0

We emphasize that when using the basic equation of the elec-

tronic theory of conductivity 𝑗𝑗(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡), the charge 𝑄𝑄 turns out
to depend on the coil deceleration law 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡), while in the formula
(314), derived from Newton's second law, the 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) is not included.
Substitute the found charge 𝑄𝑄 (315) into (314)

𝑒𝑒 2 1 𝑣𝑣0
= 𝑡𝑡0 .
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 (1 + 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼)𝑅𝑅0 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂 ∫ 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0

440
 In the left hand side of this expression there must be a constant,
independent of the circuit properties and the conditions of the exper-
iment. The first multiplier in the right hand side is defined by the prop-
erties of the circuit, the second – by the method and duration of the
coil deceleration. These factors, generally speaking, do not depend on
each other. Therefore, the right hand side, in the general case, is not
constant, but is determined by the specific conditions of the experi-
ment. The contradiction is obtained: the left hand side must always be
constant, if this is the ratio of the electron parameters, and the right
hand side is not necessarily constant. This means that the equality
(314), generally speaking, is not fulfilled. In accordance with the
method of proof by contradiction, we conclude that the hypothesis of
the existence of free electrons in a metal, which, when metal is decel-
erated, move according to Newton's second law under the action of
inertia, is not true, as it leads to the contradiction.
The reason for this contradiction is that the derivation of formula
(314) in [32, p. 226, 227; 28, p. 411–413; 34, sec. 145] does not take
into account the basic equation of the electronic theory of conductiv-
ity 𝑗𝑗(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡), according to which the charge 𝑄𝑄, flowing during
decelerating of the coil, depends on how it is decelerated (315).
Let's give more estimates showing inaccuracy of Tolmen – Stew-
art experiments interpretation accepted in physics.
Copper has density 8.96 [g/cm3 ] and molar mass of 63.5 [g/mol]
[121, p. 99]. Therefore 1 [cm3 ] includes 0.141 [ mol] or 0.141 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 =
0.85⋅1023 copper atoms, where 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 is Avogadro number it means that
the concentration of copper atoms is 𝑛𝑛Cu = 0.85⋅1023 [1/cm3 ]. Ap-
3
proximate representation of the volume 𝑟𝑟Cu 𝑛𝑛Cu ≈ 1 [cm3 ] gives the av-
erage distance between atoms 𝑟𝑟Cu ≈ 1/ 3� 𝑛𝑛Cu ~ 2⋅10−8 [cm] (similar
reasoning was used, for example, in [30, sec. 17]). Taking into account
a bivalence of copper, we have 2𝑛𝑛Cu ~ 2⋅1023 [1/cm3 ] free electrons
in it. Free path of a trial electron between atoms 𝜆𝜆 = 1/(𝑛𝑛Cu 𝜎𝜎) [121, p.
375] at the characteristic diffusion section of electrons scattering on at-
oms 𝜎𝜎 ~ 10−16 [cm2 ] [175, p. 151] is 𝜆𝜆 ~ 10−7 [cm]. We get 𝜆𝜆 ~ 𝑟𝑟Cu,
what means the strong influence of collisions with lattice atoms on the

441
free electrons motion. The electron moving with the speed of the coil
rotation 𝑣𝑣0 ~ 104 [cm/s], passes a distance of 𝜆𝜆 ~ 10−7 [cm] in
10−11 [s], that is has no opportunity for the free inertial motion during
time 𝑡𝑡0 of the coil deceleration, which is fractions of a second [173, p.
110]. In other words, the second Newton's laws without collisions, used
in derivation of the formula (314), is not applicable for the description of
the free electrons motion on times of the order of 𝑡𝑡0 .
The inaccuracy of interpretation of the Tolmen – Stewart experi-
ment as inertia of the free electrons follows also from the results of
sec. 23.2.1, where it is shown that in the quasi-neutral conductor, in
the absence of larger external forces, the free electrons (if present)
cannot depart from atoms on distance, larger than interatomic.
Let's give the etheric interpretation of the Tolmen – Stewart ex-
periment.
According to measurements, emf is observed at sharp decelera-
tion of the coil with a wire. As shown above, the free electrons do not
explain emf emergence. Therefore it is natural to assume that a rota-
tion of the coil leads to the rotation of the ether in its winding. At
sharp deceleration the ether continues to move in a wire according to
the momentum preservation law (5). Emf arises. The free electrons if
they are in metal, can move in the wire together with the ether, but the
main role is played by the ether flow.
Let's calculate generated emf, assuming that the external mag-
netic field is compensated.
The analysis of the ether motion in the unipolar generator showed
that the ether rotates practically together with the disk, see p. 408.
Such motion creates a magnetic field 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 (297). Therefore we present
emf, generated during coil deceleration, in the form of the sum of the
electric field emf and Zhukovsky emf (206)

𝐕𝐕
ℰ = ℰ𝐄𝐄𝐕𝐕 + ℰЖ = � 𝐄𝐄𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 + � � × 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥,
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐

where the curve 𝐿𝐿 corresponds to the coil wire.

442
 The integral over 𝐿𝐿 is the contour integral of the second kind. The
sign of such integral depends on the choice of the bypass direction of
the curve 𝐿𝐿. The direction of the bypass will be chosen below at in-
troduction of the parametrical representation of 𝐿𝐿. Electromotive
force is considered positive if the curve 𝐿𝐿 crosses the current source
in the direction from the negative pole to the positive [28, p. 193].
Substitute ℰ in the ether expressions for electric and magnetic
fields (20), (21)

ℰ = � (𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕) ∙ 𝐥𝐥 + � �𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕)�� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.

𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿

For simplification of calculations we present the coil winding by

a set of 𝑁𝑁 identical thin circular rings 𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘
𝑁𝑁

𝐿𝐿 = � 𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘 ,
𝑘𝑘=1

in which each ring is cut and one of the ends of a section has contact
with the previous ring, and another – with the following, so that the
direction of the winding bypass remains. Besides, we carry out calcu-
lations in the assumption that the ether density in the wire is close to
constant 𝜌𝜌 ≈ 𝜌𝜌Cu = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
Then
𝑁𝑁

ℰ = 𝜌𝜌Cu � �� �(𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥𝑘𝑘 + � �𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 )� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥𝑘𝑘 �.

𝑘𝑘=1 𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘 𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘

Let us introduce the cylindrical coordinate system (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑, 𝑧𝑧) with
the axis directed along the coil axis. Let's denote unit vectors of this
system local basis as 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 , 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 . Parametrical representation of a circle

443
is 𝐥𝐥𝑘𝑘 = 𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘 𝜑𝜑𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝜑𝜑 ∈ [0,2𝜋𝜋]. Such a parametrization sets the direction
of the ring bypass counterclockwise if to look at the circle from the
half-space of positive 𝑧𝑧 values.
The ether speed in the thin ring has only the azimuthal component
𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 = 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , depending only on the angle 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑 = 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑 (𝜑𝜑). Therefore

1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘
𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 ) = 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 × � � 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 =
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟=𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘
2 2
𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘
𝐢𝐢 × 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 = 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘 𝜑𝜑 𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟

Then
2
𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘
𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 ) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = 𝐢𝐢 ∙ 𝐢𝐢 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0,
𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟 𝜑𝜑 𝑘𝑘

that is the Zhukovsky emf does not give a contribution to the total emf ℰ
𝑁𝑁

ℰ = 𝜌𝜌Cu � � �(𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.

𝑘𝑘=1 𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘

Let's disclose the convective derivative [55, p. 7]

𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘
(𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐕𝐕𝑘𝑘 = 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜑𝜑

We have
𝑁𝑁 2𝜋𝜋 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘
𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘
ℰ = 𝜌𝜌Cu � � 𝐢𝐢 ∙ 𝑟𝑟 𝐢𝐢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜑𝜑 𝑘𝑘 𝜑𝜑
𝑘𝑘=1 0

444
 𝑁𝑁 2𝜋𝜋 𝑁𝑁 2𝜋𝜋 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 2
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 1 𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘
𝜌𝜌Cu � � 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌Cu � � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑘𝑘=1 0 𝑘𝑘=1 0
𝑁𝑁
1 2 (2𝜋𝜋) 2 (0)�
𝜌𝜌 � �𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 − 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 =
2 Cu
𝑘𝑘=1
1
𝜌𝜌 �𝑣𝑣 2 (2𝜋𝜋) − 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,1
2 (0) 2 (2𝜋𝜋)
+ 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,2 2 (0)
− 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,2 +⋯
2 Cu 𝜑𝜑,1
2 (2𝜋𝜋) 2 (0)�.
+ 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑁𝑁 − 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑁𝑁

Given by construction, that on the rings cut speeds are equal to

𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 (0) = 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘+1 (2𝜋𝜋), 𝑘𝑘 = 1, … , 𝑁𝑁 − 1, we finally get
2 (2𝜋𝜋) 2 (0)�
𝜌𝜌Cu �𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑁𝑁 − 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,1
ℰ= , (316)
2
that is the total emf is defined only by the difference of the ether
speeds at the end of the last ring and the beginning of the first ring.
Let's estimate the largest possible emf. According to the formula
(316), the maximum |ℰ| is reached in an instant when on one end of
the coil wire the ether speed is maximum, and on another – is mini-
mum. Or, in other words, the ether pressure (15) on one end is maxi-
mal, and on another is minimum (or the module of the potentials dif-
ference (75) is maximal).
Deceleration of the coil leads to change of the ether speed in rings
𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑘𝑘 . The detailed description of this process demands the analysis of
the ether flow at the level of the conductor atomic lattice. Instead we
consider the simplified model of the ether deceleration by the coil in
which the coil stops instantly, and the ether continues to flow by in-
ertia. The extreme value of emf will appear in an instant when on one
end of the coil the ether speed is already zero, and on another is still
the same, as at rotation with the linear speed of 𝑣𝑣0 . This approxima-
tion is fulfilled better for a longer wire, since, due to the ether inertia,

445
the speeds of its motion on the wire ends differ stronger when the flow
is decelerated by the atomic lattice.
Then from (316) we get
𝜌𝜌Cu 𝑣𝑣02
ℰmax =± ,
2
where plus is taken at rotation of the coil in the direction of the vector
𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , and minus – against it.
Having measured 𝑣𝑣0 and ℰmax in Tolmen – Stewart experiment,
it is possible to estimate the ether density 𝜌𝜌Cu in the wire. However,
authors did not manage to find in literature values of emf recorded in
these experiments. Data about emf is obtained by A.R. Lepeshkin in
the modification of Tolmen – Stewart experiments proposed by him
in [167]. The etheric analysis of these experiments is presented in sec.
23.6.2.

23.6.2. Lepeshkin inertial experiment with the rotating

spiral

One hundred years later after discovery of the Tolmen – Stewart

effect important experiments were performed by A.R. Lepeshkin
[167]. In his experiments the flat coil was considered with the wire
rolled in the form of the Archimedean spiral with a small step (large
turns density). All measures for elimination of the Earth magnetic
field and other external magnetic fields influence were undertaken.
The coil was sharply untwisted and sharply stopped. Herewith, the
splash of emf with different sign was observed at a stage of accelera-
tion and deceleration.
These experiments were done as a new modification of the Tol-
men – Stewart experiments and also for the purpose of the processes
analysis in shovels of the aviation engine turbines. The results of the
measurements turned out to be extremely important for understanding
the electric current nature. In particular, they allowed authors of this

446
book to estimate the ether density in the conductor. Etheric interpre-
tation of these experiments is presented below.
We emphasize that the use of a tightly wound spiral allows to
neglect the radial current when interpreting the experiment.
The analysis of experiments with the unipolar generator showed
that the ether rotates practically together with the conductor, see p.
408. Such motion creates the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 (297). Therefore we
present the emf, generated when decelerating the spiral, as the sum of
the electric field emf and the Zhukovsky emf (206)

𝐕𝐕
ℰ = ℰ𝐄𝐄𝐕𝐕 + ℰЖ = � 𝐄𝐄𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 + � � × 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥.
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐

We take into account the possibility of serial connection of 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠

identical spirals 𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘
𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠

𝐿𝐿 = � 𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘 .
𝑘𝑘=1

Then
𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
𝐕𝐕
ℰ = � �� 𝐄𝐄𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 + � � × 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥� =
𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘=1 𝐿𝐿𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐
𝐕𝐕
𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 �� 𝐄𝐄𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 + � � × 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥�.
𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿1 𝑐𝑐

To simplify the calculations, let's approximate the spiral with a

set of 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 circular thin rings nested into each other with a cut, in which
the end of the previous ring and the beginning of the next one are
connected with the conservation of the spiral bypass direction. The

447
numbering of the rings starts from the ring of the smallest radius. The
integral over the curve 𝐿𝐿1 turns into a sum of integrals over rings. For
each 𝑗𝑗-th ring, assuming a slight change of the ether density in the
wire 𝜌𝜌 ≈ 𝜌𝜌Cu = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, we use the formula (316)
𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤
1 2 2
ℰ = 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝜌Cu � �𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑗𝑗 (2𝜋𝜋) − 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑗𝑗 (0)�.
2
𝑗𝑗=1

Rings in the spiral are connected sequentially, therefore only two

terms remain in the sum

2 2 (0)�
(2𝜋𝜋) − 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,1
𝜌𝜌Cu �𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑁𝑁
ℰ = 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
𝑤𝑤
. (317)
2

According to (317), |ℰ| reaches maximum if at one end of the spiral

wire the ether linear velocity is minimal, and at the other end is maximal.
Denote the radii of the rings 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 , 𝑗𝑗 = 1, … , 𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 . Linear and angular
speeds are related by the equation 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑗𝑗 = 𝜔𝜔𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗 . At steady rotation of
the spiral, the ether linear velocity in the ring of a smaller radius is
smaller 𝑣𝑣0,𝑗𝑗−1 < 𝑣𝑣0,𝑗𝑗 , since the spiral rotates as a whole with the an-
gular speed 𝜔𝜔 in one plane.
Deceleration of the spiral leads to a change in the ether speed 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑
in the rings. Instead of studying the ether flow between atoms, we
consider a simplified model of deceleration with an instantaneous
stop of the spiral, when the flow rate (ether pressure 𝑝𝑝 (15)) inside the
spiral does not have time to even out. The longer the wire in the spiral,
the more accurate the adopted model is, since due to the ether inertia
its speed at the ends of the wire differs more when decelerating.
Consider a spiral whose radius grows with increasing angle 𝜑𝜑:
𝑟𝑟(𝜑𝜑) = 𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎/(2𝜋𝜋), 𝑎𝑎 > 0 (right spiral, 𝑎𝑎 is the spiral pitch, 𝑟𝑟1 is

448
its minimum radius). Let the spiral rotate in the direction of the vec-
tor 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 . After its abrupt stop, the ether continues to move by inertia in
the same direction. To estimate the extreme values of the resulting
emf, consider the point in time at which the ether is still moving at the
outer end of the spiral with the same speed as before deceleration (the
ether pressure 𝑝𝑝 is still smaller than the external pressure 𝑝𝑝∗ (15)), and
at the inner end of the spiral the ether speed in the wire is zero
𝑣𝑣0,1 (0) = 0 (pressure is equalized 𝑝𝑝 ≈ 𝑝𝑝∗). Then at this moment we
have from (317)
2 (2𝜋𝜋)
𝜌𝜌Cu 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤
ℰexp,r = 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 .
2

Sharp stop of the same spiral, rotating in the opposite direction,

leads to the motion of the ether to its center. Herewith, for a wire with
low resistance, the front velocity of this current 𝑣𝑣0,𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 (2𝜋𝜋) can be con-
sidered constant along the wire. The maximum value of |ℰ| will occur
at the time moment when the speed at the inner end 𝑣𝑣0,1 (0) is close to
the speed 𝑣𝑣0,𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 (2𝜋𝜋) before the start of deceleration, and the speed at
the outer end is zero 𝑣𝑣0,𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 (2𝜋𝜋) = 0, that is leveled off relative to the
speed of the surrounding ether. In this case, the formula (317) goes to
2 (0) 2 (2𝜋𝜋)
𝜌𝜌Cu 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,1 𝜌𝜌Cu 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤
ℰexp,r = −𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 = −𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 .
2 2

The last two formulas can be written in short form

2
𝜌𝜌Cu 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑁𝑁 (2𝜋𝜋) 𝜌𝜌Cu 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝑁𝑁2𝑤𝑤
ℰexp,r = ±𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤
= ±𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 , (318)
2 2

where «+» corresponds to the rotation of the right spiral in the direc-
tion of 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , and «−» – against it.

449
 In the spiral with decreasing radius at increasing of the angle 𝜑𝜑:
𝑟𝑟(𝜑𝜑) = 𝑟𝑟𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎/(2𝜋𝜋) , 𝑎𝑎 > 0 (left spiral), the ether inertial motion
occurs in the opposite direction compared to the right spiral. There-
fore, the state of velocities at the ends of the left spiral changes places
and the formula (317) gives
2
𝜌𝜌Cu 𝑣𝑣𝜑𝜑,𝑁𝑁 (2𝜋𝜋) 𝜌𝜌Cu 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝑁𝑁2𝑤𝑤
ℰexp,l = ∓𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤
= ∓𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 . (319)
2 2

For the left spiral, negative emf occurs when its rotation along 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 is
stopped, and positive for stopping rotation against 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 .
In experiments [167], the voltage was also measured at a sharp
acceleration of the spiral. Its extreme value turned out to be close by
magnitude to the extremum of the voltage during deceleration, but
opposite in sign.
Let us take the following model as an approximation of the ether
velocity distribution in the spiral at the time of reaching the maximum
emf |ℰ| at instant acceleration. For the right spiral rotating along 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 :
the impulse 𝜌𝜌Cu 𝑣𝑣0,𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 , created on the outer ring, reaches the inner end,
but the outer end of the helix continues to be fed by the ether, which
is in the state before acceleration. For the same spiral rotating against
𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 : the impulse 𝜌𝜌Cu 𝑣𝑣0,𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 has already been created at the outer end of
the spiral, and at the inner end the ether has not yet acquired the speed
caused by spiral rotation.
For the left spiral, the consideration is similar, but the state of the
impulses at the ends of the spiral changes places during the rotation
along and against 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 .
In such a model of the ether acceleration by the spiral, the formu-
las for extreme emf differ from (318), (319) only by sings

𝜌𝜌Cu 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝑁𝑁2𝑤𝑤 𝜌𝜌Cu 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝑁𝑁2𝑤𝑤

ℰexp,r = ∓𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 , ℰexp,l = ±𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 ,
2 2

450
where the upper sign corresponds to the rotation of the spiral in the
direction of 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , and the lower one – against it.
Let us analyze the variant of the experiment [167], in which the
spiral twist and the direction of its rotation corresponded to the emf

𝜌𝜌Cu 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝑁𝑁2𝑤𝑤

ℰmax,r = 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 .
2
From the known radius of the outermost turn of the spiral 𝑟𝑟𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 and
the measured angular speed of rotation 𝜔𝜔 and emf ℰmax,r one can es-
timate the density of the ether in the conductor
2ℰmax,r
𝜌𝜌Cu = .
𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 𝜔𝜔 2 𝑟𝑟𝑁𝑁2𝑤𝑤

In the experiments, the installation was used with the spiral

wound in a single layer 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 = 1, the length of the wire 𝐿𝐿1 ≈
1170 [cm], radii of the inner and outer ends 𝑟𝑟1 = 4.1 and 𝑟𝑟𝑁𝑁𝑤𝑤 =
11.1 [cm]. The deceleration time of the spiral was ~0.01 [s].
The angular speed of the spiral rotation 𝜔𝜔 was estimated approx-
imately with indirect data. On a short time interval, the readings of the
vibration sensor located near the axis of the installation were analyzed.
The sensitive voltmeter registered the voltage amplitude
ℰmax,r = 0.25⋅10−3 [V] ≈ 0.83⋅10−5 [statV] at the angular speed of
the spiral 𝜔𝜔 ~ 2.5⋅103 [rpm] ≈ 2.6⋅102 [rad/s]. Then for the ether
density in the conductor we get

𝜌𝜌Cu ~ 10−13 [s 2 statCoulomb/cm3 ].

This value corresponds in the order of magnitude to the estimate

(227), obtained from completely different considerations. This corre-
spondence confirms the existence of the ether.

451
 A more accurate measurement of the angular speed 𝜔𝜔 will allow
obtaining a more accurate estimate of the ether density in the conduc-
tor 𝜌𝜌Cu .

23.6.3. The creation of a magnetic field by a rotating

superconductor, a ferromagnet and other objects.
The moment of London. Barnett effect. London's
gravity magnetic moment

Consider a cylindrical superconductor (SC) of ring shape, rotat-

ing around its axis of symmetry in the absence of external sources of
electric current and magnetic field, fig. 14. In [176; 177, sec. 12], it is
theoretically shown that the rotating superconductor can generate a
magnetic field proportional to the angular velocity of rotation. This
theoretical assumption was confirmed experimentally in [178–180].
The effect of creating a magnetic field by a rotating superconduc-
tor is called the "moment of London" or the "Barnett-London effect".
A brief review of papers on this effect can be found, for example, in
the article [181].
Let's give the etheric interpretation of the London moment.
It is known from the experiment that in the state of superconduc-
tivity the magnetic field is displaced from the SC (the Meissner –
Ochsenfeld effect). This fact is also reproduced in the theory of the
ether, see sec. 23.2.3, p. 399.
According to the Ampere equation (29), the zero magnetic field
in a steady state mode implies the absence of a current (the ether flow)
inside the SC (see also the discussion of this issue in [28, p. 320]).
According to Ohm’s law (146), there must be no electric field inside
the SC. This conclusion follows also from the equation (24) at 𝐅𝐅 = 0
and 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 = 0, according to which, at the non-zero electric field, the
ether flow in the SC should increase infinitely.
Zero magnetic and electric fields can correspond to the ether flow
with a constant in time and space ether flow density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

452
 Fig. 14. Scheme of the superconductor. A fragment of the
near-surface layer with a twin boundary is shown on the right.

It is experimentally and theoretically established that a magnetic

field can penetrate only in a very thin surface layer of a superconduc-
tor, see, for example: [28, p. 322].
In the etheric representation, as in the theory of superconductivity
on twin boundaries, see [70; 116–118], as well as sec. 12.5, the super-
conducting current flows above the surface layer. Therefore, the rota-
tion of the superconductor should not lead to the motion in this layer,
otherwise there would be current traction with the surface, that is, su-
perconductivity would be absent.
Thus, during the rotation of the superconductor, good traction of
its material with the ether is possible only in the near-surface layer
(from the inside of the SC). Such traction is provided by a large num-
ber of dislocations in the superconductor crystal structure – twin

453
boundaries (TB). In other words, the rotation of the superconductor
excites the vortex flow of the ether in its surface layer in the direction
of rotation, that is, an electric current (133) is generated in the surface
layer, flowing in the direction of rotation.
In experiments [178–180], a magnetic field was measured on the
axis of rotation of a superconducting cylindrical shell. It is stated [78,
p. 190, left column at the bottom], that using the cylinder of sufficient
height allows to avoid edge effects. This means that in the model of
this experiment it is important to consider the ring current flowing
through a certain area (belt) of the surface layer, see the shaded area
in fig. 14, and not in some thin ring on it.
An additional argument in favor of considering the current
throughout the whole belt is the joint participation of closely located
TBs in the creation of the ether vortical flow (electric current), as well
as the directional action of each TB due to its pit-like shape.
Besides, there is an accurate alignment of the magnetic field of a
rotating SC along the axis of rotation. This effect was used in the space
project "Gravity Probe B" [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_Probe_B] to
measure with high accuracy the magnetic fields of four superconducting
gyros. Exact alignment of the magnetic field is naturally expected from
the current on the surface of the belt, and not from the current in the set
of thin rings on it.
Thus, the more adequate is a model of creating the magnetic field
by the ring current in the surface layer of the SC, rather than a model
of a solenoid with "independent" currents in its turns.
In sec. 19.1 the Bio-Savard law, derived from the ether equations
(see sec. 7), allowed to obtain formula (212), which relates the mag-
netic field, created near the center of the ring current, and the angular
speed of the electric current motion:

2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝐁𝐁 = 𝜔𝜔𝑆𝑆𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .
𝑐𝑐

454
 The area 𝑆𝑆 of the current in the near-surface layer of the SC (from
the inside) consists of a set of sites of size 𝑙𝑙𝐵𝐵 𝑙𝑙TB , see fig. 14, where 𝑙𝑙𝐵𝐵
is the depth of the magnetic field penetration in the SC, 𝑙𝑙TB is the
length of the twin boundary.
By analogy with the number of propeller blades or turbine blades
in the problem of creating a gas-hydrodynamic flow, it is natural to
assume that the increase in the number of sites 𝑙𝑙𝐵𝐵 𝑙𝑙TB above some
∗
number 𝑁𝑁𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 does not lead to a noticeable increase in the current gen-
erated by them or change in the nature of the ether flow.
When evaluating S, it is necessary to take into account the current
only from the closest to the axis of rotation side of the superconduct-
ing cylindrical, since the SC does not have a magnetic field inside and
therefore shields the magnetic field of the current from the shell’s
outer side.
Thus, we have

2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 ∗
𝐁𝐁 = 𝑁𝑁𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙𝐵𝐵 𝑙𝑙TB 𝜔𝜔𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .
𝑐𝑐

The lengths 𝑙𝑙𝐵𝐵 and 𝑙𝑙TB are known from experiments and are prac-
tically universal for typical SCs: 𝑙𝑙𝐵𝐵 ≈ 2.5 − 5 ∙ 10−4 [cm] [179, p.
460, left column; 28, p. 322]; 𝑙𝑙TB ≈ 5 − 7 ∙ 10−8 [cm] [70, 116].
Then for the upper values of 𝑙𝑙𝐵𝐵 and 𝑙𝑙TB we get
∗
𝐁𝐁 ≈ 4.9 ∙ 10−19 𝑁𝑁𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝜔𝜔𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ,

In the experiments of different authors [178–180] with cylindri-

cal SC shells of different sizes made of different materials, the fol-
lowing relation was observed with the error of up to ± 8%

𝐁𝐁 ≈ 1.137 ∙ 10−7 𝜔𝜔𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 [Gauss]. (320)

The last two formulas give the value of the third universal con-
stant for the SC

455
 ∗
𝑁𝑁𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ≈ 2.3 ∙ 1011 .

The surface density of twin boundaries is estimated in [70, p. 68–

71; 116, p. 15] and is ~108 − 1010 [pcs/cm2 ]. Therefore, the ob-
∗
tained number 𝑁𝑁𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 is reached already on the area of ~10 [cm2 ]. In
experiments [178–180], the surface area of superconductors signifi-
cantly exceeded this value.

The etheric derivation of the formula (320) presented here, which

is based on measurements in experiments, shows the possibility of
explaining the London moment without introducing electrons and
providing some of them with the properties of super-electrons. The
electrons can move in the ether, but relation (320) is fulfilled without
them.
The cause of the London moment appearance in the ether inter-
pretation is the creation by the twin boundaries of the SC surface layer
of a vortex ether flow with an angular velocity proportional to the
speed of the SC rotation. Note that the structure of the ether flow near
TB is complicated by the ether pressure increment 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕,𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓 (204), aris-
ing from the overlay of its own magnetic field 𝐁𝐁TB [116, p. 11] and
the ether linear velocity 𝐕𝐕, created by the SC rotation. The vector 𝐁𝐁TB
lies in the plane of the near-surface layer, therefore the pressure in-
crement 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕,𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓 or the Zhukovsky emf (205) is created in the direction
of the vector 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥, non-parallel to the plane of the SC surface.
From formulas (20), (320) at 𝜌𝜌 ≈ 𝜌𝜌0 (227) we find the angular
velocity of the ether rotation on the cylinder axis

1 1.137 ∙ 10−7
𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮 ≈ 𝜔𝜔𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ≈ 6.3 ∙ 10−6 𝜔𝜔𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .
2 2𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0

It is seen that the ether rotation on the axis noticeably lags behind the
rotation of the SC body.

456
 It is possible to achieve a larger magnetic field by rotating the
ether with smaller structures than the twin boundaries. The ether has
an extremely low viscosity (see sec. 21.7), and newtonians have a
very small size (234), therefore such structures will create a vortical
flow more effectively.
From the etheric point of view, the ether twist also lies in the basis
of the Barnett effect, which consists in enhancing of the magnetic
field of a ferromagnet rotating along the symmetry axis [28, p. 310;
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnett_effect; 180, p. 222]. In this case, the
increment of the field is also proportional to the rotation angular ve-
locity, at that, with a proportionality coefficient close to (320).
In the etheric interpretation, the field gain of a ferromagnet is de-
termined by the same mechanism as in the SC: the twist of the ether
by the twin boundaries of the ferromagnet crystals. This explains the
close traction coefficient of this material with the ether.
At temperatures below the Curie point, the ferromagnet is spon-
taneously magnetized; see, for example: [28, p. 312]. Therefore, when
it rotates, the emf occurs, as well as in the unipolar generator (sec.
18.11).
The quantitative analysis of the field created by a rotating solid
ferromagnet is more difficult, since it requires an analysis of the ether
flow in the entire volume of the ferromagnet, and not only in the near-
surface layer, as in SC.
The rotation of a solid ferromagnet or other object twists the ether
flow in the entire volume.
The magnetic field (20) characterizes the vorticity of the ether
flow density at a given point of the volume:

𝐁𝐁 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = 𝑐𝑐(𝜌𝜌𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮 + 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 × 𝐮𝐮).

If the ether density in the vortex at this point changes slightly 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 ≈
0, then the magnetic field is expressed through the angular velocity of
the vortex rotation 𝛚𝛚𝑢𝑢 :

457
 𝐁𝐁 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮 = 2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝛚𝛚𝑢𝑢 .

Thus, the average increment of the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 � inside and near
a rotating solid object is defined by the average density of the ether 𝜌𝜌̅
and the angular velocity of rotation 𝛚𝛚𝑢𝑢 in the vortices created in its vol-
ume, which arise due to motion of elementary structures such as TBs:
� ≈ 2𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌̅ 𝛚𝛚𝑢𝑢 .
𝐁𝐁

Physics, abandoning the notion of media, instead of describing

the phenomenon under consideration by the two parameters of the
ether 𝜌𝜌̅ a 𝛚𝛚𝑢𝑢 is forced to involve electrons (or other particles). In
physics, the coefficient in dependence of 𝐁𝐁 � on the angular velocity of
object rotation 𝛚𝛚 is considered to be proportional to the so-called gy-
romagnetic ratio: |𝑒𝑒|/(2𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐), see, for example, review [en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/Gyromagnetic_ratio]. However, to satisfy experiments
physics has to introduce the Lande factor 𝑔𝑔, which is calculated in
quantum mechanics:
1 2𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐
𝐁𝐁 = 𝛚𝛚.
𝑔𝑔 |𝑒𝑒|

The result is a cumbersome model of the phenomenon, which in-

cludes numerous postulates of quantum mechanics. Comparison of
𝐵𝐵� = 2𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌̅ 𝜔𝜔𝑢𝑢 and 𝐵𝐵, obtained using the gyromagnetic ratio, will be pos-
sible after the construction of the ether model of the matter structure.
The analysis performed shows once again that instead of searching
for the phenomena essence, modern physics systematically uses the ap-
proach that creates only an illusion of understanding: it introduces ob-
jects (in this case, electrons) that are not suitable for phenomenon de-
scription, and then using numerous hypotheses of quantum mechanics
and the probabilistic approach gets rid of those properties of objects
that contradict experiments, or adds to objects new properties.

458
 The formula (320) is derived theoretically by F. London [177, p.
82] based on the consideration of the motion of superconducting elec-
trons (super-electrons).
However, the interpretation of the current created by the rotating
superconductor as a result of the electrons motion leads to a contra-
diction with the direction of the magnetic field in the experiment, see
fig. 14. If it were the electrons moving in the direction of rotation that
carried the current, then, according to the definition of the current di-
rection as the direction of positive charges motion (see, for example:
[28, p. 173]), the current of electrons would have to flow against the
direction of rotation. Then the direction of the magnetic field, in ac-
cordance with the Ampere equation (29), (33) or the Bio-Savart law
(sec. 7), should be opposite to that observed in experiment (320).
Perhaps the reason for the coincidence of the magnetic field in the
theory of London with experiment is consideration in it the equation for
the generalized momentum of super-electrons as the starting point [177,
p. 64, 70, 79]. This equation includes the sum of the super-electron im-
pulse and the vector potential: 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 + 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒/𝑐𝑐. The vector potential
characterizes the ether energy density flow 𝐀𝐀 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐮𝐮 (see sec. 2.3);
therefore, the London theory initially takes into account the motion of
the electron in the ether flow. Besides, the theory of London uses the
equation of motion of the electron liquid [177, p. 53–57], mathematical
form of which is a special case of the ether equation of motion (5).
In 2006, experiments were conducted that showed the emergence
of attraction during the rotation of a superconductor with an increase
in the angular velocity of rotation [www.membrana.ru/particle/9819;
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity; ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Све
рхпроводимость#Гравитомагнитный_момент_Лондона]. The ob-
served effect is called the "Gravitomagnetic London moment".
From the point of view of the ether theory, this result is quite
expected, and not only for superconductors, since, according to the
equation of the ether motion (5), the acceleration of the ether flow
density in the left part of the equation in the absence of external forces

459
should lead to the appearance of the ether pressure gradient in the
right part that can cause the attraction of objects. However, the attrac-
tion of objects can be caused not only by gravity, but also, for exam-
ple, by electrostatic induction, see sec. 18.13. Therefore, the gravito-
magnetic London moment, as stated by the authors of the experiment,
requires further study.

23.6.4. Creating a phantom in the ether by rotation of a

magnetic disk

Numerous observations show the possibility of a long existence

in the ether of vortices and other flows. Therefore, one of the direc-
tions of the ether experimental study is the creation or destruction of
the ether flows under laboratory conditions.
A suitable object for experiments is a magnet, since there is a
strong ether vortex current around it, see sec. 19. Besides, as shown in
experiments with the unipolar generator, see sec. 23.3, the rotation of
the magnet gives a complementary motion to the ether, which spins
almost together with the magnet. The copper disk insert used serves
only to ensure a good contact when picking up the current and is not
essential for spinning the ether, since the unipolar generator works
without a copper disk. Thus, the material, of which the magnet consists,
interacts during rotation mechanically with the ether, dragging it along.
In the experiments with the unipolar generator described in sec.
23.3, the rotation of the ether by the magnet was detected by the oc-
currence of an electric current when the rotation axis is closed with
the external of the magnet. The magnetic field corresponding to this
rotation of the ether is also estimated there: |𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 | ~ 4 ∙ 10−4 [T]. This
value is an order of magnitude larger than the Earth’s magnetic field,
so one can try to measure 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 directly. But this requires a magnetom-
eter capable of detecting a magnetic field ~1 [T] with an accuracy of
five to six characters after the decimal point.

460
 However, it is possible to detect the ether motion created by a
rotating magnet without a multidigit magnetometer. The correspond-
ing experiment was proposed by F.S. Zaitsev and conducted jointly
with V.A. Chizhov. The same unipolar generator was used as in sec.
23.3, but the circuit between the axis of rotation and the external mag-
net circumference remained open in order to highlight the rotation ef-
fect in its pure form.
The magnet was rotated at ~3000 [rpm] for ~10 [min]. The
longer the time interval, the deeper rotation of the ether should be ex-
pected. Instead of using a high-precision magnetometer, the entire
stand with the rotating magnet was quickly removed to a distance of
more than 2 [m], from which the magnet could not affect the meas-
urements. In place of the rotating magnet at a distance of 0.63 of its
radius, where the linear rotational speed is already high, but the edge
effects are not so noticeable, a three-dimensional Hall sensor was im-
mediately installed. The sensor built-in Sony Xperia LT26i mobile
phone was used with the Physics Toolbox Magnetometer v. 1.4.3 in-
terface of Vieyra Software Company. The sensor of this phone
measures relatively small magnetic fields: from 10−8 to 3 ∙ 10−3 [T].
The Earth's magnetic field at the described above point before
placing a stand with a magnet in it was ≈ 50 [μT]. For different di-
rections of rotation and the positions of the rotation axis the magnetic
field at the same point immediately after removing the stand turned
out to be ~10 − 20 % smaller. The recovery of the magnetic field to
≈ 50 [μT] did not occur immediately, but within 3 − 6 [min].
When removing the stand with the non-rotating magnet and
quickly installing the sensor, the Earth's magnetic field at the consid-
ered point was practically the same as 50 [μT]. This shows the essen-
tiality of the magnet rotation.
The observed change in the Earth’s magnetic field is not ex-
plained by the formation of charged particles flow in the air by the
rotating magnet, since the concentrations of positive and negative ions
in air are very small and almost equal, the concentration of electrons

461
is generally speaking negligible, see appendix 6, and non-background
sources of ionization were absent. Nevertheless, it would be advisable
to double check this experiment in a vacuum.
In the etheric interpretation, the rotating magnet creates the ether
flow, which partially destroys the ether vortex flow of the Earth’s
magnetic field. After the magnet is removed, the flow of a fairly com-
plex geometry remains, since it is determined by the structure of the
magnet material, its inhomogeneities and chips, the heterogeneity of
the magnet field that occurs during its manufacture. Besides, there is
a change in the direction of the magnet’s magnetic field to the oppo-
site when it passes through the edge of the disk. All these effects, as
well as methods of removing the stand and introducing the sensor, can
affect the remaining ether flow to some extent.
The most fundamental in this experiment is the relatively long
preservation of the ether flow in place where the magnet was rotating.
This flow is manifested in the partial destruction of the Earth’s mag-
netic field. In other words, the formation in the ether of a long-living
phantom – a non-uniform ether flow is observed. The slow disappear-
ance of the phantom is explained by low viscosity and self-diffusion
of the ether, see sec. 21.7, 21.8, due to which there is no rapid erosion
of the flow created in the ether.
Comparison of the theoretical concept of the ether and experi-
mental data allows one to conclude that they are in good agreement
with each other.
In the next variant of the experiment, the role of the inhomoge-
neity of the rotating magnetic field in the creation of a phantom was
clarified. Two additional magnets, each ≈ 0.3 [T] and a diameter of
17 [mm], were placed on the opposite planes of the disk near edge to
perturb disk’s magnetic field. The magnets were located diagonally
to avoid the emergence of beats during rotation. After removing the
stand, the magnetic field turned out to be ~3 % smaller than in the
case of rotation of the magnetic disk without additional magnets. The

462
recovery time of the Earth’s magnetic field has increased more no-
ticeably, by ~20 %. Thus, in this experiment, the inhomogeneity of
the rotating magnetic field affects the ether behavior after removing
the stand, but still the material that the magnetic disk is made of has a
greater influence.
The experiments described directly confirm the existence of the
ether, and also indicate the direction of the development of technical
devices for closer interaction with it.

23.6.5. Electromagnetic field created by the tuning fork

Interesting experiments with tuning forks were carried out by A.R.

Lepeshkin, see. [168], as well as the report 05.24.2018 in CIAM. When
a tuning fork was excited, the electric and magnetic fields were recorded.
The explanation of observed data by the inertia of free electrons
does not withstand verification, since, according to sec. 23.2.1, under
conditions of the conductor quasi-neutrality and the absence of sig-
nificant external forces, free electrons, if they exist, cannot be dis-
placed relative to the nodes of the conductor crystal lattice by dis-
tances larger than interatomic ones. The motion of the quasi-neutral
conductor does not generate an electric current, and therefore does not
generate an electromagnetic field.
In the etheric interpretation, the cause of the electromagnetic field
appearance is the same as in the unipolar generator, since at each os-
cillation period the motion of the free end of the tuning fork is close
to the circumferential motion. Quantitative study of this effect is car-
ried out according to the method presented in sec. 18.11, 23.3.

23.6.6. Magnetic field of a rotating non-magnetic disk. Pro-

ject of experiments

This section presents the design of experiments to study the effect

of the mechanical influence of a substance on the ether when rotating
various non-magnetic materials takes place.

463
 It is necessary to make a thin-walled disk of the non-magnetic
metal with a container that can be filled with various substances, see
fig. 15. Metal passes well the ether through itself, and thin walls fa-
cilitate this process. It is necessary to ensure the possibility of the long
rotation of the disk (tens of minutes and hours) with the greatest pos-
sible angular speed, since, due to the extremely small size of the new-
tonians, it is difficult to bring them into motion by the substance.

Fig. 15. Design of the disk with container.

The vertical positioning will reduce the beating during rotation.

Using a high-precision magnetometer, one should measure the

magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 inside a non-rotating and rotating disk and calculate
the difference ∆𝐁𝐁. We emphasize that measuring 𝐁𝐁 near the disk can
only give an approximate result, since, due to the very low viscosity
and self-diffusion of the ether (sec. 21.7, 21.8), the spinning of the ether
layers adjacent to the disk is difficult. In other words, generated by the
rotation of the disk ether flow can be much weaker outside the disk.
As an alternative, simplifying the equipment, it is possible to
measure 𝐁𝐁 at the point of disk rotation after its sharp shift along the
axis of symmetry, as in sec. 23.6.4.

464
 To make sure that the creation of ∆𝐁𝐁 ≠ 0 is not related to the
charge mosion with the disk, one can by the short-term grounding or
conducting an experiment in the vacuum.
It is important to exclude the influence of external magnetic fields
on the rotating disk.
The electric motor must be away from the disk.
Earth's magnetic field can be zeroed by a system of magnets lo-
cated at some distance from the disk. It is also possible to eliminate
Earth's influence by orienting the plane of the disk parallel to the mag-
netic field of the Earth. Then the generalized Zhukovsky force will
not have components in the azimuthal direction (in the cylindrical co-
ordinate system with the axis along the axis of rotation) and the elec-
tric current in this direction will not appear. This force may have com-
ponents along the axis of rotation and in the radial direction, but in
these directions the circuit is not closed, so the electric current does
not flow and does not cause the appearance of the magnetic field. The
pressure gradient created by the Zhukovsky force in these directions
leads to the emergence of the potential electric field (72), but, accord-
ing to (26), it does not generate a magnetic field (in the absence of
external non-potential forces).
The weak dependence of ∆𝐁𝐁 from the distance to the axis of ro-
tation of the disk will confirm the absence of free electrons in the disk.
Otherwise, free electrons would have to be displaced by inertia to the
disk edge. In this case, a positive charge would appear near the axis
of rotation, and a negative – at the periphery. As a result of the rotation
of these charges together with the disk, the electric current near the
axis and on the periphery would flow in different directions and the
magnetic field ∆𝐁𝐁 created by it would have a minimum along the ra-
dius. Besides, the electric field presence at a particular point on the
disk can be checked by hanging a straw on a thread or web.
It is interesting to measure the magnitude and direction of ∆𝐁𝐁 for
different materials, to determine the time required for the maximum

465
spinning of the ether, the time of natural stopping of its motion and
stopping by rotating of the material in the opposite direction.
In the etheric interpretation, the occurrence of ∆𝐁𝐁 is explained by
the creation of the ether flow density 𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕 with a non-zero rotor ∆𝐁𝐁 ≡
𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕), see the formula (20) by structural elements of a ro-
tating non-magnetic substance. This effect is similar to the occurrence
of the ether vortex flow in the unipolar generator, see sec. 23.3. The
differences are in considering here the non-magnetic material and the
absence of the closed contour connecting the axis of the rotation with
the periphery of the disk.
Let us estimate the magnetic field 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 , created by the rotation of
the nonmagnetic material. Consdier the linear speed of the ether rota-
tion 𝐕𝐕 in the form (207)

𝑟𝑟 𝛼𝛼
𝐕𝐕 = 𝑅𝑅 � � 𝛚𝛚 × 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 .
𝑅𝑅

At 𝛼𝛼 ≠ −1, the flow of the ether is vortex, since 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕 ≠ 0. The

value of 𝛼𝛼 and the vector 𝛚𝛚 are determined by the structure of the
rotating material. At 𝛼𝛼 = 1, the ether rotates with the disk, since 𝐕𝐕 =
𝑟𝑟 𝛚𝛚 × 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 . In the experiments of sec. 23.3, the value of 𝛼𝛼 was found to
be 1.3, that is, the ether rotated practically together with the disk. If
one creates a material for which 𝛼𝛼 < 1, then when it rotates, a strong
increase of |𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 | should be observed near the axis.
The magnetic field vector corresponding to the vortex (207), is
calculated by the formula (20)

𝑟𝑟 𝛼𝛼
𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕) = 𝑐𝑐𝛁𝛁 × �𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 � � 𝛚𝛚 × 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 �.
𝑅𝑅

In the case of ether density 𝜌𝜌, independent of the coordinate along

the axis of rotation, the vector 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 is directed along this axis. For 𝜌𝜌 ≈

466
𝜌𝜌0 , where 𝜌𝜌0 is the unperturbed ether density (227), and constant an-
gular velocity 𝛚𝛚:

𝑟𝑟 𝛼𝛼−1
𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 = 𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0 |𝛚𝛚|(𝛼𝛼 + 1) � � 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .
𝑅𝑅

The magnitude of the angular velocity of the ether rotation |𝛚𝛚| is

associated with the frequency 𝑛𝑛, measured in [r/min], by the relation
|𝛚𝛚| = 2π𝑛𝑛/ 60 [rad/s]. Then

−3
𝑟𝑟 𝛼𝛼−1
𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 ≈ 10 𝑛𝑛 (𝛼𝛼 + 1) � � 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .
𝑅𝑅

As already noted, the angular velocity of the ether rotation 𝛚𝛚 (and

hence the linear velocity 𝐕𝐕) does not necessarily coincide with the
angular velocity of the disk rotation. The relation between these
speeds depends on the material of the disk and the time elapsed since
the beginning of the disk rotation. Therefore, in this formula, the value
of 𝑛𝑛 can be smaller than the frequency of the disk rotation.
For 𝛼𝛼 ≈ 1 we have

𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−3 𝑛𝑛 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .

For the frequency of the ether rotation 𝑛𝑛 = 3000 [r/min]

|𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 | ≈ 6 [Gauss] = 6 ∙ 10−4 [T],

which is an order of magnitude larger than the Earth’s magnetic field.

That is, this value should be noticeable against the background of the
Earth’s magnetic field.
It is interesting to compare the result of |𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 | measurement for
material with ordinary and increased number of twin boundaries. In

467
the latter case, one can expect the enhancement of |𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 |, since the twin
boundaries have their own structure, different from the basic structure
of the material, and should enhance the ether vorticity.
The proposed experiments can provide additional confirmation
of the existence of the ether.

23.6.7. Experiment with a rotating disk and a vane

The idea of the experiment proposed here is a modification of

experiment [182], in which D.S. Baranov and V.N. Zatelepin consid-
ered the effect of disk rotation on a vane suspended on a thin thread.
A plate (damper) made of copper or other material was placed be-
tween the copper vane and the disk made of steel ST3. At a certain
location, the vane began to rotate. With an increase in the frequency
of the disk rotation, the rotational speed of the vane increased. In the
experiments it was found that the influence of the disk is noticeably
isolated by metal, polyethylene, paper, but not eliminated by a thin
metal net.
The experiment [182], could not be explained by ordinary phys-
ical effects: the air and heat flows from the disk were carefully iso-
lated from the external environment using a polyethylene casing; the
relation between the disk impact on the vane and any electrical
charges was not found; the rotation effect remained when replacing
the copper vane plate with polyethylene one, which should not be sig-
nificantly influenced by the magnetic field, including from the motor
that rotates the disk. The acoustic impact, such as the sound waves
pressure, also does not explain the rotation of the vane. Sound meas-
urements by a sensitive microphone and an oscillograph showed that
the amplitudes of sound in different directions and different points of
space were close.
However, when replacing a failed motor with a magnetic drive
(magnetic clutch) on a motor with a pulley, the effect of the vane ro-

468
tation was no longer observed. This circumstance, as well as individ-
ual staged (trial) experiments with the rotation of the magnet near
vanes of various designs, done by F.S. Zaitsev, led to the conclusion
that either in experiment [182] the effect of electromagnetic induction
was observed from the originally used motor with a magnetic cou-
pling, or the ether was rotated mainly by the magnetic clutch, and not
by the disk.
In any case, the idea of demonstrating mechanical motion under
the ether action deserves special attention. The main problem of set-
ting the vane in motion by the ether flow created by the disk is the
selection of a material for the disk that would well rotate the ether,
creating the ether current not only inside but also outside the disk,
and a material for the vane and damper that would well detained the
ether. At the same time, the vane should be light enough to provide
sensitivity. Long-lasting rotation of the disk is necessary because of
poor mechanical traction of the ether with ordinary substances (due
to the small size and viscosity of the newtonians).
It is interesting to note that the Baranov – Zatelepin experiment
and the modification proposed below do not require special equip-
ment. Therefore, such experiments could be performed hundreds of
years ago. However, information about conducting similar experi-
ments in the past has not been found.
Top view of the scheme of the proposed experiment is shown in
fig. 16.
The origin of the coordinate system is located in the center of the
rotating disk 𝑂𝑂1. The disk is surrounded by a thin cylinder, which iso-
lates air motion, but lets the ether flow through it. Such a cylinder is
not required if the experiment is carried out in the vacuum.
The vane is a rectangular plate with a length of 𝑙𝑙0 and a height of
ℎ0 , suspended on a thin thread. The axis of the vane rotation passes
through the 𝑂𝑂2 point and divides it into two identical rectangular vanes.
A wide cylindrical ring with a slit (flap) prevents the ether flow
generated by the rotation of the disk. As a result, this flow affects

469
mainly the vane, which is outside the cut (outside the shadow). If the
ether flow is decelerated on the vane, then the transmitted impulse
leads to rotation of the vane with an angular speed 𝜔𝜔2 .

Fig. 16. Scheme of the experiment with

a rotating disk and a vane.

The results of sec. 23.6.4 allow one to consider an alternative ex-

periment, in which a large disk of radius 𝑂𝑂1 𝑂𝑂2 is spun for a long time.
Then it is quickly removed and a ring with a vane is placed in the area
of rotation. This version of the experiment does not require the rota-
tion of the ether outside the disk.
Lets obtain a theoretical estimate of the angular speed 𝜔𝜔2 in the
construction shown in fig. 16.

470
 Analysis of experiments with the unipolar generator showed that
the rotation of the conducting disk causes the rotation of the ether. At
that, the ether moves practically together with the disk, see p. 408.
It is known that the rotation of a cylinder of a weakly compress-
ible medium as a solid is a circular cylindrical vortex of constant vor-
ticity Γ [15, p. 297]. The continuous velocity field inside and outside
of such a vortex is calculated analytically, for example, in [15, p. 297,
298]. Outside the vortex, the velocity vector of the medium 𝐮𝐮 is al-
ways directed perpendicular to the radius vector 𝐫𝐫:

Γ Γ
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝜑𝜑 , 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝜑𝜑 , Γ = 2𝜋𝜋𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 ,
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

where 𝑟𝑟1 is the radius of the vortex, 𝜔𝜔1 is its angular speed, (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑) are
the cylindrical coordinates of the point outside the circle of radius 𝑟𝑟1.
We estimate the angular speed 𝜔𝜔2 of the vane rotation in such a
flow of the ether.
It should be noted that under real conditions, due to irregularities
and defects in the crystal lattice of the disk, roughness of its surface
and rotation in air, and not in the vacuum, the steady state ether flow
can turn out to be a spiral. Here such a flow is not considered, that is,
the radial velocity component is considered negligible. However, the
following quantitative results can be generalized to the case of a non-
zero radial velocity.
To simplify the calculations, we will assume that the vane is im-
penetrable for a relatively weak ether flow; the ether flow transmits a
momentum to the vane only outside the shadow region 𝛼𝛼 ∈
[−𝜋𝜋/2, 𝜋𝜋/2] (if the paddle length 𝑙𝑙0 /2 is small enough) and rotation of
the vane is caused only by transverse to its plane component of the flow

cos 𝛽𝛽 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑢𝑢⊥ = |𝐮𝐮|cos 𝛽𝛽 = |𝜔𝜔1 |𝑟𝑟12 , 𝛽𝛽 ∈ �− , �.
𝑟𝑟 2 2

471
Besides, we will assume that in the considered region the ether density
varies only slightly 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 .
The density of the kinetic energy transverse to the paddle of the
ether flow at point 𝐴𝐴 is 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢⊥2 (12). In the elementary volume
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ near the point 𝐴𝐴, the kinetic energy is

𝑑𝑑𝐾𝐾⊥ = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢⊥2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝛼𝛼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ.

Summing over the entire volume swept by one paddle of the vane
outside the shade, we find the kinetic energy of the transverse com-
ponent of the ether flow in this volume
𝑙𝑙0 𝜋𝜋
ℎ0
2 2
𝐾𝐾⊥ = � � � 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢⊥2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝛼𝛼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ =
𝜋𝜋
0 0 −
2
𝑙𝑙0 𝜋𝜋
2 2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ℎ0 � � 𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑢⊥2 𝑑𝑑𝛼𝛼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝜋𝜋
0 =
2
𝑙𝑙0 𝜋𝜋
2 2 𝑙𝑙 cos 2 𝛽𝛽
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ℎ0 (𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 )2 � � 𝑑𝑑𝛼𝛼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
0 −
𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2
2

From the triangle △ 𝑂𝑂1 𝑂𝑂2 𝐴𝐴 (fig. 16), applying twice the cosine
theorem, we find

2 2 2
𝑙𝑙 2 + 𝑟𝑟 2 − 𝑎𝑎2
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑙𝑙 − 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝛼𝛼 , cos( 𝜋𝜋 − 𝛽𝛽) = .
2𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

Then, accounting that cos( 𝜋𝜋 − 𝛽𝛽) = −cos 𝛽𝛽,

𝑙𝑙0 𝜋𝜋
2 2 𝑙𝑙(2𝑙𝑙 2 − 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝛼𝛼)2
𝐾𝐾⊥ = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ℎ0 (𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 )2 � � 𝑑𝑑𝛼𝛼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
− 4𝑙𝑙 (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑙𝑙 − 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝛼𝛼)
𝜋𝜋 2 2 2 2
0
2

472
 𝑙𝑙0 𝜋𝜋
2 2 𝑙𝑙(𝑙𝑙 − 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝛼𝛼)2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ℎ0 (𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 )2 � � 𝑑𝑑𝛼𝛼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
− (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑙𝑙 − 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝛼𝛼)
𝜋𝜋 2 2 2
0
2

This integral can be found analytically in the system of symbolic

computing Maple [www.maplesoft.com]. However, the result is too
cumbersome to analyze. Therefore, we consider an experiment in
which the paddle size 𝑙𝑙0 /2 is much smaller than the distance 𝑎𝑎 be-
tween the axes of disk and the vane rotation: 𝑙𝑙0 /2 ≪ 𝑎𝑎. In this case
𝜋𝜋
2 (𝑙𝑙 − 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝛼𝛼)2 𝜋𝜋
� 𝑑𝑑𝛼𝛼 ≈ 2
𝜋𝜋 (𝑎𝑎 2 + 𝑙𝑙 2 − 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝛼𝛼)2 2𝑎𝑎
−
2

and the kinetic energy of the transverse to the paddle component of

the ether flow in the volume, swept by one paddle outside the shadow,
is equal to

𝜋𝜋 ℎ0 𝑙𝑙02
𝐾𝐾⊥ = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 )2 .
16 𝑎𝑎2

For one complete rotation of the vane, the area of the ether flow
that is not shaded by the partition is passed twice: once with each pad-
dle. Therefore, on one full turn, the ether acts on a vane with the en-
ergy of 2𝐾𝐾⊥ , if the ether flow changes little during this time.
Further, we will consider a half turn of the vane, corresponding
to the passage of the unshaded area by one paddle. On each 𝑗𝑗-th pas-
sage of this region, 𝑗𝑗 = 1, … , 𝑁𝑁, the angular speed of rotation of the
vane gets the increment ∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 , and for 𝑁𝑁 half-turns becomes equal to

𝑁𝑁

𝜔𝜔2,𝑁𝑁 = � ∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 . (321)

𝑗𝑗=1

473
 To estimate 𝜔𝜔2,𝑁𝑁 , we neglect the energy going on the twist of the
thread, and apply a simplified model of the interaction of the ether flow
with the structural elements of the vane material. We assume that at the
𝑗𝑗-th half-turn all the kinetic energy of the ether 𝐾𝐾⊥ in the non shadow
region, swept by one paddle, is expended on incrementing of the vane
kinetic energy of rotation 𝐾𝐾∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 and on overcoming the air resistance
energy 2𝐾𝐾в,𝑗𝑗 , where 𝐾𝐾в,𝑗𝑗 is the air resistance energy of one paddle:

𝐾𝐾⊥ = 𝐾𝐾∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 + 2𝐾𝐾в,𝑗𝑗 . (322)

That is, we estimate 𝜔𝜔2,𝑁𝑁 from above.

The kinetic energy of the vane plate rotating at the angular speed
∆𝜔𝜔2 around the axis 𝑂𝑂2, is determined by its moment of inertia 𝐼𝐼 [26,
p. 186, 196]:

1 2 𝑚𝑚 2
𝐾𝐾∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 = 𝐼𝐼�∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 � , 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑙𝑙 ,
2 12 0

where m is the mass of the plate.

We now calculate the energy 𝐾𝐾в,𝑗𝑗 of the air resistance at the 𝑗𝑗-th
half-turn of one paddle of the vane.
Under the conditions of 𝜔𝜔2 ~ 3 [rad/s], 𝑙𝑙0 ~ 5 [cm], air density
𝜌𝜌в ≈ 1.2 ∙ 10−3 [g/cm3 ] and its viscosity 𝜇𝜇в ≈ 1.8 ∙ 10−4 [g/(s ∙
cm)], the Reynolds number Re = 𝑣𝑣𝑙𝑙0 𝜌𝜌в /𝜇𝜇в = (𝜔𝜔2 𝑙𝑙0 /2)𝑙𝑙0 𝜌𝜌в /𝜇𝜇в is
greater than unity: Re ~ 3 ∙ 102 . Therefore, in the model of the vane
deceleration, the viscosity resistance can be neglected [26, p. 525–
527; 14, p. 447–453; 183, p. 67]. The viscosity resistance becomes
significant at Re = (𝜔𝜔2 𝑙𝑙/2)𝑙𝑙𝜌𝜌в /𝜇𝜇в < 1, which is fulfilled only near
the axis of the vane rotation 𝑙𝑙 ≲ 0.3 [cm]. Besides, we neglect the
wave resistance [6, p. 242, 243] and air compressibility.

474
 Due to the relativity of motion the problem of finding the force
acting on a moving object in the still medium is equivalent to the
problem of finding the force acting on the still object in the appropri-
ate moving medium [26, p. 520].
For large Reynolds numbers, the derivation of the general for-
mula for the drag force of the impermeable object to the incident flow
is complicated by the fact that the flow structural elements do not
completely lose speed when they meet an object, but flow around the
object [6, p. 239–246]. Therefore, in the Newton's formula for the im-
pulse received by the object, a correction coefficient of resistance 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅
is introduced, which characterizes the intensity of the flow decelera-
tion [6, p. 241 the formula (78)] and for the resistance force the fol-
lowing formula is accepted

𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 𝑆𝑆,
2

where 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 and 𝑣𝑣 are the density and velocity of the incident flow, 𝑆𝑆 is
the area of the object projection on the plane perpendicular to the flow
direction. The 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 coefficient is usually determined empirically. The
values of 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 for rectangular plates are given, for example, in [6, p. 249].
Rotation of the vane causes air to rotate. As a result, the speed of
air motion relative to the vane decreases as compared with the speed
of the vane motion. This effect will be characterized by the coefficient
𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 , that is, we will consider the speed of the incident flow in the form
of 𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 𝑣𝑣. For the force of resistance to such a flow we have
2
𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 �𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 𝑣𝑣� (323)
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 𝑆𝑆.
2
So, according to (323), at the 𝑗𝑗-th half turn, when 𝑣𝑣 = 𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙, from
the elementary paddle site 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ near the point 𝐴𝐴 in the direction trans-
verse to the site, the air is affected by force

475
 2
𝜌𝜌в �𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙�
𝑑𝑑𝐑𝐑 = 𝐢𝐢𝑢𝑢⊥ 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ,
2

where 𝐢𝐢𝑢𝑢⊥ = 𝐮𝐮⊥ /|𝐮𝐮⊥ | is the unity vector, 𝜌𝜌в is the air density. This
force does the work
2
𝜌𝜌в �𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙�
𝑑𝑑𝐾𝐾в,𝑗𝑗 = 𝑑𝑑𝐑𝐑 ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝑢𝑢⊥ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝛼𝛼 = 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝛼𝛼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ.
2

The work of the whole paddle, when passing through the un-
shaded area, is given by the integral
𝑙𝑙0 𝜋𝜋 2
ℎ0 𝜌𝜌 �𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙�
2 2
2 в
𝐾𝐾в,𝑗𝑗 = � � � 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝛼𝛼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ =
0 0 −
𝜋𝜋 2
2
2 𝑙𝑙0
2
𝜌𝜌в 𝜔𝜔 2,𝑗𝑗 2
3
𝜋𝜋ℎ0 𝑙𝑙04 𝜌𝜌 𝜔𝜔2
2 в 2,𝑗𝑗
𝜋𝜋ℎ0 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 � 𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑐𝑐 𝛾𝛾 .
2 0 64 𝑅𝑅 𝑗𝑗 2

Substitute the relations obtained into the formula (322)

𝜋𝜋 ℎ0 𝑙𝑙02 𝑚𝑚 2 2 𝜋𝜋ℎ0 𝑙𝑙04 𝜌𝜌 𝜔𝜔2

2 в 2,𝑗𝑗
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 )2 = 𝑙𝑙 �∆𝜔𝜔 2,𝑗𝑗 � + 2 𝑐𝑐 𝛾𝛾 ,
16 𝑎𝑎2 24 0 64 𝑅𝑅 𝑗𝑗 2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 )2 2𝑚𝑚 2 𝑙𝑙02
2
= �∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 � + 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗2 𝜌𝜌в 𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 2
.
𝑎𝑎 3𝜋𝜋ℎ0 4

Take into account that

𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 = 𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗−1 + ∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 , 𝑗𝑗 = 1, … , 𝑁𝑁,

where 𝜔𝜔2,0 = 0, since the vane rotation starts from a state of rest.

476
 Then for the increment of the angular speed ∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 on the 𝑗𝑗-th
half-turn we get a quadratic equation
2 2
(𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏𝑏1 )�∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 � + 2𝑏𝑏1 𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗−1 ∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 + 𝑏𝑏1 𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗−1 − 𝑐𝑐1 = 0,
2𝑚𝑚 2
𝑙𝑙0 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 )2 (324)
𝑎𝑎1 ≡ , 𝑏𝑏1 ≡ 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗2 𝜌𝜌в , 𝑐𝑐1 ≡ .
3𝜋𝜋ℎ0 4 𝑎𝑎2

When 𝑗𝑗 = 1 we have from (324)

𝑐𝑐1 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 )2

𝜔𝜔2,1 = ∆𝜔𝜔2,1 =� = ,
𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏𝑏1 � 2 2𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑙02 2
𝑎𝑎 � + 𝑐𝑐 𝛾𝛾 𝜌𝜌 �
3𝜋𝜋ℎ0 4 𝑅𝑅 𝑗𝑗 в

where the plus sign is chosen for the vane rotating counterclockwise,
which is considered positive in mathematics.
Solution ∆𝜔𝜔2,2 of the quadratic equation (324) at 𝑗𝑗 = 2
2 2
(𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏𝑏1 )�∆𝜔𝜔2,2 � + 2𝑏𝑏1 𝜔𝜔2,1 ∆𝜔𝜔2,2 + 𝑏𝑏1 𝜔𝜔2,1 − 𝑐𝑐1 = 0

is

−𝑏𝑏1 ± �𝑏𝑏12 − (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏𝑏1 )�𝑏𝑏1 𝜔𝜔2,1

2
− 𝑐𝑐1 �
∆𝜔𝜔2,2 = .
𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏𝑏1
Choose the positive root (sign "+"), since the vane rotation speed in-
creases.
For the vane angular speed of rotation after the second half-turn
we obtain
𝜔𝜔2,2 = 𝜔𝜔2,1 + ∆𝜔𝜔2,2 .

477
 Acting consistently, we find all the increments of the angular
speed ∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 , 𝑗𝑗 = 1, … , 𝑁𝑁 and determine the angular speed of the vane
𝜔𝜔2,𝑁𝑁 after 𝑁𝑁 half-turns (321).
In the steady state, the angular speed and the air velocity stop
changing 𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 ≡ 𝜔𝜔2,∞ , ∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 = 0, 𝛾𝛾𝑗𝑗 = 𝛾𝛾, and the energy balance
equation (324) is simplified
2
𝑏𝑏1 𝜔𝜔2,∞ − 𝑐𝑐1 = 0.

From here

𝑐𝑐1 4𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (𝜔𝜔1𝑟𝑟12 )2 |𝜔𝜔1 |𝑟𝑟12 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0

𝜔𝜔2,∞ =� =� 2 2 =2 � .
𝑏𝑏1 2
𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙0 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 𝛾𝛾 𝜌𝜌в 𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙0 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 𝛾𝛾 2 𝜌𝜌в

For the parameters 𝑟𝑟1 = 5, 𝑙𝑙0 = 6, 𝑎𝑎 = 12 [cm], 𝜔𝜔1 =

524 [rad/s] ≈ 5000 [rpm], 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−9 [g/cm3 ] (228), 𝜌𝜌в ≈
1.2 ∙ 10−3 [g/cm3 ], 𝑐𝑐𝑅𝑅 = 1.15 [6, p. 249], 𝛾𝛾 ~ 0.1 , we obtain the
angular speed of the vane rotation 𝜔𝜔2,∞ ~ 4.4 [rad/s] ≈ 42 [rpm].
In the case of partial penetration of the ether flow through the paddle
𝜔𝜔2,∞ is lower.
Interestingly, the value of 𝜔𝜔2,∞ is appropriate in order of magni-
tude to the angular speed observed in experiment [182]. If in [182] the
rotation of the vane was caused by the ether flow, then this corre-
spondence evidence in favor of the ether existence.
It is reasonable to conduct the discussed experiment in the vac-
uum, where there is no air resistance and other effects associated with
air. Then in (324) 𝑏𝑏1 = 0 and the increment on the half-turn of the
vane will be

𝑐𝑐1 |𝜔𝜔1 |𝑟𝑟12 3𝜋𝜋ℎ0 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0

∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 =� = � ,
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎 2𝑚𝑚

478
until the vane suspension begins to resist. For example, for the param-
eters 𝑟𝑟1 = 5, 𝑙𝑙0 = 6, 𝑎𝑎 = 12, ℎ0 = 3 [cm], 𝜔𝜔1 = 524 [rad/s] ≈
5000 [rpm], 𝑚𝑚 = 10 [g], 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−9 [g/cm3 ] (228) the incre-
ment will be ∆𝜔𝜔2,𝑗𝑗 ~ 0.058 [rad/s] ≈ 0.55 [rpm].
The rotation of the vane in the vacuum and consistency of the
theoretical and experimental increments of its angular velocities will
be an additional fact confirming the adequacy of the natural phenom-
ena description with the ether model considered in the book.
Besides, measuring in the vacuum the vane angular speed incre-
ment ∆𝜔𝜔2 over a half-turn will allow to obtain experimentally an es-
timate of the ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0, since for 𝑏𝑏1 = 0 from the equation
(324) one has

𝑎𝑎1 (∆𝜔𝜔2 )2 − 𝑐𝑐1 = 0,

2𝑚𝑚 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 )2
(∆𝜔𝜔2 )2 = ,
3𝜋𝜋ℎ0 𝑎𝑎2
2𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎2 (∆𝜔𝜔2 )2
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 = .
3𝜋𝜋ℎ0 (𝜔𝜔1 𝑟𝑟12 )2

23.6.8. Erroneous interpretations of the objects motion in

some experiments as a result of mechanical interac-
tion with the ether

On the Internet and oral discussions, there is often a discussion

about the interpretation of certain objects rotation as a result of their
mechanical interaction with the moving ether.
The studies in this book (sec. 21, 23) allow us to conclude that
ensuring the mechanical interaction of a substance with a quasi-per-
manent ether flow is an extremely complex technical task requiring
the development of special materials. The main reason for this is the
fundamentally different sizes of newtonians and atoms, as well as the

479
very low viscosity of the ether. As a result, newtonians have the abil-
ity to flow more or less freely through populations of atoms.
In many cases, the rotation of an object is caused by the induction
in it of vortex currents (Foucault currents) when the flow of the mag-
netic field, acting on the object, changes in time. For example, this
effect explains the rotation of the metal propeller or the frame in the
field of the rotating weakly inhomogeneous magnet, as well as the
rotation of a thin conducting disk in electromagnetic noise. The oc-
currence of Foucault currents can be verified by well-known methods
– with making slits on an object or by replacing its material with a
non-conductive one [28, sec. 65].
The rotation of a straw suspended on a thin thread can be first of
all explained by the effect of electrostatic induction (sec. 18.13). Such
an explanation can be verified by placing of the straw into the Faraday
cage (sec. 18.13, 18.14).
It is important to carefully examine the possibility of the electro-
magnetic and electrostatic induction effects, before claiming the obser-
vation of the mechanical interaction of an object with the ether. Other-
wise, as the practice shows, one can waste a lot of time and efforts.

23.7. On the destruction of materials by rotation

It is known that materials with sufficiently fast rotation are de-

structed. Let us discuss the etheric mechanism of such destruction.
We first estimate the frequency of the material rotation necessary
to achieve the sublimation pressure 𝑝𝑝s (see sec. 21.12), at which the
material disintegrates into atoms.
In sec. 23.3 it is shown that the rotation of the disk implies the
rotation of the ether with a certain speed 𝐕𝐕, close to the linear speed
of the disk rotation. The ether motion is related to the pressure gradi-
ent (5). For 𝜌𝜌 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 and 𝐅𝐅 = 0 we have from (5)

𝑑𝑑𝐕𝐕
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 = −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
480
 For circular motion with constant angular speed 𝜔𝜔

𝑑𝑑𝐕𝐕
= −𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 is the unit radial vector of cylindrical coordinates with the
axis coinciding with the axis of rotation.
Then

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 = 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝.

That is, the pressure gradient during the rotation of the ether with a
constant angular speed 𝜔𝜔 has only the radial component and is di-
rected from the disk axis

𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝
= 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Such ether pressure increases with 𝑟𝑟 growth.

The pressure difference ∆𝑝𝑝 at the boundaries of the ring 𝑟𝑟 ∈
[𝑟𝑟0 , 𝑅𝑅] is obtained by integrating over 𝑟𝑟

𝑅𝑅 2 − 𝑟𝑟02
2
∆𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝜔𝜔 .
2

The material of the disk will begin to break up into atoms if the
pressure ∆𝑝𝑝 created by the rotation reaches the sublimation pressure 𝑝𝑝s :

𝑅𝑅 2 − 𝑟𝑟02
2
𝑝𝑝s = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝜔𝜔 .
2

481
 From here we find the angular speed 𝜔𝜔, required for destruction,
and then the required rotation frequency 𝑛𝑛 [rpm]: 𝜔𝜔 = 2π𝑛𝑛/60
[rad/s],

60 2𝑝𝑝s
𝑛𝑛 = ± � .
2π 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑟𝑟02 )

In the experiments from sec. 23.3, the ether pressure

∆𝑝𝑝 ~ 10−4 [Pa] is created in the copper disk rotating at a frequency
of 𝑛𝑛 = 2500 [rpm]. For copper sublimation 𝑝𝑝s = 4.66 ∙ 1011 [dyne/
cm2 ], it would be necessary to spin the disk to 𝑛𝑛 ≈ 5 ∙ 1010 [rpm]. In
this case, the linear velocity at the edge of the disk 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ≈ 2.2 ∙ 1010
[cm/s] should have approached the speed of light. Achieving of such
rotation is not realistic. Therefore, the ether pressure, caused by the
rotation of the disk with a constant angular speed, is not the reason of
the material destruction.
Let us estimate the role of the Zhukovsky force pressure in the
destruction by rotation. Consider the following model of the ether ro-
tation by the material. Assume that the material instantly creates the
velocity 𝐕𝐕 in the vortex flow of the ether 𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕. At this interpretation of
the rotation inside the material, the generalized Zhukovsky force
arises, creating, in accordance with (204), the ether pressure

𝐕𝐕
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 × 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥, 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 = 𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐕𝐕).
𝑐𝑐
The value of 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕 for normal rates is small compared to the sub-
limation pressure 𝑝𝑝s . For example, in the experiments from sec. 23.3,
the difference in the ether pressure on the outer and inner radii of the
disk due to the ether rotation with speed 𝐕𝐕 at the frequency 𝑛𝑛 = 2500
[rpm] is approximately ∆𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕 ~ (𝑅𝑅 − 𝑟𝑟0 )𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 /𝑐𝑐 ~ 10−4 [Pa].

482
 Since ∆𝑝𝑝𝐕𝐕 ~ 𝑛𝑛2 , it is not realistic to reach by increasing 𝑛𝑛 the
sublimation pressure ∆𝑝𝑝 ~ 𝑝𝑝s , at which the material is destructed.
Therefore, the pressure of the generalized Zhukovsky force is also not
the cause of the material destruction by rotation.
From the estimates made, we conclude that under normal condi-
tions the rotation of the disk with typical speeds cannot lead to its
destruction due to the achievement in the space between atoms by the
ether rotation pressure of the sublimation pressure value.
However, real materials always have defects of different spatial
scales. Atomic and cluster structures in defects less prevent the equal-
ization of the internal ether pressure with the external one because of
the large characteristic distances in the defects. Therefore, the ether
pressure in the defects is much closer to the pressure of the unper-
turbed ether, and it is necessary to create smaller additional pressure
to destroy the material along the defects. Within the framework of
such an interpretation, the ether pressure in the defects can be esti-
mated from the known angular frequency of material destruction as
the difference of the unperturbed ether pressure and the pressure cre-
ated by the rotation.
Higher ether pressure in the defects gives a simple explanation of
the known phenomenon mechanism: the more defects in the sub-
stance, the easier it is usually to destruct it by stretching.

23.8. Destruction of material by a laser

The results of experiments on the irradiation of crystalline bis-

muth by the femtosecond laser are presented in [172]. The authors of
[172] write that they obtained the result amazing from the point of
view of physics: the destruction (melting) of bismuth occurs in a time
shorter than the thermal vibration of the atom of the crystal lattice,
that is, in the time during which the atoms do not have time to swing.
The authors of [172] interpret this effect by changing of the potential

483
energy of the lattice surface by the laser. However, such an explana-
tion is hardly consistent, since during the time of destruction the sur-
face of the lattice also does not have time to get a noticeable impulse
from the wave of laser radiation.
We give the ether interpretation of this experiment. Let us esti-
mate the pressure (energy density) created by the laser wave inside
bismuth. Dividing the energy ℎ𝜈𝜈 of the laser photon, at which the de-
struction of the crystal occurs, by the volume of the interatomic space,
we get the ether pressure at which the destruction occurs:

ℎ𝜈𝜈
𝑝𝑝s ~ ,
(𝑟𝑟м − 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 )3

where 𝑟𝑟м is the interatomic distance, 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 is the radius of the ion of the
lattice atom. For ℎ = 6.6261 ∙ 10−34 [J ∙ s], the laser emission fre-
quency 𝜈𝜈 = 𝑐𝑐/𝜆𝜆 = 3.87 ∙ 1014 [1/ s] and bismuth parameters
𝑟𝑟м,Bi ~ 4.746 ∙ 10−10 [m], 𝑟𝑟Bi ≈ 0.74 ∙ 10−10 [m] (see, for example:
[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth]) we get 𝑝𝑝s,Bi ~ 0.0736 ∙ 1011 [Pa].
According to the method of sec. 21.12, we find the internal ether
pressure in bismuth 𝑝𝑝int,Bi = 𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝s,Bi ~ 1.026 ∙ 1011 [Pa]. Com-
parison with the ether pressure in bismuth and in other substances
from the table in sec. 21.12, p. 362, shows the adequacy of the esti-
mate 𝑝𝑝int,Bi , obtained using the laser energy density, at which the bis-
muth is rapidly destructed.
Thus, as in the experiments analyzed in sec. 18.10, 21.12, bis-
muth is destructed when a laser inside bismuth creates a pressure close
to the unperturbed ether pressure 𝑝𝑝0 (230).
The considered experiment with the laser provides another way
of determining the ether pressure in substances, in addition to the ex-
plosion of wires (sec. 18.10) and the measurement of the sublimation
energy (sec. 21.12).

484
 The ethereal understanding of the cause of target destruction in-
stead of compression, when exposed to a laser, shows the extreme
complexity of implementing inertial controlled thermonuclear fusion.

23.9. Experiments in a technical vacuum

The state of a rarefied gas that is at a pressure below the atmos-

pheric pressure is called the vacuum [36, p. 215] or the technical vac-
uum to emphasize the presence of some residual amount of gas mol-
ecules.
The degree of gas dilution is characterized by the ratio between
the mean free path 𝜆𝜆, corresponding to collisions of gas molecules,
and the linear dimensions of the vessel 𝑑𝑑, in which the gas is located.
There are ultrahigh 𝜆𝜆 ≫ 𝑑𝑑, high 𝜆𝜆 > 𝑑𝑑, medium 𝜆𝜆 ≤ 𝑑𝑑 and low 𝜆𝜆 ≪
𝑑𝑑 vacuum.
Conducting of experiments in the high and ultra-high vacuum al-
lows minimizing the effect of gas molecules on the studied processes,
that is, to investigate processes in the pure form.
The importance of experiments with electricity in the vacuum is
determined by the possibility of direct study of the ether flow. Be-
sides, the vacuum facilitates the study of the microworld structure.

23.9.1. Dark current

Consider the phenomena that occur between electrodes in the

vacuum under the action of an electric field. In the high vacuum (the
mean free path of molecules is greater than the size of the vessel [36,
p. 215]) at an increase of the electric field to 𝐸𝐸 ≲ 107 [V/cm] , a so-
called dark current arises [184, p. 89; 121, sec. 25.6, p. 575]. With a
further increase in 𝐸𝐸, a breakdown occurs – a discharge with a sharply
falling volt-ampere characteristic, accompanied by a change in the
surface of the electrodes [184, p. 89]. The even higher field 𝐸𝐸 leads
to a conductor explosion, see sec. 18.10 and the literature cited there,

485
as well as references at the end of sec. 25.1 of the reference book
[121].
Initiation at 𝐸𝐸 > 107 [V/cm] of the breakdown electric current
in the vacuum [185, p. 197; 186, p. 27] is convincingly explained in
classical physics by the emission from the cathode of electrons, whose
energy has increased under the influence of 𝐸𝐸 to the value of the work
function, which makes it possible to overcome the coupling forces
with the body [121, ch. 25; 185, sec. 11.2.6; 187, ch. XVII]. For ex-
ample, the current at thermoelectronic emission in a wide range of
temperatures is well described by the Richardson – Dashman formula
with the Schottky correction taking into account the external electric
field [188, ch. 3, sec. 7; 36, p. 423].
The cathode breakdown initiation mechanism is considered to be
the main one [186, p. 26].
For large electric fields 𝐸𝐸 > 107 [V/cm], the current in the vac-
uum can be caused by a number of effects: the motion of electrons
pulled by the field from the surface of the cathode under the action of
an electric field; secondary emission arising due to the bombardment
of the corresponding electrodes by electrons and ions accelerated in
𝐸𝐸 [185, p. 197]; pulling out of electrons under the action of light, etc.
For the theory of the ether, the consideration of dark (pre-break-
down) currents in the vacuum, which arise at 𝐸𝐸 < 107 [V/cm], , is of
the greatest interest, since their nature is not fully understood [184, p.
72]. The related discharges can be attributed to the dark Townsend
discharge [185, ch. 12.2.2], but in the vacuum.
For example, let us analyze the experimental data on the initiation
of a discharge in the high vacuum from the monograph [189]. Fig. 3.4
in it shows the graph of the current and photos of the glow. Over the
time interval 0 − 10 [ns] at 𝐸𝐸 = 20 ∙ 103 / (0.35 ∙ 10−1 ) ≈ 6 ∙
105 ≪ 107 [V/cm ] the current is already being detected, there is
even a noticeable surge in it at the time of 0.5 [ns], despite the fact
that such 𝐸𝐸 should not yet lead to the emission of electrons (see sub-
section 4 below). Besides, the glow at the cathode begins at the 4-th

486
nanosecond. If the cathode luminescence is caused by electron emis-
sion, they are accelerated in the 𝐸𝐸, field, for example, up to a speed of
0.1𝑐𝑐 for ~2 ∙ 10−3 [ns] at a distance of ~0.05 [mm]. But at the speed
of 0.1𝑐𝑐, electrons should appear at the anode, the distance to which is
0.35 [mm], after ~10−2 [ns] and cause its luminescence, and it is ob-
served only after 10 [ns].
Another example is the problem of interpreting the breakdown
lag when creating a potential difference [186, p. 27; 189, p. 54]. The
delay is usually explained by the inertia of the Joule heating of the
cathode and the beginning of the emission of electrons from its mi-
croprotrusions [190, p. 266]. At that, the heating mechanism is not
explained, when the 𝐸𝐸 field is still insufficient to eject electrons from
the microprotrusions, and the current is already observed.
There is also no explanation for the growth of the maximum pos-
sible dark current strength with the improvement of the high vacuum
[184, p. 71].
Extensive explorations are devoted to the experimental study of
dark currents, see, for example: [184, ch. 3]. The main problem of
their theoretical explanation is that dark currents are observed when
the electric field is 100 − 1000 times smaller than it follows from the
Schottky formula [188, p. 103; 185, p. 197, 208; 190, p. 266], which
takes into account the external electric field. Moreover, they can have
a kinetic (mechanical) effect [191, p. 756]. Thus, there is a contradic-
tion in the electron-ion theory of a vacuum conductivity: electrons at
fields 𝐸𝐸 < 107 [V/cm] cannot escape in a large amount from the elec-
trode and there should not be a noticeable electric current, but it is
observed.
To resolve this contradiction, modern physics, which has aban-
doned the concept of the ether and does not bind electric current with
the ether flow, is forced to go beyond the limits of classical physics
and impart to electrons in a conductor the tunneling property, which
would allow them to leave the electrode in large amounts. Physics ex-
plains the dark currents by exclusively tunneling (autoelectronic, field

487
or cold) emission of electrons from the cathode as passage of electrons
of any velocity beyond its boundary in the form of a wave [36, p. 423;
188, ch. 3, sec. 4, 8; 185, sec. 6.5.1; 193, p. 204–206]. It is claimed
that understanding the mechanism of dark currents is possible only on
the basis of wave (quantum) mechanics [28, p. 449; 194, p. 154].
However, it is important to emphasize that for a reasonable inter-
pretation of phenomena, such as breakdown in the deep vacuum,
modern physics still has to introduce the concept of a certain medium
in which processes take place. For example, quantum mechanics en-
dows a vacuum with energetic properties, see, for example, a review
in [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum]. According to the quantum me-
chanics, breakdown in the high vacuum is explained by the spontane-
ous production of virtual electron-positron pairs and their rupture by
the electric field [28, p. 390; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_polari-
zation]. Virtual particles in the quantum field theory actually play the
role of a certain media, providing different interactions of real parti-
cles, while the exact mechanism of interactions is still considered not
established [36, p. 882].
Dark currents have been studied in many hundreds of experi-
ments, see references in [184, ch. 3; 191, ch. 12; 185, p. 388]. How-
ever, descriptions of some of the details required for adequate inter-
pretation could not be found. Therefore, the authors together with
V.A. Chizhov, I.N. Stepanov and S.M. Godin conducted additional
experiments in which the current-voltage characteristic was studied,
specificity of electrodes glowing, the mechanical action of the cath-
ode-anode rays and the influence of the external magnetic field on
them. Quantitative estimates of the parameters of the ether flow in
these experiments are presented in sec. 23.9.2–23.9.4.
We emphasize that the analysis of luminous phenomena near the
electrodes and in the vacuum gap in combination with the current-
voltage characteristic is the standard technique for studying of elec-
trical discharges in the vacuum, giving the most valuable information,
see, for example: [189, sec. 3.2].

488
 By definition, the low vacuum begins with a decrease in atmos-
pheric pressure to 1 [mm Hg] (see [36, p. 215]), that is, by 760 times.
In our experiments, we used the oil pump V-i220SV with a filter on
the pipe going to the vacuum chamber, which minimizes the ingress
of oil into it. This pump gives the residual pressure by 𝑁𝑁𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 5 ∙ 104
times smaller than the atmospheric: 2 [Pa] = 2 ∙ 10−5 [bar] ≈
1.5 ∙ 10−2 [Torr].
Below, in subsection 2, it will be shown that in our experiments
the average mean free path of electrons, accelerated by the electric
field, in the effect of molecules ionization is larger than the size of the
vessel. Therefore, from the viewpoint of processes of neutrals ioniza-
tion by electrons, the vacuum used with a residual pressure of 2 [Pa]
can be classified as rather high [36, p. 215]. The large ionization path
of electrons, compared with the size of the chamber, leads to the ab-
sence of an avalanche-like mechanism of their multiplication [185, p.
339]. This is one of the main differences between our experiments and
typical vacuum discharges in long tubes and discharges at the atmos-
pheric pressure.
The results obtained here can be confirmed by experiments in the
deeper vacuum; however, this will require special equipment for air
pumping and a higher voltage to create the dark current, as well as
protection from possible X-rays.
The vacuum chamber was a cylindrical glass hubcap with a vol-
ume of ~7 liters (base radius ≈ 10 [cm], height ≈ 22 [cm]) closed
with the steel disk underneath. A vacuum rubber gasket was placed in
the annular groove of the disk and coated with a vacuum grease to
ensure reliable sealing. After pumping out the air and turning off the
pump, the pressure of 2 [Pa] in the chamber was kept for more than
12 hours, which indicates a good isolation of the chamber from the
external pressure.
A thin net of the galvanized steel (Faraday cage) was located on
the periphery inside the vacuum chamber. The net shields the effects

489
of external charges, for example, induced on glass, and makes it pos-
sible to study the shape and brightness of the luminescence appearing
on it. One of the electrodes was mounted in the net and had conductive
contact with it, its tip protruded from the net by ~1 [cm]. The other
electrode was located inside the chamber. Each electrode was a cop-
per wire with a cross section of 2.5 [mm2 ] with a sharpened end. The
distance between the tips was about 4 [cm].
The scheme of the experiment is shown in fig. 17

Fig. 17. Scheme of electrodes and parts of the net.

Voltage and current were measured with an OWON SDS7102

oscilloscope and a MAS838 multimeter. The voltage between the
electrodes was regulated by a LATER (autotransformer) connected
with a multiplying transformer. Such a system allowed getting volt-
ages up to 30 [kV]. The design of the voltage multiplying transformer
limited the amount of current in the circuit to 15 [mA].
The experiments were carried out in a room isolated from the
sunlight at temperatures of ≈ 5 and ≈ 20 Co .

490
 In the steady state between the electrodes, a potential difference
of ~500 − 103 [V] was recorded at a current of ~1 − 10 [mA]. The
initialization of the current did not require a significant excess of this
potential difference. The electric field was 𝐸𝐸 ~ 103 [V] / 4 [cm] =
250 [V/cm]. Signs of the dark current [184, p. 71] were observed:
bluish-violet glow of the electrodes, the absence of the electrodes
heating and a noticeable change of their surface. The glow between
the electrodes was dimmer than on them. Such a discharge can be at-
tributed to one of the modes of a glow discharge in the vacuum [185,
ch. 12].
Let us analyze all the main effects known for discharges, and
show that the observation data cannot be explained by the motion of
charged particles. We carry out the reasoning on the basis of the con-
cepts of the mean free path and the effective cross section. This tech-
nique gives approximate estimates, see, for example: [27, p. 324].
However, a more detailed study of the processes in the residual air is
too complicated, since in the general case it requires a numerical so-
lution of the system of kinetic equations for all particles in the air.
1. Consider the contribution to the current of free electrons and
ions present in the residual air.
The presence of electrons and ions in the air is due to the
processes associated with the effects of fast particles coming
from space and earth, as well as natural radioactivity.
In appendix 6 on p. 604 is shown that with a reduced pres-
sure by 𝑁𝑁𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 5 ∙ 104 times the concentration of electrons is
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 ~ 16.3 [1/cm3 ], and the density of positive and negative
ions is 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 ~ 23.7 [1/cm3 ]. This background density of
charged particles in the residual gas is constantly maintained
by the external sources.
Let us estimate the speed acquired by electrons in the
electric field and the current corresponding to it.
The mean free path of electrons in elastic collisions in a
gas is 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 1/(𝑛𝑛0 𝜎𝜎) [36, p. 209; 185, p. 40, formulas

491
 (2.3), (2.6), (2.8), (2.9)], where 𝑛𝑛0 is the density of gas mole-
cules, 𝜎𝜎 is the effective cross section for elastic collisions. We
extrapolate the cross section 𝜎𝜎 of elastic scattering of electrons
by the 𝑁𝑁2 and 𝑂𝑂2 molecules (the main components of air) ac-
cording to data from [121, p. 393; 175, p. 151, 152] in the en-
ergy range ~102 − 103 [eV] by the value 𝜎𝜎 ~ 3 ∙ 10−15
[1/cm2 ]. We estimate the molecular density in the residual air
using the Loshmidt number 2.687 ∙ 1019 : 𝑛𝑛0 ~ 2.687 ∙
1019 /𝑁𝑁𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ~ 5 ∙ 1014 [1/cm3 ]. Then 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ~ 0.6 [cm].
In this case, the electron undergoes ~5 [cm]/𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ~ 8
elastic collisions with the residual gas during the passage of
the distance between the central electrode and the net. The loss
of electron energy in one elastic collision with an atom is usu-
ally small [185, sec. 2.3.2, 2.3.3]. Therefore, here the change
in the electron energy due to this process can be neglected.
The field 𝐸𝐸 ~ 250 [V/cm] at the mean free path 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
delivers to electron the energy |𝑒𝑒|𝐸𝐸𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ~ 150 [eV], at the
distance between the electrodes 4 [cm] – energy ~103 [eV] or
speed 𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒 ~ 1.9 ∙ 109 [cm/s].
Thus, free electrons in the residual air at 𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ~ 𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒 /2 can
provide only a very small current density 𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ~ 2.5 ∙
10−9 [A/cm2 ] and the total current 𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒 = 𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝑆 ≈ 5.6 ∙ 10−11 [A]
at 𝑆𝑆 ≈ 0.023 [cm2 ].
Due to the quasi-neutrality of air, the density of positively
charged particles is approximately the same as electrons and
negatively charged ions, but the ion mass is 3–4 orders of
magnitude higher than the electron mass, therefore the 𝐸𝐸 field
delivers to the ions the lower speed and they give even smaller
contribution to the current.
2. Let us analyze the effect of neutral particles ionization by ac-
celerated electrons.

492
 The mean free path of electrons in the process of ioniza-
tion of gas molecules by them is 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 = 1/(𝑛𝑛0 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 ) [36, p. 209;
185, p. 40, formulas (2.3), (2.6), (2.8), (2.9)], where 𝑛𝑛0 is the
density of molecules, 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 is the effective ionization cross sec-
tion. The ionization cross section of the main air components
𝑁𝑁2 and 𝑂𝑂2 by electrons with energies from 0.3 to 1 [keV], ac-
counting for the proportions of concentrations 𝑁𝑁2 (78 %) and
𝑂𝑂2 (21 %), grows very rapidly from zero 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 = 0 at 10 [eV] to
𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 ~ 3 ∙ 10−16 at ~102 [eV] and then decreases very quickly,
having 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 ~ 1.2 ∙ 10−16 [1/cm2 ] at energy ~1 [keV], see
[121, p. 427], as well as [175, p. 211, 212]. For 𝑛𝑛0 ~ 5 ∙
1014 [1/cm3 ] we have at the maximum of the cross section
𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 ~ 6 [cm], and for the other values of 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 : 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 ≳ 10 −
16 [cm]. Thus, during electron acceleration, the mean free
path of the electron 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 during the ionization process of the at-
oms is all the time longer than the distance between the central
electrode and the net of the chamber 5 [cm].
Therefore, the ionization of neutral particles by electrons
in the residual air is small and this mechanism does not make
a significant contribution to the current. That is, a cascade of
electrons does not appear, which is the primary element of the
breakdown in many types of discharges [185, p. 339]. So, this
experiment is significantly different from many experiments
with gas discharges in long tubes, where the interelectrode dis-
tance is relatively large and the accelerated electrons have
time to ionize the residual gas.
3. The ionization of residual gas neutrals by ions is also small.
Under the assumption that the number of neutrals domi-
nates over the number of ions, the average free path of the ion
in elastic collisions 𝜆𝜆𝑖𝑖,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 can be roughly estimated in order of
magnitude by the average length of the free path of the neutral
[185, p. 63]. According to [175, p. 46, 51], for 𝑁𝑁2 and 𝑂𝑂2 at the

493
 pressure rarefaction by 𝑁𝑁𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 times, taking into account the in-
verse proportionality of the mean free path to the concentration
of atoms, we have 𝜆𝜆𝑖𝑖,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ~ 6.5 ∙ 10−6 𝑁𝑁𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ≈ 0.3 [cm].
Thus, at the distance between the electrodes of 4 [cm],
ions, like electrons, can gain energy ~103 [eV]. However, the
ionization cross section of neutrals with ions of such energies
is smaller than the cross section of ionization of neutrals by
electrons (noticeable ionization by ions can start from several
keV or even tens of keV) [197, p. 194; 198]. Therefore, the
free path of the ion for the ionization process of the neutral is
greater than that of the electron, and therefore, according to
subsection 2, the ions fall on the cathode, without having time
to ionize the neutrals.
4. Let us discuss the possibility of electron emission from elec-
trodes under the action of the electric field.
At the measured field and current, there should be no no-
ticeable emission of electrons from the cathode under the ac-
tion of 𝐸𝐸, since in this mode the field 𝐸𝐸 ~ 103 [V/cm] is small
compared with the breakdown field in the vacuum ~107 [V/
cm]. Besides, under these conditions, the Schottky correction
(see formula (6.7) in [185] or [121, p. 567]), which takes into
account the influence of the external electric field on the elec-
tron work function out of the metal, is ~0.007 [eV], which is
insignificant in comparison with the work function itself
~4 [eV] (see sec. 23.9.6).
Estimates of the amplification of the electric field on mi-
cro-protrusions, see, for example, the arguments in [28, p. 449;
195, p. 16], most likely, give a highly overestimated result,
since they are based on giving physical meaning to mathemat-
ical abstraction, in which the electric field increases infinitely
as the tip radius tends to zero, and do not take into account
many processes that occur near the micro-protrusion and di-

494
 rectly on it, for example, the polarization of molecules and sep-
aration of charges weakening the electric field, the occurrence
of a potential difference between the tip of the microprotrusion
and the electrode surface. Also, the estimates are strongly
based on the assumption of the shape and size of protrusions,
for example, by setting the microprotrusion size to zero, an ar-
bitrarily large electric field can be obtained [28, p. 449].
In any case, in the etheric interpretation, according to sec.
23.9.6, there is a discharge mode (electric field strength) in
which the ether flows out of the cathode without detaching
electrons from the atoms because of the insufficient energy
density of the ether flow. This mode in modern physics is as-
sociated with electron tunneling.
In the electric field of constant direction, the electron
emission from the anode, if present, does not lead to an in-
crease in the number of free electrons, since they must be
quickly attracted by the anode [185, sec. 6.3.4; 188, p. 175].
5. There are no signs of thermal emission of electrons or ions,
since there is no red-yellow emission of electrodes and signif-
icant changes of their surface.
6. Let us analyze the possibility of emission from the cathode of
electrons under the influence of light (photoelectric effect, see,
for example: [188, ch. 4; 193, p. 200–204]).
A bluish-violet glow is observed on the electrodes. The
power of the energy emitted in this case, 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , can be approx-
imately estimated by comparing the brightness of the glow
with the brightness of a light source, such as a lamp, with a
known radiation power 𝑊𝑊lamp . The surface power density of
radiation from a lamp at a distance 𝑅𝑅 is 𝑊𝑊lamp /(4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 2 ).
Let on the luminous surface of the electrode with the area
𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 this density be compared with the radiation density of the
electrode 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 /𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 : 𝑊𝑊lamp /(4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 2 ) = 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 /𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 . Then
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑊𝑊lamp 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 /(4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 2 ). The luminescence emitted from

495
 the electrodes becomes hardly noticeable when the lamp with
the radiation power 𝑊𝑊lamp ~ 200 [W] is turned on at the dis-
tance 𝑅𝑅 ~ 100 [cm]. For the area of the luminous surface
𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ~ 1 [cm2 ], we have 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ~ 0.002 [W].
According to [121, p. 575], the photocurrent of saturation
per unit power of monochromatic radiation incident on the
cathode is 𝐼𝐼𝜆𝜆 = 0.807 𝑌𝑌𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 [mA/W], where 𝑌𝑌𝜆𝜆 is the number of
photoelectrons released from the surface into vacuum per each
photon falling on the cathode surface (quantum yield), 𝜆𝜆 -
wavelength in [nm]. In the ultraviolet range, 𝜆𝜆 ~ 100 [nm]
The radiation energy in the ultraviolet range is
ℎ𝜈𝜈 ~ 12 [eV]. The quantum yield 𝑌𝑌𝜆𝜆 from the surface of pure
copper at radiation energies of ≲ 10 [eV] does not exceed
10−2 electrons per photon [121, p. 575; 185, p. 200]. Then
𝐼𝐼𝜆𝜆 ≈ 1 [mA/W].
We find that if the cathode gets all the radiation energy of
the anode, then the photocurrent 𝐼𝐼ф = 𝐼𝐼𝜆𝜆 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 does not exceed
the maximum possible value in this experiment 2 ∙ 10−6 [A].
Thus, the photocurrent cannot explain the measured value of
the current.
7. Let us discuss the emission of ions from the anode under the
action of accelerated electrons.
It is known that the electron energy of several keV and the
current density of electrons of the order of 10−3 [A/cm2 ] are
not sufficient for electrons to pull out an ion (electron-ion
emission) from the anode [196, p. 559].
Sec. 1 shows that electrons acquire an energy of about
1 [keV] in the field and their current density is much smaller
than 10−3 [A/cm2 ]. Besides, sec. 2–6 established the absence
of electron sources that could noticeably change the initial
electron concentration in air, increasing their current density.
Therefore, electron-ion emission also does not make a notice-
able contribution to the measured current.

496
8. The formation of a significant number of negative ions due to
getting by neutral of electron from the cathode does not occur,
since under the experimental conditions there is no emission
of electrons from the cathode (see subsection 4). Besides, the
binding energy of an electron with an atom or molecule in a
negative ion (electron affinity energy) [121, p. 421] is much
smaller than the work of the electron exit from the metal sur-
face [121, p. 568]. Therefore, neutrals do not have enough
binding energy to pull out a significant amount of electrons
from the cathode.
9. The formation of a significant number of positive ions due to
the separation of electrons from neutrals by the electric field
occurs at very high fields 𝐸𝐸 ≳ 108 [V/cm] and is associated
with electron tunneling, see, for example: [197, p. 196; 199,
p. 12]. Such fields are usually attributed to anode micropro-
trusions. However, in the experiment under consideration,
there is no increase in the measured 𝐸𝐸 by six orders of magni-
tude even by overestimation [28, p. 449].
Besides, in the etheric interpretation, the current in the
conductor is primarily due to the ether motion, and not free
electrons (see sec. 18.10, 23.6.1, 23.3).). Therefore, electrons
pulled off from neutrals, not having the opportunity to flow
through a conductor, would have to accumulate in large quan-
tities on the surface of the anode, but this is not observed.
10. Let us consider the effect of electrons pulling out from the
cathode by accelerated ions (ion-electron emission).
Ions on the interval ~5 [cm] in the field 𝐸𝐸 ~ 103 [V/cm]
can acquire energy ~1 [keV] (see subsection 3). Such energy
is enough to overcome the electron work function ~4 [eV] in
the collision of the ion with the cathode. However, according
to subsections 1–3, 5, 7–9, there are no noticeable ion sources;
therefore, ion-electron emission can occur only with the par-
ticipation of a very small initial amount of ions (see subsection

497
 1). Considering that the number of pulled out electrons per one
keV ion is much smaller than unity, see, for example: [121, p.
590], such a process can increase the concentration of elec-
trons only slightly. Thus, ion-electron emission does not make
a significant contribution to the measured current.
11. Ion-ion emission at the cathode, if present, also does not make
a significant contribution to the current, since the formed ions
in the electric field with constant sign must quickly be pulled
to the cathode.
Thus, the behavior of electrons and ions in the experiment under
consideration does not explain the observed magnitude of the electric
current.
The analysis of such experiments, as already noted, has led phys-
ics to the necessity of introducing energy states and virtual particles
into the void. Such a step can be interpreted as a return to the concept
of the media in which all processes take place, that is, to the ether. In
physics, an even more exotic for understanding method of eliminating
contradictions in the theory of vacuum conduction and explaining the
initial stage of the discharge in it is adopted – the imparting of elec-
trons with a tunneling property [188, ch. 3, sec. 4, 8; 185, sec. 6.5.1].
In this book, instead of strange theoretical abstractions, a con-
sistent, logically unifying many physical laws, methodology for inter-
preting phenomena is proposed, which is based on two postulates:
preservation of the amount of the ether and the amount of its motion.
In this methodology, a dark current and related phenomena have a
simple and visual explanation.
In the etheric interpretation, the electric current is a current of the
ether with a non-zero rotor of rotor, see sec. 12. With sufficient pres-
sure, the ether current is pulled out from the surface of the electrode
to the outside and comes to another electrode. Electrons and ions can
also move in the flow of the ether between the electrodes, but, accord-
ing to the above quantitative estimates, the main effect of the dark
(pre-breakdown) current is due to the flow of the ether. An additional

498
confirmation of this is the fulfillment in the vacuum (ether without
substance) of the Wiedemann – Franz law analogue, in which the ther-
mal conductivity of the ether is used, calculated with kinetics of new-
tonians, see sec. 21.11.
A sufficiently strong ether flow excites neutral atoms of the elec-
trodes and the residual air. Returning to the unexcited state, the atoms
emit quanta of light. There is a glow. The spatial inhomogeneity of
the ether flow near the electrodes is greater than between them, there-
fore the excitation and, accordingly, the glow around the electrodes is
stronger. The bluish-purple color of the glow is due to the pronounced
presence of this color in the spectra of nitrogen, oxygen, copper, zinc,
and iron atoms.
An increase of the potential difference between the electrodes
corresponds to an increase of the ether pressure difference between
them, see formula (75). An increase in the pressure difference leads
to an increase in the flow of ether, which makes the glow brighter,
warms the electrode, begins to tear electrons from atoms (see sec.
23.9.6, 23.9.7) primarily in microprotrusions, where the strength of
the material is weaker, and may even lead to an explosion of the elec-
trode (see sec. 18.10). With the appearance of a large emission of
electrons, the dark discharge passes into the breakdown one.
The experiments known earlier and described here allow to draw
the most important conclusion: the negative charge of a certain region
is appropriate to the increased ether pressure inside it compared to the
pressure of the surrounding ether.
For example, in the experiments conducted in the high vacuum,
independently by different authors [189, p. 57–64], it is shown that,
before the appearance of a noticeable current, the glow starts from the
cathode (negatively charged electrode). And in general, the cathodic
breakdown initiation mechanism is considered to be the main one
[186, p. 26]. According to the equation of motion (5), the ether flows
in the direction of smaller pressure. From here we conclude that in the
cathode (or in its boundary area) there is increased ether pressure.

499
 From the ether point of view, the flow of current from the cathode
to the anode means that the anode accepts the flow of the ether. This
is possible under reduced pressure of the ether inside the anode com-
pared to the pressure in the surrounding ether.
These conclusions are confirmed by the following observations
in our experiments. The glow of an uninsulated cathode surface oc-
curs from all sides, and not only from the anode side (this effect is
also observed on the superconducting cathode [192]). At that the tip
of the cathode glows less brightly than the side surfaces. This differ-
ence in luminescence is especially vividly manifested on the bitbrace
(kolovrat) with uninsulated needles when the negative pole is con-
nected to it, see sec. 23.9.4. This means that the flow of the ether be-
gins to break out of the cathode as soon as the insulation of the wire
ends and the distance to the anode, which retracts the ether, decreases.
First of all, the current can come from microprotrusions, where the
atomic structure is weakened.
The effect of the outflow of the ether from the cathode at the "first
opportunity" explains the formation of a dark space around the tip of
the cathode, where the flow velocity is weaker and less excites a re-
sidual gas.
The anode, on the contrary, glows mainly near the tip. This can
be explained by blocking its uninsulated surface with particles en-
trained by the ether and weakening of the ether flow velocity in the
region farther from the cathode. The anode tip glows brighter, which
is appropriate to the beginning of the ether drawing in the place of the
most weakened atomic structure.
Such conclusions are confirmed by a much larger glow spot on
the net around the electrode when the negative pole is connected with
it compared to the positive one. On a negatively charged net, the ether
is emitted from a larger area on it. At a positively charged net, the
ether is indrawn at the closest to the cathode tip places.
The conclusion about the excess pressure of the ether in the cath-
ode also agrees with the understanding of the emission of electrons
from the cathode as evicting them by the ether, see sec. 23.9.6.

500
 In other words, the surface of the cathode can be represented as a
set of nozzles on a chamber with increased gas pressure (or small
holes in a balloon), and the anode as a set of drain channels.
In the steady state, the direction of the electric field between the
cathode and the anode is defined by the gradient of the ether pressure
between them, see formulas (72), (15). If at the exit beyond the bound-
ary of the cathode, in which the ether pressure is increased, the flow
of the ether accelerates, and before the surface of the anode – decel-
erates, then, according to (15), (72), in the case of slightly varying
ether density, the pressure gradient is directed to the anode, and the
electric field to the cathode. This is appropriate to the adopted in phys-
ics direction of the electric field: from a positive to negative charge,
see, for example: [28, p. 19, 20].
The need to increase the voltage (the ether pressure) with a deep-
ening of the vacuum when creating a dark current can be explained
by reducing the number of collisions of residual gas molecules with
electrode surfaces, which begins to weaken less the bonds between
atoms in the surface layers of the electrodes making it more difficult
for the ether to flow through these layers.

23.9.2. Dark current in the presence of a magnet

A detailed quantitative study of the process of the ether outflow

from the cathode, its flow in the interelectrode gap, and the inflow
into the anode requires the development of the ether model of the mi-
croworld and is the direction of further research.
However, it is already possible to find the rate of the ether flow
by the measured current density and to estimate its geometric param-
eters by the glow.
The dark current in the magnetic field was studied for this pur-
pose. The geometric center of the north pole of the permanent magnet
was located at a small distance from the tip of the electrode so that the
magnetic field was perpendicular to the segment connecting the tips

501
of the electrodes, see fig. 18. Both not isolated from the current and
the isolated magnet surfaces were considered.
The magnetic field near the electrode tip was about 0.15 [T] =
0.15 ∙ 104 [Gauss]. Electrons with the energy of ~1 [keV] in such a
field have small Larmor radii 𝑟𝑟𝐿𝐿,𝑒𝑒 < 0.7 [mm] compared with the
magnet size. Therefore, the magnetic field prevents the electrons from
reaching the tip of the anode (see also experiment in [171, p. 478–
480]) and its acceleration by the constant electric field in the direction
transverse to the magnetic field.
However, due to the presence of the electric field, complete elec-
tron locking in the direction transverse to the magnetic field does not
occur. As a result of electric drift [28, p. 366] the electron leaves the
region of the constant magnet field in time 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 ~ (𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚 − 2𝑟𝑟𝐿𝐿,𝑒𝑒 )/𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 <
6.0 ∙ 10−9 [s], where 𝐯𝐯𝑑𝑑 = 𝑐𝑐𝐄𝐄 × 𝐁𝐁/𝐵𝐵 2 ≈ 1.7 ∙ 107 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 [cm/s] is the
speed of the electric drift, 𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚 = 0.2 [cm] is the radius of the zone near
the center of the magnet, where 𝐁𝐁 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 and 𝐄𝐄 ⊥ 𝐁𝐁.

Fig. 18. Scheme of electrodes, magnet and part of the net.

502
 During the confinement time 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 the electron manages to make
𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 /(𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒 /2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐿𝐿,𝑒𝑒 ) ~ 25 revolutions along the Larmor circle and pass a
total of about 25 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐿𝐿,𝑒𝑒 ~ 8 [cm]. In subsection 2, the average mean
free path of the keV electron is calculated in ionization of the 𝑁𝑁2 and
𝑂𝑂2 molecules: 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 ~ 16 [cm]. Therefore, the available path of elec-
trons, even taking into account the confinement time, is not sufficient
for substantial ionization of the residual gas.
Thus, in the experiment with the magnet, there is no birth of a
significant number of additional charged particles whose motion
could make a noticeable contribution to the dark current. This conclu-
sion is confirmed in the experiment by the absence of a luminescence
band in the direction of the electric drift near the magnet plane.
The velocity of the ether flow between the electrodes 𝐕𝐕 is related
with the current density 𝐣𝐣, which can be measured in the experiment,
by the formula (133)

𝐕𝐕 = 𝐣𝐣/𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 .

Denote with the letter 𝐮𝐮 the velocity of the ether flow caused by
the permanent magnet. The creation of velocity 𝐕𝐕 in this flow leads
to the influence on the element of the ether volume 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of the general-
ized Zhukovsky force 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 , which in the absence of external non-po-
tential forces, according to formula (121), is

1
𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 = �𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮)� + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
2

Taking into account the definition of the magnetic field (20) and
the transformations used in deriving of the formula (134), we have for
the force volume density

503
 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 𝐁𝐁 1
= 𝐣𝐣 × + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕) =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐 2
𝐁𝐁 1 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 1
𝐣𝐣 × + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × � + 2 𝐣𝐣 × 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �,
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

where 𝐣𝐣 is the current density between the electrodes, 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 is the mag-
netic field created by this current, 𝐁𝐁 is the field of the permanent mag-
net.
We integrate the equation of the ether motion (5) on a small time
interval ∆𝑡𝑡 for the case 𝐅𝐅 = 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮) 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕

= − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Assuming that during the time ∆𝑡𝑡 the right hand side changes weakly,
we obtain the increment of the ether flow density ∆(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕)

𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕
∆(𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕) ≈ � − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝� ∆𝑡𝑡.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

If the ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 varies slightly over ∆𝑡𝑡, then for the veloc-
ity increment we have

1 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐕
∆𝐕𝐕 ≈ � − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝� ∆𝑡𝑡 =
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 𝐁𝐁 1 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 1
�𝐣𝐣 × + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × � + 2 𝐣𝐣 × 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 � − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝� ∆𝑡𝑡.
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Integrating over ∆𝑡𝑡, we obtain the increment of the radius vector

of the volume element position

504
 1 𝐁𝐁 1 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 1 ∆𝑡𝑡 2
∆𝐫𝐫 ≈ �𝐣𝐣 × + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × � + 2 𝐣𝐣 × 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 � − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝� .
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 2

At a small ether density gradient 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 0, we have

1 𝐁𝐁 1 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 ∆𝑡𝑡 2
∆𝐫𝐫 ≈ �𝐣𝐣 × + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝� . (325)
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑐𝑐 2

Under the experimental conditions, the ether pressure gradient

𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 has practically no vertical component (see fig. 18). Therefore

1 𝐁𝐁 1 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 ∆𝑡𝑡 2
∆𝑧𝑧 ≈ �𝐣𝐣 × + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × � 𝐢𝐢 .
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑧𝑧

The first term in (325) has no horizontal component. Then

1 1 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 ∆𝑡𝑡 2
∆𝑥𝑥 ≈ � 𝑘𝑘 𝐮𝐮 × − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝� 𝐢𝐢 ,
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 2 𝑚𝑚,0 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑥𝑥
1 1 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 ∆𝑡𝑡 2
∆𝑦𝑦 ≈ � 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝� 𝐢𝐢 .
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 2 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑦𝑦

Here 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 , 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 , 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 are unit vectors along the 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 axes (see fig. 18).
Let us estimate ∆𝑧𝑧 and ∆𝑥𝑥 in our experiment, assuming that 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚
is close to the unperturbed ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228), and compare the
result with the observed deviation of the glow.
We have 𝐣𝐣 = 𝐼𝐼/𝑆𝑆 𝐢𝐢𝐕𝐕 , where 𝐼𝐼 is the measured current, 𝑆𝑆 is the
cross-sectional area of the glow region between the electrodes, 𝐢𝐢𝐕𝐕 is
the unit vector in the direction of the ether flow velocity 𝐕𝐕, 𝐢𝐢𝐕𝐕 = ±𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 .
For 𝐼𝐼 ≈ 1.5 ∙ 10−3 [A] = 4.5 ∙ 106 [statA], 𝑆𝑆 ≈ 0.023 [cm2 ] we get
𝐣𝐣 = 2 ∙ 108 𝐢𝐢𝐕𝐕 [statA/cm2 ]. Then at 𝐵𝐵 ≈ 0.15 [T] = 0.15 ∙
104 [Gauss]: 𝐣𝐣 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 ≈ ±10.0 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 .

505
 The magnitude of the field 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 , created by the current between the
electrodes, is estimated by the formula (105) with 𝑅𝑅 ≈ 0.2 [cm], cor-
responding to the distance between the tip of the electrode and the
magnet: B𝐕𝐕 ≈ 0.0015 [Gauss].
We estimate the magnitude of the velocity 𝐮𝐮 of the ether flow,
caused by a magnet, by the formula (20) |𝐁𝐁| = 𝑐𝑐|𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)| ≈
𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0 |𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮| ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0 |𝐮𝐮|/𝑅𝑅: |𝐮𝐮| ≈ |𝐁𝐁| 𝑅𝑅/(𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌0 ) ≈ 3 ∙ 104 [cm/s] at
𝑅𝑅 ~ 0.2 [cm].
Thus, the first term in the formula for ∆𝑧𝑧 is much larger than the
second one |𝐣𝐣 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐| ≈ 10.0 ≫ �𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁𝐕𝐕 �/(2𝑐𝑐) ≈ 6 ∙ 10−6 .
The time during which the ether flow passes the zone of constant
𝐁𝐁 taking into account the flow around the electrode tip: ∆𝑡𝑡 ≈
2𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚 /𝑉𝑉 ≈ 1.4 ∙ 10−5 [s] for 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑗𝑗/𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 3 ∙ 104 [cm/s].
Then ∆𝑧𝑧 ≈ −0.5 [cm] when the ether flows with a velocity 𝐕𝐕
along the 𝑌𝑌 axis: 𝐢𝐢𝐕𝐕 = 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 . This value and direction of the ether flow
deviation near the magnet is appropriate to the luminous region devi-
ation from the horizontal in the experiment with a negative voltage
applied to the net. When the polarity of the electrodes is changed, the
luminescence deviates in the opposite direction ∆𝑧𝑧 ≈ 0.5 [cm], which
is also appropriate to the obtained analytical formula for ∆𝑧𝑧, since in
this case 𝐣𝐣 changes to −𝐣𝐣.
Now we estimate the deviation ∆𝑥𝑥. For 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 in the direction trans-
verse to the current, we have 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (𝐕𝐕 + 𝐮𝐮)2 /𝑅𝑅 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 ≈ 40 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 at
𝑅𝑅 ~ 0.2 [cm]. The plus sign here corresponds to a decrease of the
ether pressure in the gap between the electrode and the magnet com-
pared with the pressure on external side of the electrode relative to the
gap. The decrease in 𝑝𝑝, according to (15), is caused by an increase in
speed arising from the narrowing of the ether flow region.
Accounting that the second term in the formula for ∆𝑥𝑥 is much
larger than the first one, we get ∆𝑥𝑥 ≈ −1.8 [cm]. That is, the ether flow
should move to the magnet, which is located at a distance of 0.2 [cm]

506
from the electrode, and be reflected from it. The luminescence appro-
priate to this situation is observed in the experiment. The effect of the
flow shift towards the gap between the electrode and the magnet is sim-
ilar to the attraction of objects when air is blown between them in ac-
cordance with the Bernoulli law (see, for example: [26, p. 494]).
We emphasize that electrons and ions, accelerated by the electric
field, can contribute in collision to the glowing s, but, as shown above,
in the experiment under consideration, they are not the main exciters
of luminescence and carriers of the dark current, but the vortex flow
of the ether.
In the etheric interpretation attempts in [184, p. 57] to find the
fractions of electrons and ions in the dark current by applying of the
magnetic field transverse to the current may mean studying the influ-
ence of the generalized Zhukovsky force (121) on the ether flow.
By accurate measurement of ∆𝑧𝑧, 𝐣𝐣 and 𝐁𝐁, it is possible to estimate
the ether density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 . It is also of interest to estimate the magnitude of
the solid angle, in which the ether flow from the cathode is scattered
in the experiment with and without the magnet, since this effect is
observed in the form of the glow on the anode net
It is known that the velocity of electric drift in constant and uni-
form electric and magnetic fields does not depend on the charge and
mass of the particles [28, p. 366]. In the ether model, this fact can be
interpreted as a drag of all types of charged particles by the appropri-
ate ether flow in analogy with a river stream, which provides the same
speed to all objects in it. The emergence of the problem of overcom-
ing the speed of light when 𝐸𝐸 > 𝐵𝐵 in the absence of external forces
may mean the beginning of a significant obstacle to the acceleration
of charged particles by the ether structural elements – newtonians
(sec. 21.2).

23.9.3. Mill

The mill is a propeller with blades suspended on a thin thread

filament, see fig. 19. The device name is borrowed from [191, p. 756].

507
In our case, four identical continuous blades were used. Each had the
shape of a rectangle. The mill was made of ordinary paper, the shel-
lac-impregnated paper, aluminum foil or golden foil. Its rotation be-
tween two electrodes in air and in the vacuum was studied. Experi-
ments were performed by F.S. Zaitsev and V.A. Chizhov.
One of the electrodes was a sharpened copper wire of cross sec-
tion of 2.5 [mm2 ] with insulated lateral surface. As the second elec-
trode, either the same as the first one was used, or a net-shaped elec-
trode. The distance between the electrodes was ~5 [cm]. The mill was
located so that the shortest segment between the electrodes did not
coincide with its axis of rotation, that is, so that the flow between the
electrodes could rotate the mill. A constant voltage was applied to the
electrodes.
In the air, intensive rotation of the mill began at the potential dif-
ference between the electrodes of ~3.5 [kV]. Such a rotation is a well-
known effect, which is explained by the so-called ion wind, see ap-
pendix 7.

Fig. 19. The scheme of the experiment with the mill.

The same vacuum chamber was used as in sec. 23.9.1, which pro-
vides a pressure by 5 ∙ 104 times smaller than the atmospheric one.
Experiments with mills of different materials did not show strong, as

508
in air, rotation. This means that the ion wind decreased significantly,
that is, the vacuum was created deep enough for this experiment.
However, the mills still moved. The metal mill reacted stronger
to the creation of the potential difference (the ether pressure (75)). As
the potential difference increased from 0 to ~5.5 [kV], it turned half
a turn. Nevertheless, it is still premature to conclude that the effect of
the mechanical interaction of the ether flow with the mill is observed,
since its rotation could be due to electrostatic induction in the electric
field between the electrodes, i.e. attraction to the electrode of the in-
duced charge on the blade (sec. 18.13).
Let us estimate from above the density of the ether flow kinetic
energy between the electrodes. The design of the voltage multiplying
transformer limited the amount of the current in the circuit to
15 [mA] = 4.5 ∙ 107 [statA]. The density of such a current in the wire
with the cross section of 2.5 [mm2 ] equals to 𝑗𝑗 ≈ 1.8 ∙ 109 [statA/
cm2 ], and the velocity of the ether flow is 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑗𝑗/𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 2.7 ∙
105 [cm/s] (see ((133)).
Then for the maximum density of the ether kinetic energy in the
wire under the given conditions, we have 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢2 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢2 ≈
144 [erg/cm3 ], see (15), (228). This energy density corresponds to
the kinetic energy of water cubic centimeter (density 1 [g/cm3 ]),
moving at a speed of ~17 [cm/s], where the kinetic energy of water
is understood in the usual sense (not impulsed, sec. 1.4) as the density
of the work force for moving of an object from one point to another
[26, p. 131]. However, due to the high permeability of the blade for
the flow of the ether, as well as the possible reduction of the vorticity
and speed of the ether flow after the electrode leaves, the mill gets
only a small fraction of the ether flow kinetic energy in the wire. Cal-
culation of this proportion will be possible after the construction of
the matter internal structure etheric model.
Thus, to detect the mechanical rotation of the mill by the ether mo-
tion, it is necessary to conduct a more subtle experiment using a sus-
pension with less resistance to torsion, for example magnetic, and also

509
to prepare the mill of a material that well hinders the ether flow, for
example, superconducting along the plane of the blade (sec. 23.10.2)
or covered with a dense atomic substance (sec. 23.10.3). To reduce the
obstacles to the flow of the ether, it is of interest to create a deeper
vacuum and use a superconductor as one or both electrodes [192] with
good isolation of side surfaces from the ether flow through them.

23.9.4. Brace

Brace, or the wheel of Franklin, see [28, p. 51], consists of several

(usually four) symmetrically arranged curved needles with sharpened
ends, fig. 20. In the experiments, the center of the brace symmetry is
placed on a sharpened rod or suspended on a thin filament. Voltage is
supplied to the center through a rod or by means of a flexible wire.

Fig. 20. Brace on the suspension.

In the air, the brace begins to rotate at a voltage of ~5 [kV] and

more (depending on the specific design). This rotation is due to the cre-
ation of the ion wind on sharpened ends of needles, see appendix 7.

510
 The authors, together with V.A. Chizhov, S.M. Godin and I.N.
Stepanov studied the behavior of the brace in the vacuum. The same
vacuum chamber as in the experiments of sec. 23.9.1 was used, which
provides the pressure by 5 ∙ 104 times smaller than the atmospheric
one. In order to avoid the influence of the charges induced by the nee-
dles on the glass cap of the vacuum chamber, the brace was placed
inside the Faraday cage in chamber. A constant voltage of a different
sign from the same source was applied to the brace and the cage. The
use of the potential on the cage enhances the electric field.

Fig. 21. Brace with insulators.

Changes were made to the design of the brace to increase its ro-
tational speed in air. It turned out that this is facilitated by the
smoother shape of the bends of the needles, as well as the attachment
of flat insulators to the needles tips from the side of the cage, fig. 21,
made, for example, of shellac. The smoother shape of the bends re-
duces the ether pressure (voltage (75)) loss through the side surface
of the needle. The flow of ions and the ether tends to get from the tip
to the net along the shortest path, therefore such insulators increase

511
the tangential component of the flow to the rotation circumference of
the needles ends.
Experiments with the brace suspended on the filament turned out
to be the most effective, since in the vacuum the resistance of friction
on the rod tip led the rotation of the brace to stop after a while, despite
the applied voltage of ~25 [kV].
In the vacuum, when the negative voltage of ~10 − 25 [kV] was
applied to the brace, a slight rotation was observed in the direction of
the needles convexity, see fig. 21. The negative charge of the conduc-
tor is appropriate to the overpressure of the ether in it (see sec. 3,
18.13). Therefore, this behavior of the brace can be interpreted as the
result of the reactive motion under the action of the ether flows escap-
ing from the tips.
When the positive voltage of ~10 − 25 [kV] was applied to the
brace, its barely noticeable rotation in the opposite direction occurred,
toward the concavity of the needles bending. This effect can be asso-
ciated with the intake of the ether into the tip of the needles, the ether
pressure in which is reduced at the positive charge.
However, for the final conclusion about the generation of reactive
motion by the flow of the ether, it is necessary to carry out more subtle
experiments in the deeper vacuum with provision of a significant ro-
tation to the brace. It is also necessary to compare the measured rota-
tional speed with a quantitative estimate based on the theory of the
ether. A significant brace turn can be achieved with the following
modifications: improvement of insulation from the ether leakage
through the side surfaces of the needles and the surface of the wire
supplying the voltage; use of lead wire of large cross section; using a
suspension with less resistance to torsion, such as magnetic; an in-
crease in the tangential component of the ether flow near the tip of the
needle, for example, due to nozzles of one or another form made of a
material that is poorly conducting the ether.
By analogy with sec. 23.9.3 we estimate the ethereal thrust force
developed by one needle of the brace. When the current in the circuit

512
is 15 [mA] = 4.5 ∙ 107 [statA] and the needle section 1 [mm2 ], the
current density in each of the four needles is 𝑗𝑗 ≈ 1.1 ∙ 109 [statA/
cm2 ]. Then the ether in one needle moves with the speed 𝑢𝑢 =
𝑗𝑗/𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 ≈ 1.7 ∙ 105 [cm/s] (see (133)). The density of the kinetic en-
ergy of the ether flow is 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢2 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝑢𝑢2 ≈ 226 [erg/cm3 ], see (15),
(228). Such a density of kinetic energy has one cubic centimeter of
water (density 1 [g/cm3 ]), moving at a speed of~21 [cm/s], where
the kinetic energy of water is understood in the usual sense (not im-
pulsed, sec. 1.4) as the density of the work force for moving of an
object between two points [26, p. 131].
However, in our experiments, due to the small tangential compo-
nent of the ether flow at the exit of the needle tip and the large ether
pressure losses through the side surfaces of the brace, only a small
fraction of the kinetic energy of the ether flow in the circuit was spent
on rotation of the brace.

23.9.5. Asymmetric capacitors. Biefeld-Brown effect. Lifter.

Modified brace

The simplest design of an asymmetric capacitor consists of thin

and thick wires, attached to an insulator and connected to a voltage
source, see fig. 22. A constant voltage is usually applied in experi-
ments. When discussing asymmetric capacitors, its wires (plates) are
called electrodes.
In air, when the voltage between the electrodes is ~1 [kV/mm],
a movement of the asymmetric capacitor towards the thin electrode
occurs. This phenomenon is called the Bifeld – Brown effect; see the
review in [ru.wikipedia.org; en.wikipedia. org]. It is explained by the
ion wind (see appendix 7), occurring close to the thin electrode, near
the surface of which the electric field is amplified due to the greater
curvature of the wire cross-section. The presence of the second (thick)
electrode allows to get in the asymmetric capacitor an electric field of
increased strength compared with the designs for the ion wind crea-
tion using a single electrode.

513
 Fig. 22. Asymmetric capacitor.

Fig. 23. Lifter.

Asymmetric capacitors are used in various devices to create

thrust force due to the ion wind. One of these devices is a lifter, see
fig. 23. There are many videos in the Internet devoted to the construc-
tion of a lifter, demonstration of its flights and associated air flows,
see, for example: [www.youtube.com/watch?v=vzZy1Aqleno; www.

514
youtube.com/watch?v=71v5sFu7 LT8]. The thick electrode is usually
made of foil in the form of a triangle. From above of it the thin elec-
trode in the form of a wire contour is attached on insulators. The thrust
of the ion wind at a voltage of ~20 [kV] is sufficient to raise the lifter.
The video [www.youtube.com/watch?v=d7Hxd0fAYhw] pre-
sents a modification of the brace, using asymmetric capacitors at the
ends of the needles, see fig. 24. The lead wires with positive and neg-
ative potentials are placed far from each other to reduce the loss of the
ether pressure outside the blades. This video also proposes the asym-
metric capacitor thrust force measuring with the pendulum having
shoulders of different lengths. The capacitor is fixed at the upper end
and the counterweight is fixed at the lower end.
The authors did not have time before publishing the book to con-
duct experiments with asymmetric capacitors in the vacuum. There-
fore, we will use information from the Internet about such experi-
ments without verification. We managed to find at least three trust-
worthy videos showing the motion of asymmetric capacitors in the
high vacuum, which is not explained by the ion wind.

Fig. 24. The modified brace.

515
 The presentation [www.youtube.com/watch?v=xYMUv1VJ
3VQ] states that NASA studied in 2003 the behavior of the asymmet-
ric capacitor in the NSSTC LEEIF vacuum unit. The rotation of the
asymmetric capacitor was recorded in the vacuum at the pressure of
1.72 ∙ 10−6 [Torr], that is, at the pressure by ~4.3 ∙ 108 times smaller
than the atmospheric.
The video [youtu.be/CGN65lse5yE], published in 2011, demon-
strates the asymmetric capacitor motion in the vacuum at the pressure
of ~2.9 ∙ 10−6 [Torr]. The design of the capacitor is different from
that used in NASA.
The video [www.youtube.com/watch?v=d7Hxd0fAYhw] shows
the rotation of the modified brace with four needles in the vacuum at
the pressure of ~3.75 ∙ 10−6 [Torr]. The experiment conducted be-
fore 2006 is captured.
In the etheric interpretation, the motion of the asymmetric capac-
itor in the vacuum has a simple and clear explanation. The thin elec-
trode due to the greater curvature of the cross section creates a greater
electric field near itself than the thick electrode. Therefore, the ether
pressure gradient near the thin electrode is greater, see formula (72).
The increased pressure gradient, according to the equation of motion
(5), leads to a faster flow of the ether. In accordance with the equation
of state (15), this entails a decrease in the ether pressure near the thin
electrode compared to the ether pressure near the thick electrode.
There appears a flow of the ether in the direction of lower pressure
(5), that is, from the thick electrode to the thin one, which carries
along the thick electrode.
The positive charge corresponds to the reduced ether pressure o
in the conductor (see sec. 3, 18.13), which leads to the ether being
drawn into it. Therefore, it is advisable to connect the thin electrode
to the positive potential in order to avoid creating of the counter cur-
rent of the ether. This is usually done in experiments.
The qualitative correspondence between the theory of the ether and
the results of the presented experiments confirms the existence of the
ether and the ether mechanism of the electric current in the conductor.

516
 An increase in the speed of the asymmetric capacitor motion
should be expected if a hard for the ether penetration plate is attached
to the thick electrode (for example, on the side far from the thin elec-
trode) or fixed between the electrodes. By measuring the speed of the
capacitor, it is possible to test various materials for permeability to
the ether flow.
Let us estimate the ether pressure difference at a point 𝑟𝑟 between
the parallel electrodes in the form of cylinders, having radii 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏,
and being located at a distance of 𝑑𝑑, see fig. 22. We use the formula
for the potential of an infinitely long cylinder of radius 𝑎𝑎 uniformly
charged over the surface [28, p. 78]

𝜑𝜑0 at 𝑟𝑟 < 𝑎𝑎
𝜑𝜑𝑎𝑎 = � 2𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎𝜎𝜎 𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟 ,
− ln + 𝜑𝜑0 at 𝑟𝑟 ≥ 𝑎𝑎
𝜀𝜀 𝑎𝑎

where 𝑟𝑟 is the distance to the cylinder axis, 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 is the surface charge
density, 𝜀𝜀 is the dielectric constant of the medium, 𝜀𝜀 = 1 in the vac-
uum. Then

2𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑 − 𝑟𝑟
𝜑𝜑𝑏𝑏 − 𝜑𝜑𝑎𝑎 = �𝑎𝑎𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 ln − 𝑏𝑏𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 ln �.
𝜀𝜀 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏

According to the formula (75) for the difference of the ether pres-
sures we have

𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 − 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 (𝜑𝜑𝑏𝑏 − 𝜑𝜑𝑎𝑎 ).

The potential 𝜑𝜑 at the distance 𝑑𝑑 is created by the point charge of

value 𝑞𝑞 = 𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑 [28, p. 76]. At 𝑑𝑑 = 1.5 [cm], 𝜑𝜑 = 10 [kV] ≈
33.3 [statVolt], we obtain in the vacuum 𝑞𝑞 ≈ 50 [statCoulomb].
Let the thin electrode of radius 𝑎𝑎 gets the charge 𝑞𝑞/2, where 𝑞𝑞 >
0, and the thick electrode of radius 𝑏𝑏 gets the charge −𝑞𝑞/2. The sur-
face charge density of a cylinder of height 𝑙𝑙 and radius 𝑎𝑎 is calculated

517
by dividing the charge by the surface area of the cylinder 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. In the
vacuum at 𝑎𝑎 = 0.3 [mm], 𝑏𝑏 = 3 [mm], 𝑙𝑙 = 50 [mm] we find
𝑞𝑞/2 𝑞𝑞/2
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 = − ≈ 265, 𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 = ≈ −26.5 [statCoulomb/cm2 ].
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
For the pressure difference, for example, at the point 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑑𝑑/2,
we get

𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 − 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 ≈ 2.9 ∙ 105 [dyne/cm2 ] = 2.9 ∙ 104 [Pa] ≈ 0.29 [atm].

Only a very small fraction of the pressure difference goes to set

in motion the asymmetric capacitor due to the high permeability of
ordinary substances for the flow of newtonians (ether), which have an
extremely small size (234).
The obtained estimate for the ether pressure difference shows that
the use of the material difficult for permeation of the ether on a part
of the surface of a thick electrode or on the path of the ether flow can
significantly increase the thrust force of the asymmetric capacitor and
the speed of its motion.
Similar in order of magnitude difference of the ether pressure was
obtained at the end of sec. 19.2 when analyzing the interaction force
of the magnet with the ferromagnetic material. This confirms the rea-
sonableness of both estimates.
Note that the permanent magnet creates the ether flow, so its use
in the asymmetric capacitor can both increase and decrease the speed
of the ether motion.

23.9.6. Autoelectronic emission and photoemission of elec-

trons from the conductor

Consider the modes of discharges in the vacuum, in which there

is significant autoelectronic (cold, see, for example: [188, ch. 43; 193,
p. 204–206]) or photoemission of electrons (photo effect, see, for ex-
ample: [188, ch. 4; 193, p. 200–204]).

518
 The detailed analysis of Tolman – Stewart's experiments (sec.
23.6.1, 23.2), which are considered to be the main confirmation of the
electronic theory of conductivity in metals, and experiments with the
unipolar generator (sec. 23.3) show the inadequacy of explaining the
electric current in a conductor by the motion of a large number of free
electrons. Therefore, in discussing the emission of electrons from the
cathode, it is necessary to study not the exit and the work function of
free electrons from the conductor, but the conditions for the separa-
tion of electrons from atoms in its near-surface layer.
Besides, the birth of electrons, as objects of the ether, is possible
on the conductor surface micro-irregularities under the combined influ-
ence of a strongly swirling ether flow, the ether motion in atoms and a
significantly enhanced electric field at the edges of micro-irregularities.
The ether theory gives a clear understanding of the Tolman-Stew-
art experiments (sec. 23.6.1), the experiments of Lepeshkin (sec.
23.6.2) and the experiments with the unipolar generator (sec. 23.3) as
the occurrence of electromagnetic induction emf and Zhukovsky emf,
which are logical consequences of the ether equations of motion (4)–
(6), see sec. 9, 18.11.
Autoelectronic emission and electron photoemission can both be
explained by the effect of the ether flow.
Electron photoemission – the extraction of electrons from the
solid body by the action of photons. It can be assumed that the pres-
sure exerted by photons (the motion of the ether) on the surface of the
solid body performs work on the extrusion of electron from atom in
the surface layer of this body or creation of electron.
In the case of cold emission, the extrusion or birth mechanisms are
similar, but the ether flow acts inside the body, but not outside it.
Let us estimate the pressure 𝑃𝑃, exerted by the ether motion on the
atom during autoelectronic emission and photoelectric effect. If in the
process of electron emission from the body, energy E is expended, then
the emerging ether pressure 𝑃𝑃 can be related to the volume density

519
 𝐸𝐸
𝑃𝑃 = ,
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 3 /3
where 𝑟𝑟 is the atom radius.
Atomic radii [200, p. 44], the energy of detachment of electron
from atom at autoelectronic emission 𝜑𝜑∗ (work function) [121, p. 568;
193, ch. 4, sec. 3] and at photoemission ℎ𝜈𝜈0∗ [193, ch. 4, sec. 3] are
known from the experiments. With this data, it is possible to calculate
the ether pressures 𝑃𝑃𝜑𝜑∗ and 𝑃𝑃ℎ𝜈𝜈0∗ , necessary for the detachment of elec-
tron from the atom of the solid body or birth of electron during auto-
electronic and photoemission.
The following table shows such data for some chemical elements.
Here the average atomic radius from the table in [200, p. 44] was used.

𝑟𝑟 𝜑𝜑∗ ℎ𝜈𝜈0∗ 𝑃𝑃𝜑𝜑∗ 𝑃𝑃ℎ𝜈𝜈0∗

Atom
[Å] [eV] [eV] 1010 [Pa] 1010 [Pa]
Li 1.57 2.38 2.18 2.37 2.17
Si 1.35 4.80 4.55 7.43 7.04
Ti 1.50 3.95 3.55 4.52 4.06
Cr 1.40 4.58 4.30 6.38 5.99
Fe 1.37 4.68 4.68 7.00 7.00
Ni 1.38 4.50 4.90 6.49 7.07
Cu 1.37 4.40 4.40 6.52 6.52
Zn 1.37 4.24 4.33 6.28 6.41
Ge 1.28 4.76 4.96 8.73 9.10
Cd 1.56 4.10 4.33 4.16 4.40
Sn 1.61 4.38 4.30 4.00 3.93
Pt 1.51 5.32 5.55 5.96 6.22
Pb 1.72 4.00 4.00 3.03 3.03
U 1.71 3.30 3.46 2.51 2.63

520
 It can be seen that the energies of detachment at autoelectronic
and photoemission are comparable. This confirms the assumption
about the similarity of the ether mechanism of these processes.
The pressure values obtained are noticeably lower than the ether
pressure in the free space 𝑝𝑝0 ≈ 1.1 ∙ 1011 [Pa] (230). This result is
natural, since during emission it is necessary to overcome the bonding
forces of the electron in the atom of the solid body, but it is not re-
quired to destroy the solid body itself as at exploding of conductors,
when it is necessary to create a pressure of the order 𝑝𝑝0 (sec. 18.10).
The etheric nature of the discussed effects is also confirmed by
the formation of the cathode spots in not previously determined places
[193, ch. 4, sec. 2, p. 197, 201; 189, p. 206, 207]. By analogy with the
breakthroughs of macroscopic bodies, the breakthroughs of the elec-
trode surface by the flow of the ether arise as the cumulative result of
the confluence of many microfactors at a specific point in time of the
experiment. At that, the formula for the cathode heating power during
the delay and further remains the same, since, according to (150), the
density of the energy power of the ether flow in the electric circuit is
expressed through the measured current density and the electric field.
We emphasize that electrons do not appear in formula (150).
The emission energy of electrons from the solid body is 3 – 4 times
smaller than the ionization energy of the individual atom outside the
solid body. This means the existence of the sufficiently strong ether
flow inside the solid body created by atoms and their structural ele-
ments (even in the absence of the electric current), since, according to
the equation of state (15), the pressure in the presence of flow decreases
and the electron in the atom of the solid body is less suppressed from
the outside by the ether than in a single atom located in free space.
The inertialess property of the photoelectric effect is known from
the experiment, that is, the appearance of a photocurrent instantane-
ously – simultaneously with illumination. Many scientific and tech-
nical applications of the photoelectric effect are based on this property

521
[30, p. 17]. In the ether interpretation, in contrast to the accepted one,
see, for example: [30, p. 17], this property has a simple and natural
explanation as almost instantaneous excess of the threshold pressure,
which is necessary for the separation of the electron from the atom of
the solid body, when turning on the light propagating at high speed.
It is believed in physics that photon energy in the photo effect is
absorbed through the electron [30, p. 17]. In the etheric interpretation,
the photon energy, in addition to transferring it to the electron, can be
expended on the creation of the ether flow inside and around the sur-
face of the conductor. The energy of such a flow can be spent, for
example, on increasing the thermal vibrations of the conductor struc-
tural elements or on birth of the electron. A similar situation occurs in
the autoelectronic emission. Thus, taking into account the formula
(12), the ether equation of energy balance at the photo effect or auto-
electronic emission is

𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒2
+ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 𝑉𝑉𝜈𝜈 = ℎ𝜈𝜈 − 𝐴𝐴,
2
where 𝐴𝐴 is the work function, 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 and 𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒 are the electron mass and
velocity, 𝑉𝑉𝜈𝜈 is the volume of the region in which the photon or electric
field creates a flow of the ether with velocity 𝐮𝐮 and density 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 when
the electron is detached or born.
In the case of 𝐮𝐮 = 0, we obtain the well-known Einstein formula
for the maximum kinetic energy of an electron emitted during the pho-
toelectric effect, see, for example: [30, formula (2.1)],
2
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒,max
= ℎ𝜈𝜈 − 𝐴𝐴.
2
23.9.7. Breakdown current

Let us discuss the role of the ether flow, electrons, and ions in the
breakdown (spark) gas discharge. As has been repeatedly noted, free

522
electrons in the wire, if present, cannot ensure the flow of the electric
current, and hence the delivery of charge to the electrode. The question
arises: what then supports the negative and positive charge of the elec-
trodes in the breakdown mode of the self-maintained discharge when
there are a lot of charged particles moving between the electrodes?
The negative charge (the increased pressure of the ether, see sec.
3, 23.9.1), carried away from the cathode by detached electrons, is
partially compensated by the reduced ether pressure, which is created
by the negative pole of the voltage source.
Similarly, for the anode, emission ions carry away a positive
charge (reduced ether pressure), which is compensated by the reduced
pressure of the positive pole of the voltage source.
Separated (under the action of the ether flow or bombardment by
particles) from the electrode, large in size clusters carry appropriate
increased or decreased ether pressure (negative or positive charge) to
the corresponding electrode. In case of contact with the opposite elec-
trode, the pressure of the ether in the cluster is equalized with the
pressure on the electrode.
As a result, the spark discharge between the electrodes estab-
lishes a certain ether pressures difference (the potential difference
(75)) and the breakdown electric current, which is transferred in the
general case by the flow of the ether, electrons, ions and macroscopic
clusters of cathode and anode materials.

23.10. Counteraction to gravity. Screening of the

gravitational ether flow

In the concept of nature as the ether (newtonians) motion, the

control of gravity is reduced to the creation, screening or destruction
of the gravitational flow of the ether or gravitational boundary layer
of an object, see sec. 16.2, 22.2. The weight of an object can also de-
crease under the influence of a specially generated flow of the ether
in the direction opposite to the direction of the gravitational force.

523
 23.10.1. Rotation of partially superconducting ceramic disk
in a magnetic field. Counteraction to gravity in the
Podkletnov experiment

Let us analyze the experiments of E.E. Podkletnov with a super-

conductor rotating in a magnetic field [162, 163] within the frame-
work of the ether concept considered in the book and show the possi-
bility of changing the object weight in them by creating the ether flow
in the direction opposite to the direction of the gravitational force.
The possibility of reducing gravity by creating obstacles to the
Earth’s gravitational ether flow is discussed in sec. 23.10.2–23.10.4
We emphasize that a decrease in the measured weight of objects
was observed in other experiments. For example, in [94] such an effect
was recorded when objects were placed in a chamber with a metal shell.
In [164], a substantial loss of electrons weight was observed inside the
superconducting cylinder, see sec. 23.10.2. The reduction of gravity
(acceleration of free fall) near large mountains is also known [en.wik
ipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth; ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гравитацио
нное_поле_Земли; pokyer.ru/karta-gravitatsionnogo-polya-zemli; d3.
ru/gravitatsionnaia-karta-zemli-281199/?sorting=rating].
In the etheric interpretation, the presence of a substance can
weaken the Earth's ether vortex near the object or counter-act the gen-
eralized Zhukovsky force (169), arising in this vortex and attracting
the object to the Earth. This leads to a decrease in the object's weight.
The possibility of a local impact on the ether flow associated with the
Earth is quite natural, see, for example, sec. 23.6.4.
Experiments [163] are described in sufficient detail and therefore
deserve special attention. In [163], a superconducting (SC) toroidal
disk (with a hole in the center), made of YBa2Cu307-x, with diameter
of 27.5 [cm] and thickness of 1 [cm] was used, see fig. 25. The upper
part of the disk was made with well-oriented grains of 2 [µm] in one
direction, and the lower part was porous with misoriented grains of
larger size 5 − 15 [µm]. In the superconductivity mode, the upper

524
part of the disk could withstand a current of up to 15000 [A/cm2 ] in
magnetic fields of up to 2 [T]. It is stated [163] that in experiments
the currents in the SC were 5000 − 7000 [A/cm2 ].

Fig. 25. Scheme of the Podkletnov experiment:

1 – supporting solenoid, 2 – side solenoid, 3 – object.
Gray color shows the area of opposition to gravity, which
has the shape of the cylindrical ring.

The disk was located in the metal cryostat. Two side solenoids
with a current of the frequency 105 [Hz] created electric current in the
disk at room temperature. Then the system was slowly cooled by liq-

525
uid nitrogen to the temperature of 100 [K], and then quickly by he-
lium vapors to less than 70 [K]. The upper plane of the disk became
superconducting, and the lower did not.
Then the side solenoids were turned off and the high-frequency
current in the supporting solenoids was turned on to raise the disk to
a height of more than 1.5 [cm]. After that, a small current with the
frequency of 105 [Hz] was passed through the side solenoids, which
began to drive the disk in a counterclockwise rotation. The disk was
spun up to 5000 [rpm], while the current in the wire of the side sole-
noid with a diameter of 1.2 [mm] was 8 − 10 [A].
The influence of known factors capable to change the weight of
objects was either isolated or was small, see sec. 4 in [163].
The measurements were carried out in the quasi-equilibrium
state, remaining more than 10 [min]. Objects from various materials,
including metal, glass, plastic, wood, etc., were suspended above a
cryostat on a thread of cotton at a height from 2.5 to 300 [cm] above
the cryostat.
The frequency of the magnetic field in the side solenoids ranged
from 103 to 108 [Hz].
Depending on the temperature, the disk rotation speed, frequency
and magnitude of the magnetic field in the solenoids, there was a loss
from 0.3 to 2.1% of the weight of materials of different composition
and mass, suspended above the disk at the height from 2.5 to 300 [cm].
The region in which this effect was observed was an upward hol-
low cylinder with a base on the superconducting side, the inner radius
of which was at a distance of 0.5 − 0.7 [cm] from the inner boundary
of the torus (disk), and the outer radius at the distance of no more than
2 [cm] from the outer edge of the torus, see fig. 25. On the bottom
side of the disk, no object weight reduction was observed.
Without rotating the disk, the weight of objects decreased by
~0.06 %.
The maximum weight loss of ~0.5 % occurred almost inde-
pendently of the object's height from 2.5 to 300 [cm] when rotating

526
at 5000 [rpm], the current frequency in side solenoids 3.2 − 3.8 ∙
106 [Hz] and location drive at the highest possible height of 3 −
3.5 [cm] from the supporting solenoids. Such a regime was not
achieved at temperatures above 70 [K], although SC arose already at
94 [K]. At slowing down of the rotational speed from 5000 to
3300 [rpm] for 25 − 30 [s], the weight decreased by 2.1 %.
Objects of different materials lost the same weight. Objects made
of the same material and similar in size, but of different mass, also
lost an equal share of its weight. The greatest losses occurred when
the flat surface of the object was oriented parallel to the disk.
Replacing the disk with metal or made entirely from SC ceramics
did not reduce the weight of objects. This confirms the importance of
differences in the upper and lower parts of the disk.
The effect of weight reduction was observed only in the electro-
magnetic field of alternating current. According to [165], the effect
did not appear with a fixed disk, the constant current in supporting
solenoids and higher than 70 [K] temperature of the SC.
Sec. 5–7 of ref. [163] contain a lot of other information about the
observed phenomenon. However, the information provided here is
sufficient for further analysis.
The data [163, 165] оf objects weight loss of ~0.06 % even with
the stationary disk or in the stationary magnetic field can be explained
by partial screening of the Earth’s magnetic and electric fields by the
SC, which, as is known, does not let these fields inward. The shielding
changes the Earth's gravitational ether flow near the object. Exact
etheric calculation of the object weight in this case requires knowledge
of the direction and magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic and electric
fields at the location of the experiment, details of these fields flow
around the SC and details of the interaction of the ether gravitational
flow with the object. Such research is a matter of the future. At present,
within the framework of the simplified model (179), (180), we can only
say that with the universal for typical objects multiplier 𝜆𝜆 (177), the
change in the object weight is due to the change in the size of the object

527
boundary layer 𝑎𝑎∗ and/or the azimuthal component of the Earth’s gravi-
tational flow speed 𝑢𝑢0,𝜑𝜑 , caused by partial screening of the ether flow
corresponding to the Earth’s magnetic and electric fields.
In the presence of magnetic fields higher than Earth’s one can
perform a more meaningful analysis.
In the system [163], external magnetic fields near the disk have
components parallel to its surface. In side solenoids, the magnetic
field is created parallel to the disk surface 𝐁𝐁𝑠𝑠 , with the exception of
the area near the end faces. The magnetic field of the supporting (up-
holding) solenoids 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 at the maximum possible height of the disk
above them also has a component, in a large part of the space near the
disk, parallel to disk’s surface, see fig. 25. The magnetic field of the
current 𝐁𝐁𝑗𝑗 near the upper part of the SC disk surface has only a tan-
gential component to it, since the normal component is zero due to the
absence of the magnetic field inside the SC and continuity condition
of the normal component at the media boundary.
The Earth’s magnetic field and the magnetic field (297), created
by the rotating disk, can be neglected, since they are small compared
to the 𝐁𝐁𝑠𝑠 , 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 and 𝐁𝐁𝑗𝑗 fields.
The velocity of the ether flow in the SC part of the disk 𝐮𝐮𝑗𝑗 , cor-
responding to the current density in it (127), is parallel to the disk
plane, since the current flows along the surface. The linear velocity 𝐕𝐕
(207) of the ether rotation by the non-superconducting part of the disk
also lies in the plane of the disk.
As a result, the velocity 𝐮𝐮𝑗𝑗 in combination with the fields 𝐁𝐁𝑠𝑠 , 𝐁𝐁𝑗𝑗
and the velocity 𝐕𝐕 in combination with the field 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 create in the ether
the generalized Zhukovsky force (121). The increment of its pressure
on the transverse to the plane of the disk segments 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥1,𝑎𝑎 , 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥1,𝑏𝑏 on two
conductive boundaries of the upper SC part of the disk and on the
transverse to the plane of the disk segment 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥2 in the lower non-SC
part of the disk are described approximately by the formula (204):

528
 𝐮𝐮𝑗𝑗
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж,1,𝑎𝑎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � × �𝐁𝐁𝑠𝑠 + 𝐁𝐁𝑗𝑗 �� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥1,𝑎𝑎 ,
𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎
𝐮𝐮𝑗𝑗
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж,1,𝑏𝑏 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � × �𝐁𝐁𝑠𝑠 + 𝐁𝐁𝑗𝑗 �� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥1,𝑏𝑏 ,
𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏
𝐕𝐕
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж,2 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � × 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 � ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥2 .
𝑐𝑐

It is assumed that the objects were not suspended above the side
solenoids. Therefore, created by them in the transverse to the disk di-
rection Zhukovsky force, arising from the combination of the ether
flow velocity in the coils of the solenoid and the magnetic field of the
current in the SC, is not considered here.
According to the second Newton's law (5), the density of the Zhu-
kovsky force, considered as the density of the external force 𝐅𝐅, causes
the flow of the ether. This flow is generated in the layers of the disk,
where there are non-zero velocities 𝐮𝐮𝑗𝑗 and 𝐕𝐕. Due to the use of the
alternating magnetic field, this flow appears in each fixed direction as
a set of impulses (quanta).
Over the superconducting layer, the ether flow density in the
quantum is almost constant in time and space 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 ≈ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, because
the SC does not pass the variable part of 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 through itself, but passes
a constant part (at least partially) for which the magnetic and electric
fields are zero (see (20), (21)), otherwise the SC or objects surrounded
by it would noticeably lose weight in the Earth’s gravitational flow.
Due to the low viscosity (sec. 21.7) and self-diffusion (sec. 21.8) of
the ether and the high penetrating ability of the isotropic steady state
ether flow, the generated flow spreads over a fairly large distance with
little or no change. This explains the preservation of the reducing
weight effect at a relatively high altitude above the disk. The weight
of the object under study decreases, apparently, as a result of the in-
teraction of the generated quanta fronts with the boundary gravita-
tional layer of the object and its structural elements.

529
 Thus, assuming that contribution of the sides of the supercon-
ducting part of the disk to the Zhukovsky force pressure is approxi-
mately the same 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж,1 ≡ 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж,1,𝑎𝑎 ≈ 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж,1,𝑏𝑏 , the total pressure cre-
ated by this force over the disk can be represented as

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж ≡ 2𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж,1 + 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж,2 ≈

𝐮𝐮𝑗𝑗 𝐕𝐕
2𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 � × �𝐁𝐁𝑠𝑠 + 𝐁𝐁𝑗𝑗 �� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥1 + 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 �� × 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 �� ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥2 .
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐

By selecting the magnitude and frequency of 𝐁𝐁𝑠𝑠 , 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 and 𝐁𝐁𝑗𝑗

fields, one can try to maximize the ether flow towards the suspended
object, which, evidently, was done in experiments [163].
Unfortunately, there is no detailed description in [163] of the
fields 𝐁𝐁𝑠𝑠 , 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 and 𝐁𝐁𝑗𝑗 , the sizes of the solenoids and the currents in
them. Therefore, the pressure 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж under the conditions of this exper-
iment can only be estimated approximately.
We introduce the cylindrical coordinate system (𝑟𝑟, 𝜑𝜑, 𝑧𝑧) with unit
basis vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 , 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 and the 𝑧𝑧 axis directed upward along the axis
of rotation.
The contribution of the side solenoids to 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж is small, since the
speed of the current 𝐮𝐮𝑗𝑗 in the SC is almost parallel to the field 𝐁𝐁𝑠𝑠 . The
current velocity 𝐮𝐮𝑗𝑗 = 𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 is perpendicular to the field 𝐁𝐁𝑗𝑗 created by
it. The linear velocity of disk rotation 𝐕𝐕 is directed along 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 : 𝐕𝐕 = 𝑉𝑉𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 ,
therefore the contribution to the vertical component 𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 is given
only by the radial component of the field 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 : 𝐵𝐵𝑢𝑢,𝑟𝑟 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 =
−�𝐵𝐵𝑢𝑢,∥ � cos 𝜉𝜉 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 , where 𝜉𝜉 ∈ [0,2𝜋𝜋], �𝐵𝐵𝑢𝑢,∥ � is the value of the compo-
nent 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 , parallel to the disk plane, see fig. 25. Then

𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж ≈ �−2𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝐵𝐵𝑗𝑗,𝜑𝜑 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑉𝑉�𝐵𝐵𝑢𝑢,∥ � cos 𝜉𝜉 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧2 �.
𝑐𝑐

530
 The Zhukovsky force at a large time, compared to the frequency
of the magnetic field, creates pressure in one direction along the ver-
tical in approximately half of the magnetic fields oscillation phases.
Then the average pressure in one direction along the vertical in such
a period of time will be approximately two times smaller

1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж ≈ �−2𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝐵𝐵𝑗𝑗,𝜑𝜑 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑉𝑉�𝐵𝐵𝑢𝑢,∥ � cos 𝜉𝜉 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧2 �.
2 𝑐𝑐

The absence of the weight reduction effect when replacing the

disk with a fully superconducting one can mean such a small thick-
ness of the SC layer 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧1 , where the current flows at a speed 𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 , that
the first term in 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж gives a much smaller contribution compared to
the second:

1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж ≈ 𝑉𝑉�𝐵𝐵𝑢𝑢,∥ � cos 𝜉𝜉 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧2 .
2 𝑐𝑐

We take into account that the supporting solenoids do not cover

the entire disk surface and, moreover, the field created by them con-
tributes to the vertical pressure 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж only in that region of space where
(𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁𝑢𝑢 ) ∙ 𝐢𝐢𝑧𝑧 ≠ 0. Based on fig. 2 in [163], the fraction of the disk
area 𝛼𝛼 on which 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж is created can be estimated as 𝛼𝛼 ≈ 1/40.
Then for the average over the disk area pressure we have

1 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж ≈ 𝛼𝛼 𝑉𝑉�𝐵𝐵𝑢𝑢,∥ � cos 𝜉𝜉 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧2 .
2 𝑐𝑐

On the average over the range 𝜉𝜉 ∈ [−𝜋𝜋/2, 𝜋𝜋/2], on which pres-

sure is created upward 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж > 0, we finally get

4 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж = 𝛼𝛼 𝑉𝑉�𝐵𝐵𝑢𝑢,∥ �𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧2 . (326)
𝜋𝜋 𝑐𝑐

531
 The greatest weight loss, when the flat surface of an object is ori-
ented parallel to the disk, corresponds to the increase in the pressure
force 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝Ж with the increase in the area 𝑆𝑆 on which the pressure 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж
is applied.
The disappearance of the weight reduction effect when replacing
a disk with a ferrite one is due to the weak spinning of the ether (low
speed 𝑉𝑉) due to the much more ordered crystal lattice of ferrite, com-
pared to the lower part of the SC disk, especially at low temperatures,
when the lattice atoms fluctuate slightly.
From the analysis performed, it follows that the lower non-SC
part of the disk is necessary for the spinning of the ether and the gen-
eration with the participation of supporting solenoids of the upward
flow of the ether quanta. The upper SC part of the disk is to ensure its
levitation in the side solenoids (isolation from contact with them), ro-
tation of the disk and alignment of the ether flow density in upward
moving quanta created by the bottom part of the disk. Apparently, the
absence of a sharp SC boundary inside the disk facilitates the passage
of quanta in the upper part.
The appearance of the weight reduction effect only at 70 [K],
while the SC mode began already at 94 [K], indicates the need to cool
the transition layer between the SC and non-SC parts of the disk,
which has a non-zero resistance and heats up in the high-frequency
magnetic field. Cooling reduces the oscillation of the structural ele-
ments of this layer and improves the flow of the ether through it,
which is generated in the lower part of the disk.
For 𝑉𝑉 ≈ 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 (207) at 𝜔𝜔 = 2π𝑛𝑛/60 [rad/s], ], 𝑛𝑛 = 5000 [rpm],
𝑅𝑅 = 13 [cm], �𝐵𝐵𝑢𝑢,∥ � ≈ 0.1 [T] = 103 [Gauss], 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧2 = 3 [cm] we have

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж = 0.036 [din/cm2 ] = 3.7 ∙ 10−5 [g/cm2 ].

The obtained Zhukovsky force pressure 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж is ~5 % of the

Earth's gravitational force pressure ∆𝑝𝑝∗ (288) at the characteristic ver-
tical distance of 𝑟𝑟∗ = 5 [cm] and is created in the opposite direction.

532
 When estimating of the object weight decrease by the relation be-
tween the pressures 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж and ∆𝑝𝑝∗ acting on it, it is necessary to take
into account that the gravitational impact of the total ether flow occurs
in the boundary layer of the object, where the ether flow velocity
changes greatly. The details of this process are not considered in the
approximate estimate. One can only claim that due to the discrete struc-
ture of the object, not all the generated pressure 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝Ж is transferred to
it. With this in mind, we can conclude that there is a quantitative agree-
ment in order of magnitude between the ether estimate of the object
weight reduction effect and experimentally obtained values of ~1 %.
A magnetic system at three points is used to decelerate the disk.
However, [163, fig. 9] shows only its general form without a descrip-
tion of any details of the device and functioning. Therefore, it is dif-
ficult to establish the specific reason for the reduction in weight dur-
ing deceleration. According to the formula (326), the reduction in
weight can be caused by an increase in any of its four variables, or
their combination. Besides, the effect of the force density described
in (23) by the partial derivative over time is possible.
In accordance with (326), it is possible to achieve a greater re-
duction in the object’s weight by creating in the lower part of the disk
an additional constant radial magnetic field, directed toward the axis
of rotation.
One can try to reduce gravity in another way – by the direct im-
pact on the cause of its occurrence – the speed of the Earth's gravita-
tional ether flow 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 (287). This speed is approximately parallel to
the surface of the Earth, and the gravity force (Zhukovsky force)
arises perpendicular to it (as on the wing of a flying aircraft). There-
fore, to implement this idea, one must learn how to generate a time-
independent isotropic ether flow in the opposite to 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 direction and
place the test object in it completely.
The reduction of gravity due to creation of obstacles to the
Earth’s gravitational ether flow is discussed in sec. 23.10.2– 23.10.4.

533
 23.10.2. Reducing of an electron weight in a vacuum tube,
surrounded by a superconductor, due to the
screening of the gravitational ether flow

In [164], the motion of electrons in a vertically positioned vac-

uum tube surrounded by the superconducting (SC) solenoid was stud-
ied. The SC solenoid performed the role of an insulator from an ex-
ternal magnetic field, and also ensured the confinement of electrons
on the tube axis. The metallic material of the tube protected from an
external electric field.
The weight of the electron in the design [164] decreased approx-
imately by ten times.
This effect is explained in [164] with the creation in the walls of
the tube by the Earth's gravitational field of an electric field, which
compensates the influence of the gravity force on electrons inside the
tube. However, the adequacy of such an explanation is very doubtful,
since it is known in physics that a quasi-stationary electric field should
be directed perpendicular to the surface of the conductor, and not par-
allel to it. Moreover, according to the experiments with the Faraday
cylinder (see references in sec. 18.13), the charges cannot be located
on the inner wall of the conducting tube.
We also note the analysis of experiments [164] in [166]. It is
based on the hypothesis of free electrons presence in the metal, which
in the ether sense, if exist, do not play a significant role, and also on
the many postulates of quantum theory that lead to the field of math-
ematical fantasies. Therefore, the conclusions [166] are hardly rele-
vant to reality.
We give the etheric interpretation of the experiment [164].
At the beginning of this section, it was already noted that control
of gravity is reduced to creating, shielding or destroying of the ether
gravitational flow or the gravitational boundary layer of an object, see
sec. 16.2, 22.2, and also to creating the ether flow in the direction
opposite to the gravity force, see sec. 23.10.1.

534
 At present, it is difficult to carry out a quantitative analysis of the
gravity weakening in the device [164], since the details of the inter-
action of the gravitational ether flow not only with SC, but also with
ordinary substances, have not yet been worked out.
Nevertheless, the result of [164] is quite explainable in the ether
theory at the qualitative level and has a clear interpretation.
In the simplest model of the etheric gravitational attraction, the
acceleration of free fall 𝑔𝑔 (179), and, consequently, the force of grav-
ity (180) decreases with a decrease in the characteristic speed of the
ether gravitational flow 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 . Moreover, 𝑔𝑔 depends on 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 quadrati-
cally, that is, quite strongly.
The velocity 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 is parallel to the surface of the earth. The SC
solenoid is located vertically. Therefore, 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 is perpendicular to its
surface. A SC with a metal base should have been used in the sole-
noid, since ceramic SC was discovered only 20 years after the publi-
cation of the paper [164]. From experiments it is known that the ideal
metallic conductor reflects the electromagnetic field (20), (21). There-
fore, it is natural to expect that it will noticeably weaken the constant
flow of the ether. As a result, the ether speed 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑,0 inside the tube de-
creases, which leads to a decrease in 𝑔𝑔 and consequently, to a decrease
in the electron weight.

23.10.3. Screening of the ether gravitational flow by the

atomic powder

In sec. 23.10.2, an experiment was considered in which the grav-

itational flow of the ether around the Earth is screened by a supercon-
ductor.
Here we will discuss widely replicated in the mass media infor-
mation about the phenomenal gravitational properties of a certain pow-
der, which was discovered by the farmer David Hudson [www.
youtube.com/watch?v=fsnu_xpH5_E], as well as the reason for the pop-
ularity of gold in our distant ancestors [www.moscowuniversityclub.

535
ru/home.asp?artId=15751], who, judging by many artifacts, possessed
much more advanced technologies than the current civilization.
We have no conditions for verifying the reliability of information
provided in the Internet. However, we can verify the fundamental pos-
sibility or impossibility of the described phenomena from the point of
view of the ether theory.
We give an excerpt from [www.moscowuniversityclub.ru/home.
asp?artId=15751] with the description of the properties of the powder.
"The whole story for D. Hudson began in 1976, when he, having
problems with the soil on his farm, began to add sulfuric acid there.
Studying soil samples that were not dissolved by this acid, he found
one substance with unusual properties. Dried under the hot sun of Ar-
izona, it could suddenly emit a bright flash of white light and com-
pletely disappear. With subsequent microscopic analysis in the labor-
atory, this substance was registered as "pure no-thing"!
After unsuccessful experiments at Cornell University, USA, a
sample of this substance was sent to the Harwell Laboratories in Ox-
ford, England, where, with the help of the Soviet Academy of Sci-
ences, it was determined that this mysterious luminous white sub-
stance completely consisted of metals of the platinum group in a un-
known to science form. (Gold dissolves in the "royal vodka", the com-
ponents of which can be in the soil. – Note of Authors.)
In the course of further studies, when this substance was regularly
heated and cooled, it turned out that as a result of this, its weight
changed.
It was also discovered that at a certain temperature the white sam-
ple disintegrated, turning into a monoatomic powder with the de-
crease in its weight by 56%.
Further heating to a temperature of 1160 Celsius degrees turned
the substance into a completely transparent glass, after which its
weight returned to its original value.
All this seemed impossible, but it was repeated again and again!
<…>

536
 When scientists conducted cycles of heating and cooling this sub-
stance in the presence of inert gases, it turned out that when cooled,
the weight of the sample decreased by as much as 400%, and when
they heated it again, its weight became less than zero, that is, negative!
(Here, apparently, this is interpretation of reducing the weight of the
stand with the powder compared to the weight of the empty stand. –
Note of Authors.)
When they removed the sample from the stand where it lay, they
found that the latter began to weigh more than when there was a sam-
ple! <…>
This substance also turned out to be a natural superconductor
with a zero magnetic field, which has the ability to float in the air, as
well as accumulate in itself any amount of light or other energy <…>
In the early 1990s, articles on invisible atoms and superconductivity
began to appear regularly in the scientific press. Authoritative organiza-
tions such as the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen, the National La-
boratory in Oak Ridge, USA, and others, all confirmed that the elements
opened by D. Hudson, definitely exist in a monoatomic state.
These elements include the gold and platinum group metals —
iridium, rhodium, palladium, platinum, osmium, and ruthenium."
From the standpoint of the ether theory, the gravity force can be
weakened for an object by reducing the speed of the ether (newtoni-
ans) gravitational flow around the Earth, see sec. 23.10.2. From anal-
ogy with a gas or liquid flow, it is natural to conclude that for this
purpose it is necessary to use the densest matter with a chaotic struc-
ture. Gold has a noticeably higher density compared to other ele-
ments. Besides, in a dense powder, domain currents can be formed
that entrain the powder after the ether flow in the same way as a mag-
net is carried in the magnetic flow of the ether, p. 272. Therefore, in
the chaotic monoatomic state, gold should more effectively than other
substances obstruct the flow of newtonians.
As the temperature increases, the weight of the monatomic powder
should decrease, since an increase in the thermal motion of the atoms
creates additional obstacles to the gravitational flow of the newtonians.

537
 With the decrease in temperature, the flow of newtonians through
the powder is facilitated and even, perhaps, accelerated due to the im-
position of the ether’s own motion around atoms when they are ori-
ented in a certain direction. In this case, the generalized Zhukovsky
force (169) should increase, and, consequently, the weight of the pow-
der should also increase.
The increase in weight of the stand after removing the powder
from it can be explained by the property of a thin film left by the pow-
der to accelerate the gravitational flow of newtonians, for example,
due to the orientation of atoms in it in one direction.
Superconductivity is also explained by the difficult permeability
of the powder for the ether flow. When creating the ether pressures
difference (72), (73) the newtonians are easier to move along the outer
layer of the powder, where resistance to the flow is less than inside
the powder (see sec. 12.5 on this point).
The emission of a flash of light by the powder can be explained
by its ability to accumulate the energy of the ether flow being scat-
tered. The color and transparency of the powder are determined by
the peculiarities of the constituent atoms interaction with the light
range of the electromagnetic ether flow.
Thus, at first glance, the paradoxical properties of the monoa-
tomic powder from the platinum group of metals have a simple etheric
explanation.
Interest in gold and similar elements in the previous more ad-
vanced civilization, most likely, was associated with the solution of
the problem of effective motion in space due to the screening of the
Earth’s gravitational ether flow. The appropriate rather fine technol-
ogy was apparently lost due to natural or social disasters, but attention
to gold remained in the memory of descendants.
Note that rotation of the monoatomic powder should lead to in-
creased screening of gravity due to the decrease in the effective vol-
ume through which the newtonians pass unhindered.

538
 23.10.4. Concept of a stand for experiments with gravity

On the basis of the etheric understanding of gravity as the emer-

gence of the generalized Zhukovsky force acting on an object (169)
in the quasi-constant flow of newtonians (sec. 16.2) and an analogy
with the gravitational ether flow around the Earth (sec. 22.2), we can
propose the following concept of a device for artificial creating the
gravitation force.
It is necessary to make a disk in the form of a spiral with sections
of different materials or a system of inserted into each other rings of
different materials. The material of the section should be chosen so
that with increasing distance 𝑟𝑟 from the center of the disk, the density
of the ether increases as r (see sec. 21.12), and the linear velocity of
rotation of the ether in the material during disk rotation (sec. 18.11,
23.3) drops as 1/𝑟𝑟. The density of the ether and the speed of its flow
can be tried to change by heating or cooling sections of the disk.
To create the gravitational ether flow of the, it is also necessary
to ensure the fulfillment of condition (162).
The spiral structure of the disk is perhaps preferable to the struc-
ture of rings inserted into each other, since the ether has extremely
low viscosity and self-diffusion (sec. 21.7, 21.8), which greatly com-
plicates the interaction of the ether flows in the neighboring layers.
One of the promising experiments with the disc consists in its long-
term rotation with the highest possible angular speed. Then, with a
sharp displacement of the disk along the axis of rotation and measure-
ment in the spinup area of gravity, magnetic and electric fields.
Of course, before building an installation, it is necessary to theo-
retically estimate the required speed of the disk rotation, the compo-
sition of materials and their temperatures at which the force of artifi-
cially created gravity becomes noticeable.
A series of preliminary test experiments with the rotation of var-
ious substances and the measurement of the magnetic field magnitude
directly inside the substance (sec. 23.6.6) or in the phantom created

539
by it during rotation (sec. 23.6.4) will also be helpful. Substances can
be placed in a thin-walled container of a non-magnetic metal to ensure
good ether flow through the walls of the container. It is interesting to
consider copper, ferromagnet, lead, gold, strong neodymium magnet,
low and high temperature superconductors, various crystals and fine
powders of the listed materials, as well as mercury, water, sand, gra-
phene, paper, plastics, etc. Preparation of gold nanoparticles is clearly
demonstrated, for example, in the film [https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=AnyocFbLsWM].
It is expected that the material with smaller, dense and chaotic
structure will interact stronger with the flow of newtonians (ether).

23.11. The Cherenkov radiation in the ether

P.A. Cherenkov and S.I. Vavilov discovered in 1934 a special

type of radiation when observing the luminescence of solutions under
the action of 𝛾𝛾-rays [201, p. 365]. According to the Vavilov hypothe-
sis, in this process light is emitted by electrons moving at a speed 𝑣𝑣,
exceeding the speed of light 𝑢𝑢 in this medium. An electron moving at
a speed greater than the speed of light in a given medium overtakes
its own electromagnetic field. The radiation occurs as a result of elec-
tron deceleration. It was later shown that the Cherenkov effect is also
observed for protons, relativistic iron atoms, etc.
A characteristic feature of the Cherenkov radiation is directivity.
The light emitted by a particle does not propagate in all directions, but
only in the directions that make up a certain sharp angle 𝜗𝜗 with the
trajectory of the particle, that is, along the forming cone whose axis
coincides with the direction of the particle velocity. The radiation an-
gle is determined by the ratio

𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐/𝑛𝑛
cos 𝜗𝜗 = = , (327)
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣

540
where 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑐𝑐/𝑢𝑢 is called the refractive index of the medium, 𝑣𝑣 is the
particle speed, 𝑢𝑢 is the speed of light in this medium, 𝑐𝑐 is the speed of
light in the vacuum.
For example, for the electron moving in benzole: 𝜗𝜗 = 38.5o , 𝑛𝑛 =
1.501. Substituting these values into (327), we obtain 𝑣𝑣 = 2.94 ∙
1010 [cm/s] for the electron velocity in benzole.
In the etheric understanding of nature, formula (327) is derived
for an object moving in the ether with the speed higher than the speed
of light by analogy with gas dynamics, see below.
In experiments on registration on the Earth's surface of broad at-
mospheric showers of cosmic rays consisting of protons and iron at-
oms, the following parameters were determined: cos 𝜗𝜗 = 0.95,
cos 𝜗𝜗 = 0.9 [202]. Hence, according to the formula (327), their
speeds are equal to

𝑣𝑣 = 1.05𝑐𝑐/𝑛𝑛, 𝑣𝑣 = 1.11𝑐𝑐/𝑛𝑛. (328)

According to [203, p. 218], the refractive index of air changes as

𝑛𝑛 = 1 + 2.9 ∙ 10−4 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 /𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎,0 ,

where 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 , 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎,0 are air densities at a certain height and at sea level.
In the case of the experiment [202] 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 /𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎,0 = 1 and 𝑛𝑛 = 1 +
2.9 ∙ 10−4 , that is, the value of the speed of light 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑐𝑐/𝑛𝑛 in such a
medium practically does not change: 𝑢𝑢 ≈ 0.9997𝑐𝑐. Then from the
formulas (328) it follows that the speeds of particles are 10 − 15 %
higher than the speed of light: 𝑣𝑣 ≈ 1.05𝑐𝑐, 𝑣𝑣 ≈ 1.11𝑐𝑐.
Such a result refutes the hypothesis of the impossibility of ex-
ceeding the speed of light, adopted in modern physics. But it confirms
the theory of the ether, where the speed of the object, as in other me-
dia, can exceed the speed of free propagation of disturbances in the
ether – the speed of light.

541
 Let us show now that when a particle moves in the ether, the for-
mula (327) remains the same. The compression of the medium cannot
propagate in front of the moving object, since under the considered
conditions the object moves faster than the light wave. Therefore, the
front of the generated wave is located behind the moving object. Each
point of the medium, which the body passed, can be considered as the
source of spherical waves propagating in this medium at the speed of
light, see fig. 26.

Fig. 26. Radiation wave front.

During the time ∆𝑡𝑡, the object moving with speed 𝑣𝑣 will move
from the point 𝑂𝑂1 to the point 𝐴𝐴. Therefore, 𝑂𝑂1 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑣𝑣∆𝑡𝑡. During this
time, the wave that emerged from the point 𝑂𝑂1 propagates over the
distance 𝑂𝑂1 𝐵𝐵1 = 𝑢𝑢∆𝑡𝑡, where 𝑢𝑢 is the speed of light in this medium.
From the triangle 𝑂𝑂1 𝐵𝐵1 𝐴𝐴 we get

𝑂𝑂1 𝐵𝐵1 𝑢𝑢
cos 𝜗𝜗 = = .
𝑂𝑂1 𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣

542
The cos 𝜗𝜗 value obtained for the ether coincides with the value given
in the formula (327).
The envelope of all secondary waves is the conical surface
𝐷𝐷1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 , see fig. 26. This surface is the shock wave front.
In gas dynamics [9], when considering supersonic waves, the an-
gle at the top of the cone 𝐷𝐷1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 is called the angle at the top of the
Mach cone. The magnitude of the Mach cone in gas-dynamic experi-
ments characterizes supersonic flows. In [81, p. 68; 204, p. 136] using
a similar approach, it was concluded that superlight particles could be
observed in experiments [205, 206], but the absence in [205, 206] of
the data on wave emission angles did not allow to explicitly estimate
the speed of the particles.
The conclusion about the observation of superlight particles, in
addition to the fundamental methodological value, has practical im-
portance. In high-energy physics, it is usually assumed that the parti-
cle mass is equal to the expression 𝑚𝑚 = 𝐸𝐸/𝑐𝑐 2, where 𝐸𝐸 is its energy.
It assumes that the speed of light in the vacuum 𝑐𝑐 is the world constant
and uniquely determines the mass of a particle. But if in the process
of motion a particle in the ether acquires speed 𝑣𝑣, greater than the
speed 𝑐𝑐 of free propagation of disturbances in it, then the expression
𝑚𝑚 = 𝐸𝐸/𝑐𝑐 2 becomes 𝑚𝑚 = 𝐸𝐸/𝑣𝑣 2 and ceases to uniquely determine the
mass 𝑚𝑚. In this case, in order to uniquely determine the particle mass,
additional measurements of the particle momentum and the radiation
angle of the waves are needed. Thus, the values of all known masses
of superheavy particles require rechecking in the appropriate addi-
tional experiments. Most likely, the masses will be refined.

23.12. Anomalies in orbits of the first Von Braun's satellites

Interesting facts about the Jupiter-C rocket, that successfully

launched the first US satellite Explorer I in 1958, were published by
R.C. Hoagland in "Von Braun's 50-Year-Old-Secret. Parts 1 and 2",

543
see, for example, [https://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/exopolitica/ex
opolitics_vonbraun02.htm, https://web.opendrive.com/api/v1/downl
oad/file.json/OV8xNjg0NTg0NDFf?inline=1] in English or [http://
divinecosmos.e-puzzle.ru/Article59.htm, http://divinecosmos.e-puzzl
e.ru/Article59-2.htm] in Russian. More information can be found in
[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter-C, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_1].
Anomalous orbital dynamics exhibited by Explorer I was ob-
served already on its first orbit. It had an orbital period ~9 minutes
longer than predicted and its perigee and apogee heights were 360
and 2534 [km] instead of 224 and 1575 [km] planned. Similar anom-
alies were observed in the orbits of satellites Explorer III and IV, and
three Vanguard satellites.
Calculations of R.C. Hoagland showed that 959 [km] excess in
Explorer I orbit apogee cannot be explained by greater efficiency of
the multi-staged solid-fueled components of the Jupiter-C launch ve-
hicle, since it would require 20% increase in the speed for all the up-
per stages of the rocket.
Analysis of historical and engineering facts of rocket technology
development in the USA and the USSR allowed R.C. Hoagland to draw
a conclusion that the cause of orbit deviation were rotating parts of the
Jupiter-C rocket. He then referred to Bruce de Palma experiments with
rotating bodies and proposed qualitative interpretation of the orbit
anomalies with the help of the torsion field concept and addition of free
energy from the hyperdimensional space to the rotating object and
chemical reactions.
Here we present a different interpretation proposed by F.S. Zaitsev
using the theory of the ether. We obtain quantitative estimate and com-
pare it with the shift of the Explorer I orbit.
The rocket had the rotating tub-shaped assembly (tub) containing
stages 2 and 3. The rotation was used to compensate the thrust imbal-
ance of the individual fuel cells combustion in these stages. The fourth
stage had one cell.

544
 The linear velocity of the tub rotation is given by 𝐕𝐕 = 𝛚𝛚 × 𝐫𝐫, were
𝛚𝛚 is the angular velocity and 𝐫𝐫 is the radius vector in the plane perpen-
dicular to the rocket axis. As shown in sec. 23.3, the ether rotational
linear velocity in the tub is close to 𝐕𝐕.
The rocket moves in the ether flow near the Earth. This flow in-
cludes the gravitational flow and other types of flows, see fig. 32. De-
note the total velocity of the ether flow near the Earth with 𝐮𝐮.
Therefore, there is an interaction of two ether flows: the external
to the tub velocity 𝐮𝐮 is driven in the volume of the tub, where the ether
flow has velocity 𝐕𝐕. This gives rise to the generalized Zhukovsky force
in the volume element 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of the ether in the tub (121)

1
𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 = �𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁 × (𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕)� + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐕𝐕 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2

We assume that over a relatively long period of time this force is

transferred from the ether to the tub. Such an assumption gives an es-
timate from above of the effect, since possibly only a part of the force
arising in the ether influence the tub.
Then the entire tub experience the force

𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮
𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
Ω 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where Ω is the volume of the ether rotating together with the tub.
Suppose the ether density is close to the unperturbed one 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228). Then

𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 1
≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕) + 𝐕𝐕 × �𝛁𝛁 × �𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮�� =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
1
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐕𝐕) + 𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁 =
2

545
 1
2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × 𝛚𝛚 + 𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁,
2𝑐𝑐

where 𝐁𝐁 is the magnetic field of the Earth.

It is convenient to calculate integral 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 in the system of coordi-
nates with the center on the tub axis. We choose cylindrical coordinates
with the origin at the lowest point of the tub axis and coordinate 𝑧𝑧 along
this axis. Then
ℎ 𝑟𝑟max 2𝜋𝜋
𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮
𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 = � �� �� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
0 𝑟𝑟min 0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where ℎ is the length of the tub, 𝑟𝑟min and 𝑟𝑟max are radii of the ether
vortex created by the tub rotation.
Taking into account that 𝐮𝐮, 𝛚𝛚 and 𝐁𝐁 are close to constants in the
tub area, we get
ℎ 𝑟𝑟max 2𝜋𝜋
𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 = � �� �� 2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × 𝛚𝛚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
0 𝑟𝑟min 0
ℎ 𝑟𝑟max 2𝜋𝜋
1
� �� �� 𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
0 𝑟𝑟min 0 2𝑐𝑐
ℎ 𝑟𝑟max 2𝜋𝜋
2𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 𝐮𝐮 × 𝛚𝛚 � �� �� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
0 𝑟𝑟min 0
ℎ 𝑟𝑟max 2𝜋𝜋
1
� �� �� �|𝐕𝐕| cos 𝜑𝜑 𝐢𝐢𝑥𝑥 − |𝐕𝐕| sin 𝜑𝜑 𝐢𝐢𝑦𝑦 �
0 𝑟𝑟min 0 2𝑐𝑐

× 𝐁𝐁 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

So, the second oscillating term in 𝑑𝑑𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 disappears in the inte-
gration and the force is defined only by the first term

546
 2 2
𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 ℎ(𝑟𝑟max − 𝑟𝑟min ) 𝐮𝐮 × 𝛚𝛚.

We now consider the force 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 contribution to the rocket motion.

For a number of forces and corresponding accelerations of an ob-
ject, the superposition principle is valid. However, this principle is
usually not true for appropriate velocities and trajectories.
Due to the lack of details about the Jupiter-C motion, we will
consider perturbation to its trajectory under the influence of the force
𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 only. Certainly, such an estimate will give just the order of the
displacement.
Consider the second Newton’s law for the mass m motion under
the influence of the force 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮

𝑑𝑑m𝐯𝐯
= 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Weights of loaded and empty stages and trajectory timing are
given in the references above.
The tub was set rotating before the start. But we will consider the
orbit from the time 𝑡𝑡1 of the first stage separation, since due to the very
large initial mass of the first stage m1 and relatively small 𝑡𝑡1 (see data
below) the displacement of the rocket with 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 was not large before 𝑡𝑡1 .
The tub, containing the stages 2 and 3, was present in the rocket
until time 𝑡𝑡23 for Δ𝑡𝑡23 = 𝑡𝑡23 − 𝑡𝑡1 seconds after the first stage has gone.
The rocket mass change in 𝑡𝑡1 < 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑡23 of duration Δ𝑡𝑡23 ≈
260 [s] was on a small compared to Δ𝑡𝑡23 interval of 13 [s] near 𝑡𝑡23
when stages 2 and 3 were burning. Therefore, during time interval 𝑡𝑡1 <
𝑡𝑡 < 𝑡𝑡23 the rocket mass can be considered close to constant m23 +
𝑚𝑚4 + 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 , where m23 , 𝑚𝑚4 and 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 are masses of stages 2 and 3, 4 and
satellite appropriately.
Thus, we have

𝑑𝑑Δ𝐯𝐯3 (𝑡𝑡)
(m23 + 𝑚𝑚4 + 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 ) = 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

547
 The solution of this equation on the segment 𝑡𝑡 ∈ [𝑡𝑡1 , 𝑡𝑡23 ] with the
initial condition Δ𝐯𝐯3 (𝑡𝑡1 ) = 0 and an assumption of approximately
constant over time 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 gives at 𝑡𝑡23 the velocity increment

Δ𝑡𝑡23
Δ𝐯𝐯3 (𝑡𝑡23 ) = 𝐅𝐅 .
m23 + 𝑚𝑚4 + 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐮𝐮

Appropriate displacement from the expected orbit

(Δ𝑡𝑡23 )2
Δ𝐫𝐫3 (𝑡𝑡23 ) = 𝐅𝐅 .
2(m23 + 𝑚𝑚4 + 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 ) 𝐮𝐮

After separation of the rotating tub, containing stages 2 and 3, the

rocket of mass m4 + 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 (with the stage 4 and the satellite) was not
influenced by the force 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 , however, the velocity Δ𝐯𝐯3 (𝑡𝑡23 ), given to
the rocket in the 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 direction, continued to displace the rocket.
The fourth stage terminated at time 𝑡𝑡4 . The average mass of the
stage 4 with the satellite at the interval 𝑡𝑡 ∈ (𝑡𝑡23 , 𝑡𝑡4 ] was m4 /2 + 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 .
The force 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 is perpendicular to the angular velocity of the tub
rotation 𝛚𝛚. The thrust is parallel to 𝛚𝛚, see fig. 27. Therefore, in a
simplified description, we assume that the stage 4 thrust did not affect
the motion in the transverse direction and the stage 4 with the satellite
continued to shift from the planned trajectory for 𝑡𝑡 ∈ (𝑡𝑡23 , 𝑡𝑡4 ] at a
speed of Δ𝐯𝐯3 (𝑡𝑡23 ), given to the rocket by the force 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 in the previous
time interval (𝑡𝑡1 , 𝑡𝑡23 ).
Then for the shift Δ𝐫𝐫4 (𝑡𝑡4 ) during time 𝑡𝑡 ∈ (𝑡𝑡23 , 𝑡𝑡4 ] we have

𝑑𝑑Δ𝐫𝐫4 (𝑡𝑡)
= Δ𝐯𝐯3 (𝑡𝑡23 ),
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Δ𝐫𝐫4 (𝑡𝑡4 ) = Δ𝐯𝐯3 (𝑡𝑡23 )Δ𝑡𝑡4 , Δ𝑡𝑡4 = 𝑡𝑡4 − 𝑡𝑡23 .

548
 Fig. 27. Rocket takeoff scheme.

Finally, the satellite of mass 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 reached the apogee at time 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 .
During the time 𝑡𝑡 ∈ (𝑡𝑡4 , 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 ], it shifted on Δ𝐫𝐫5 (𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 ):

𝑑𝑑Δ𝐫𝐫5 (𝑡𝑡)
= Δ𝐯𝐯3 (𝑡𝑡23 ),
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Δ𝐫𝐫5 (𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 ) = Δ𝐯𝐯3 (𝑡𝑡23 )Δ𝑡𝑡5 , Δ𝑡𝑡5 = 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 − 𝑡𝑡4 .

Thus, the total displacement Δ𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 ) of the satellite orbit at the ap-
ogee due to the generalized Zhukovsky force 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 was

Δ𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 ) = Δ𝐫𝐫3 (𝑡𝑡23 ) + Δ𝐫𝐫4 (𝑡𝑡4 ) + Δ𝐫𝐫5 (𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 ).

According to R.C. Hoagland and Wikipedia, the timing of the

flight was: 𝑡𝑡1 ≈ 155, 𝑡𝑡23 ≈ 415, 𝑡𝑡4 ~ 421, 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 ~ 3441 [s]; masses of

549
Jupiter-C loaded components and parameters of the rotating tub were:
m1 ≈ 28400, m23 ≈ 590, m4 ≈ 36, ms ≈ 14 [kg], frequency
𝑛𝑛 ~ 600 [rpm] or the angular speed |𝛚𝛚| = 2π𝑛𝑛/60 ~ 62.8 [rad/s],
the angular velocity vector 𝛚𝛚 along the rocket motion, tub radius
0.44 [m] and height ℎ ≈ 1.03 [m].
The tub rotation began before the launch, so there was enough time
for the ether vortex to be established. Bruce de Palma’s and our exper-
iments suggest to take 𝑟𝑟min ~ 0 for the inner radius of the ether vortex,
since it can be observed not just in the body of a solid rotating object,
but also outside it. The outer radius of the ether vortex 𝑟𝑟max is estimated
approximately by the radius of the tub, since it is not clear how much
it could go beyond the tub while the rocket motion.
The velocity of the external ether flow 𝐮𝐮 through the tub can be
formed by the combination of ether flows of various types. Note, that
among them, the gravitational ether flow acts on the rotating object in
two ways: determines its weight interacting with the atomic structures,
and pushes aside interacting with the ether vortex created by rotation.
During the time 𝑡𝑡 ∈ [𝑡𝑡1 , 𝑡𝑡23 ), when the force 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 acted, the rocket
was gaining the altitude. The direction of the ether velocity 𝐮𝐮 at high
altitudes has not yet been studied. Therefore, we will have to make an
assumption about its direction. We assume that the vector 𝐮𝐮 provided
the appearance in the Zhukovsky force 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 ~ 𝐮𝐮 × 𝛚𝛚 of a component
directed away from the Earth, see fig. 27. The displacements Δ𝐫𝐫3, Δ𝐫𝐫4
and Δ𝐫𝐫5 had components in the same direction, since they are propor-
tional to 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 .
For the approximate value of the velocity 𝐮𝐮, we take the speed of
the gravitational ether flow (287).
Finally, substituting all values in the obtained formulas, we find

𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 ~ 345𝐢𝐢𝑠𝑠 [N], Δ𝐯𝐯3 (𝑡𝑡23 ) ~ 140𝐢𝐢𝑠𝑠 [m/s],

Δ𝐫𝐫3 (𝑡𝑡23 ) ~ 18𝐢𝐢𝑠𝑠 , Δ𝐫𝐫4 (𝑡𝑡4) ~ 0.9𝐢𝐢𝑠𝑠 , Δ𝐫𝐫5 (𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 ) ~ 423𝐢𝐢𝑠𝑠 [km],
Δ𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 ) ~ 442𝐢𝐢𝑠𝑠 [km], 𝐢𝐢𝑠𝑠 ≡ 𝐮𝐮 × 𝛚𝛚/|𝐮𝐮 × 𝛚𝛚|.

550
 It can be seen that the value of the force 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 creates a noticeable on
a cosmic scale trajectory deviation only over a large interval of time.
This indicates the reasonableness of the assumptions made.
In addition to the shift towards space caused by the force 𝐅𝐅𝐮𝐮 , the
orbit also widened due to the weakening of the gravity force with in-
creasing distance from the Earth. Besides, there are studies, for exam-
ple by G.I. Shipov, showing that a rotating object loses weight.
Accounting for all these effects, we can conclude that the etheric
interpretation presented is consistent in order of magnitude with the
observed satellite deviation of ~1000 [km] from the expected apogee
position.
This result allows us to suggest some important conclusions:
1. Another confirmation of the existence of the ether flow near
the Earth with the velocity value given by (287) is obtained.
2. The prediction in space of the rotating object trajectory in the
presence of the external ether flow requires taking into account
the generalized Zhukovsky force.
3. The ether flow near the Earth can be studied by launching a pair
of simple identical rockets with a capable to rotate component.
This component must not come into contact with the air flowing
near the rocket to avoid the Magnus effect. In one rocket the
component must remain stationary, and in the other rotating at
high speed, but only on some part of the trajectory. The differ-
ence in the trajectories will allow to evaluate the ether flow ve-
locity in the part of the trajectory where the component was ro-
tating. As a result, a correspondence will be established be-
tween the ether velocity and the height above the Earth.
A more accurate examination of the orbital anomalies would re-
quire knowledge of the exact information about the ether flow through
which the rotating tub passed and about the design of the Jupiter-C
rocket, in particular, its gyroscopes and other rotating equipment, as
well as knowledge of the details of the rocket's motion and the model
used to calculate its trajectory.

551
 At present, a more realistic way to analyze accurately the effect
of the generalized Zhukovsky force on a rotating object motion
through the ether flow in space is performing the experiment proposed
in item 3 above.

23.13. Strange radiation, observed in low energy nuclear

reactions (LENR)

LENR (Low Energy Nuclear Reactions) or, more precisely, the

Low-temperature Transformation of Nuclides (LTN) is often accom-
panied by the appearance of peculiar traces (tracks) on various mate-
rials: X-ray film, DVD or CD disk, glass, mica, ceramics, aluminum
foil. Herewith, traces are observed not only on the surface but also
inside the materials. Such traces have an unusual shape, so the radia-
tion that creates them is called "strange radiation". This terminology
was proposed by L.I. Urutskoev – one of the first LENR researchers.
Numerous photos of various tracks can be found in reports and refer-
ences on the website lenr.seplm.ru, see, for example: [241].
This section presents the etheric interpretation of strange radia-
tion and its quantitative analysis. The research was carried out by F.S.
Zaitsev.
We will proceed from the LENR theory in twin boundaries, pro-
posed in [241]. A twin boundary (TB) is an ideal defect of the crystal
lattice.
It is known from the experiment that LENR is accompanied by
the appearance of noticeable craters (caverns) on the electrode or clus-
ter surface. The theory [241] explains the formation of caverns by the
explosive release of LENR energy in the TB, which, depending on the
explosion power, can lead to the destruction of the TB.
Many TBs are shaped like a well with an outlet on the surface of
the substance. Based on the behavior of the gas near the barrel during
a shot from a cannon and the proximity of the equations of aerodynam-
ics and ether mechanics, we can conclude that at the outlet of the TB a
vortex ether object is formed that has the shape of a torus or a spindle.

552
 An object in the ether can be much more stable than in the air,
since the effects of viscosity, self-diffusion and thermal conductivity
in the ether are extremely small compared to similar effects in matter,
see secs. 21.6–21.8. Additional stability of the vortex formation ap-
pears when the speed of light is reached at its boundary, as in ball
lightning, see sec. 24.3. Moreover, if there is entanglement in the vor-
tex object, for example, entanglement of toruses, then additional en-
ergy is required for this object destruction due to the law of engage-
ments number conservation [17, sec. 3.12]. Additional impact is also
required to change other vortex invariants, for example, rotational
momentum and helicity [17, secs. 3.5 and 3.12].
Thus, a stable vortex object with a complex shape different from
the sphere can be formed in the ether near the TB. This object can
rotate as a whole initially or acquire such rotation during interaction
with matter.
Consider the energy of the strange radiation carrier.
In the presentation [255] the energy, expended by the strange ra-
diation carrier to create a typical track on a CD disk, was calculated
on the basis of experimental data, see slides 37, 38:

𝑄𝑄 = Δ𝐻𝐻mlt,CD 𝑀𝑀CD ~ 7.5 ⋅ 10−6 [J],

where Δ𝐻𝐻mlt,CD ~ 1.5 ⋅ 105 [J/kg] – melting heat of plexiglass [121,

p. 219; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)], 𝑀𝑀CD =
𝜌𝜌CD 𝑉𝑉 ~ 5 ⋅ 10−11 [kg] – weight of the melted track in plexiglass,
𝜌𝜌CD ≈ 1.2 ⋅ 103 [kg/m3 ] – plexiglass density, 𝑉𝑉 ~ 4.2 ⋅ 10−14 [m3 ]
– track volume.
This presentation also claims, see slide 42 in [255], that the
strange radiation carrier at birth has the energy 𝑄𝑄0 by 2 − 3 orders of
magnitude greater than 𝑄𝑄, since some of the carrier's energy is lost as
it passes through obstacles before reaching the CD disk:

553
 𝑄𝑄0 ~ 7.5 ⋅ 10−3 [J],

This result allows to conclude that the registration on the CD,

most likely, becomes possible only after a strong attenuation of the
energy of the strange radiation carrier.
Note that the assumption of the strange radiation carrier as a par-
ticle or a cluster of matter cannot explain its high energy and penetra-
tion ability. The speed of a proton with energy 𝑄𝑄0

2𝑄𝑄0 2 7.5 ⋅ 10−3 [J]

𝑣𝑣𝑝𝑝 = � ~� ≈ 4.2 ⋅ 1012 [m/s].
𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝 1.7 ⋅ 10−27 [kg]

exceeds the speed of light by four orders of magnitude, which is un-

likely to occur, since there are no conditions in the TB for accelerating
of a proton to the hyperlight speed. A cluster of matter with a mass of
~108 proton masses, moving at the speed of light, can have energy
𝑄𝑄0 , but passing of such a cluster through the metal barriers, available
in the experiment, is unlikely to be realistic.
The initial energy density of the strange radiation carrier, calcu-
lated from the impact on the CD without taking into account losses in
the passage of intermediate materials, is

𝑄𝑄0 /𝑉𝑉 ~ 1.8 ⋅ 1011 [J/m3 ].

This value is close in order of magnitude to the energy density of ball

lightning, see property (a) in sec. 24.1, the value of 𝒜𝒜̅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 and the dis-
cussion on p. 563.
Such correspondence of energetics, besides to drawing the anal-
ogy with the formation of a vortex when firing from a cannon, is an
additional argument for the interpretation of the strange radiation car-
rier as a vortex object in the ether.

554
 Understanding the carrier of strange radiation as a vortex in the
ether allows us to explain the penetration ability observed in the ex-
periment, the unusual tracks and their appearance long after the end
of the experiment.
Accordance with the ball lightning suggests that most of the en-
ergy of the strange radiation carrier is stored in the rotation of the
etheric vortex, but not in its translational motion.
Formation of tracks can be explained by interaction of the ether vor-
tex, which possesses high energy, with the structural elements of matter.
The complicated shape of tracks can appear, for example, at a relatively
low speed of the vortex translational motion. In this case, interacting with
an obstacle, the vortex can sharply change the direction of motion, simi-
lar to the reflection of a rotating body from an obstacle. The unusual ap-
pearance of the tracks can also be related to rotation of the vortex as a
whole and its shape different from a sphere.
The ability of a ball lightning type object, at the boundary of which
the speed of light is reached, to pass through barriers of tangible matter,
see property (f), is explained on p. 565. Therefore, a vortex etheric ob-
ject can penetrate into the substance before interacting with it. This re-
veals the reason for observation of the tracks from the strange radiation
inside the substance.
Registration of strange radiation after the end of the working sub-
stance excitation in the reactor can be associated with the continuation
of LTN reactions in TBs and/or the long-term existence near the in-
stallation of the etheric vortex objects with a low speed of transla-
tional motion.
The spontaneity of the strange radiation intensity over a long pe-
riod of time (many hours and days), see presentation [256], can be
caused by the imposition of many factors, including random ones: the
avalanche-like process of TBs activation, the destruction of some
TBs, the formation of new TBs, and a variety of external conditions.
V.A. Zhigalov showed experimentally in [256] the possibility of
protection against strange radiation using a magnetic field. The

555
etheric interpretation of the strange radiation not only explains its de-
viation in the magnetic field but also allows quantifying this effect,
see sec. 11.2.
The possibility of a clear interpretation and quantitative descrip-
tion of the phenomena observed in the experiment serves in the meth-
odology of mathematical modeling as one of the confirmations of the
correctness of the strange radiation carrier model as a vortex object in
the ether.

24. Etheric model of ball lightning (BL)

In the methodology of mathematical modeling, a mathematical

model of the object is first constructed on the basis of general laws
and the interpretation of experimental facts. Then it is studied theo-
retically and experimentally. The model is accepted as adequate, if
the consequences of it are appropriate to all well established experi-
mental facts. This methodology is explicitly or implicitly used in
other areas of science, especially in the study of unusual and rarely
occurring phenomena, such as ball lightning (BL), for example.

24.1. Anomalous properties of BL

Interest in understanding the nature of ball lightning (BL) arose

as early as the XVIII century [207]. In particular, this phenomenon
has been explored by M.V. Lomonosov. Since that time, many exper-
imental and theoretical studies of BL have been carried out, a statisti-
cal analysis of observations has been done, and attempts have been
made to make mathematical modeling of it. A detailed description of
the state of the BL studies is given in [208–210, 248].
However, during recent years there has been a tendency to de-
crease the activity of research in the field of BL. Most likely, the main
reason for this is a gradual understanding of the inconsistency of the
existing concepts of BL with its observed properties.

556
 The lack of satisfactory explanations of the BL nature requires a
revision of the original premises. Apparently, the time has come to
reject hypotheses and models that for many years did not lead to suc-
cess in its understanding. These include:
• building of the BL model in the form of a homogeneous sys-
tem stabilized by the atmospheric pressure;
• proximity of the average density of BL to air density;
• electroneutrality of BL;
• BL glowing with thermal radiation of a heated body.
In our opinion, the model of BL must first of all explain the entire
set of observed unique properties of this object, an unbiased descrip-
tion of which can be found in [211]:
(a) the possession of an anomalously high energy density of the
order of 1010 [J/m3 ] and higher;
(b) appearance in the clouds and above the ground in the absence
of thunderstorm activity as if from "nothing";
(c) typical diameter up to several meters, the transformation of
the ball into a tape, folding the tape into a sphere;
(d) glow of different colors and shades, sometimes in the form of
needles or jets;
(e) electrostatic effects, in some cases – magnetic, carrying away
of bodies, the smell of ozone;
(f) the ability to pass, without leaving of visible traces, through
the glass at its size comparable to the size of the BL, as well
as through other bodies;
(g) in some cases, a knock when hitting a solid body;
(h) a relatively short lifetime, usually several minutes;
(i) an explosion with a clap, often with devastating conse-
quences;
(j) the disappearance of metallic jewelry near the BL with the ap-
pearance of usually only a relatively small burn on the body.
(k) leakage in various forms from the electrical outlet.

557
 It is clear that understanding of the BL nature and mastering of
the technology of its artificial creation is in all respects an extremely
attractive area of research.
However, modern physics, abandoning the concept of medium
(ether), comes to a standstill in the interpretation of these properties.
This even leads to the denial of the existence of the BL phenomenon
itself, that is, to the denial of the objectivity of its observation in na-
ture. Such a situation, as we have repeatedly seen in this book, is a
sign of the essential role of the ether motion in the phenomenon under
consideration.

24.2. Attempts to explain the BL without the ether

Before turning to the etheric model of the BL, let's stop at the
review of numerous studies of the late XX – early XXI century,
which, unfortunately, did not end with the full understanding of the
BL phenomenon and its artificial reproduction with the exception of
three unique experiments, see sec. 24.4.
The first international Symposium on BL was held in July 1988
in Japan. It was initiated on the wave, as was considered at that time,
of the success of Japanese scientists in the BL creation in the form of
a high-frequency discharge in the air [212]. However, as it turned out
later, studies [212] did not lead to the reproduction of BL.
In the 1990s, a jet of erosive plasma was put forward as a candi-
date for the role of a laboratory BL analog [213]. However, its prop-
erties were far from the properties of natural BL, and gradually the
studies of erosive discharges in the context of BL have disappeared.
The idea of the BL with a chemical energy source [214] stimu-
lated development of its model based on the solid-phase reagents ox-
idation [215, 216]. But experimental and theoretical studies of this
model also showed its inadequacy to the natural BL.
An interesting finding seemed to be the creation of vortex plas-
moids in an electric discharge above the surface of the water – the so-

558
called "Gatchina discharge" [217, 218]. However, it turned out that
such plasmoids also do not reproduce the properties of BL.
It is also possible to note the representation of the BL in the form
of an electric discharge near the glass of an airplane cabin [219] or a
plasma bubble filled with high-frequency radiation [220]. However,
such models did not explain all the properties of BL.
In the recent paper [221], attention was focused on explaining the
properties of high-energy BL with an energy reserve of 5 ∙ 109 − 5 ∙
1010 [J/m3 ]. In one of the models proposed in this regard, it is as-
sumed that the space inside the shell of the BL is filled with certain
"plasmoids" with an uncompensated electric charge. By "plasmoid"
is usually meant a system of moving charges held by its own electric
and magnetic fields. The prototype of the plasmoid model was a hy-
dromagnetic plasma capacitor, invented in the 1950s. This concept is
called the "electrodynamic model of BL" [222].
In [210, 223], the so-called chemical-thermal model of BL is pro-
posed. In it, the BL is represented by a unipolarly charged object with
a shell and a core. The core consists of water vapor or a mixture of
vapor and particles of an atomized substance (SiO2 , Al2 O3 , etc.) that
appear when a linear lightning strikes various materials or as a result
of a tectonic disturbance. The shell is a thin film of melt or solidified
substance. In this model, it is assumed that the charge is transferred
to the BL from the linear lightning, and the stability of the BL to Cou-
lomb destruction is provided by the polarization force considered by
A.I. Nikitin [210, 223]. The energy of such a BL is mainly determined
by the energy of vaporization released during the destruction of the
BL and to a lesser extent during the burning of its substance.
Despite the advanced features of electrodynamic and chemical-
thermal models of BL, they hardly explain the passage of BL through
glasses, even if there are millimeter and submillimeter holes in the
latter [224], as well as the appearance of BL in the absence of thun-
derstorm activity.

559
 Nevertheless, at present it would be reasonable not to drop
plasma and heterogeneous models of BL, but to develop these models
in parallel with the ether model of BL, since different luminous ob-
jects attributed by observers to BL can have a different nature.

24.3. The simplest ether model of BL. Interpretation of

anomalous features

Let us turn to the construction of the etheric model of BL.

The idea of the etheric nature of BL was expressed earlier, for
example, in [225]. However, the concept of the ether in [225] is of a
natural-philosophical nature and differs from the quantitative concept
of the ether presented in this book. Therefore, here the results of [225]
are not used.
Imagine BL as an ethereal vortex of large-scale compared to a
typical magnetic field. Suppose that at the BL boundary the linear ro-
tational velocity reaches the speed of light. Since the speed of light is
the characteristic speed of free propagation of disturbances in the
ether, it follows from the analogy with gas-hydrodynamics, that near
the boundary of such a vortex the boundary layer should form, which
is difficult to penetrate for structural media carriers, in our case for
newtonians.
The size of newtonians is extremely small even in comparison
with the size of a proton (see sec. 21.2), therefore the boundary layer
is all the more difficult to penetrate for large ether formations: elec-
trons, atoms, molecules, etc. From the law of conservation of momen-
tum (inertia property) the objects in the vortex tend to cling to the
border, like solid particles during separation in a centrifuge. As a re-
sult, the boundary layer is strengthened by a substance caught in the
BL during its formation. A certain shell is created that prevents the
decay of the etheric vortex.
The flow of the ether inside the shell of the BL can be quite compli-
cated, such as, for example, the flow of a gas inside the vessel. To obtain

560
the simplest quantitative estimates, let us represent the BL in the form of
the ether flow rotating with the angular speed 𝜔𝜔 around the 𝑧𝑧 axis of
Cartesian coordinates with the origin in the center of the BL, see fig. 28.

Fig. 28. Spherical BL.

The shape of the equilibrium figure of a rotating volume depends

on the forces acting inside and outside of it, as well as the forces in
the boundary layer, see, for example: [9, sec. 27; 15, p. 298; 139, ch.
2]. In the model of a compressible medium, the pressure, required to
maintain steady state flow in the vortex and the shape of the vortex
free boundary, can be provided, for example, by an appropriate distri-
bution of the medium density.
BL is usually observed in the spherical shape. Therefore, we
study the BL model in the form of a sphere with radius 𝑟𝑟0 .
We introduce the spherical coordinates (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜑𝜑) with unit basis
vectors 𝐢𝐢𝑟𝑟 , 𝐢𝐢𝜃𝜃 , 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 , fig. 28.
The linear speed of the ether rotation in the simplest model of BL
is expressed through the angular speed and the distance to the axis of
rotation (fig. 28)

561
 𝐮𝐮 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝐢𝐢𝜑𝜑 .

The condition of reaching the speed of light on the boundary 𝑟𝑟0

gives

𝑐𝑐 = 𝜔𝜔𝑟𝑟0 sin 𝜃𝜃.

From here
𝑐𝑐
𝜔𝜔 = .
𝑟𝑟0 sin 𝜃𝜃

The ether has extremely low viscosity and self-diffusion (sec.

21.7, 21.8), so the layers of the ether can move almost independently
from each other. In this model of BL, each layer at fixed 𝜃𝜃 rotates
with its constant angular speed 𝜔𝜔 = 𝜔𝜔(𝜃𝜃).
Substituting 𝜔𝜔 into 𝐮𝐮, we find
𝑟𝑟
𝐮𝐮 = 𝑐𝑐 𝐢𝐢 .
𝑟𝑟0 𝜑𝜑

According to the formula (12), the volume density of the ether

kinetic energy in the BL is equal to

𝑟𝑟 2
𝒜𝒜 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮2 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐 2 .
𝑟𝑟02

The kinetic energy stored in the entire BL is equal to the integral

over its volume

𝑟𝑟 2
𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = � 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉.
𝑉𝑉 𝑟𝑟02

562
 At 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑟𝑟0 𝜋𝜋
1 4
𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑐𝑐 2 2𝜋𝜋 � � 𝑟𝑟 4 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑐𝑐 2 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟03 .
2
𝑟𝑟0 0 0 5

For the average density of kinetic energy in the BL we have

𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 3
𝒜𝒜̅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ 𝑐𝑐 2 .
4 3 5
3 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟0

It is important to emphasize that in the BL model under consid-

eration, its average energy density turned out to be a universal char-
acteristic determined only by the parameters of the ether and inde-
pendent of the BL radius and the angular speed of the ether rotation
in it.
For 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,∗ ≈ 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚,0 (228) we have

𝒜𝒜̅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ≈ 1.1 ∙ 1012 [erg /cm3 ] = 1.1 ∙ 1011 [J/m3 ].

Accounting that when BL influences on objects not all of its ki-

netic energy can be transferred to the object, the obtained 𝒜𝒜̅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 value
is close to the observed energy density values for BL, see property (a)
in sec. 24.1, and also [223]. In the methodology of mathematical mod-
eling, such a correspondence is one of the confirmations of the model
correctness.
Let us discuss the reproduction by the etheric BL model of the
other properties from the list given in sec. 24.1.
Sec. 23.9.1 shows that the precursor of a well-visible gas dis-
charge is the dark current, which is the ether flow between the elec-
trodes, caused by the pressure difference on them created by the ether.
Similarly, before the appearance of a visible linear lightning, the ether

563
flow occurs between the cloud and the earth (or another cloud) due to
the difference in the ether pressure (potential) on them. The ether
pressure gradient is the electric field (72), which accelerates foremost
electrons existing in the atmosphere as lighter charged particles. Ac-
celerated electrons ionize atoms and molecules along the entire ether
flow. An avalanche of electrons arises, a spark gas discharge occurs.
Properties (b), (c) in the ether model of BL are explained by the
emergence of conditions for the transformation of a straight-line ether
flow into a large-scale vortex. Such conditions can appear not only
when a stream of the ether strikes a solid body, but also, for example,
when oppositely directed ether flows meet.
A more or less stable etheric vortex forms when the speed of light
is reached at its boundary (as in a gas – the speed of sound) and the
difficult permeable boundary layer is formed. The shape of the bound-
ary layer is determined by the initial conditions of the ether twist.
Herewith, as already noted above, the substance trapped in the ether
vortex is separated onto the vortex boundary (by analogy with a cen-
trifuge), forming a shell. Just like in a gas discharge, the ether moving
at the speed of light excites atoms and molecules in the boundary
layer. Radiation appears. Its color (d) depends on the composition of
the substance captured by the ether vortex. Luminescence of the main
components of the air gives a bluish color, and organic aerosols – or-
ange and yellow.
Thus, the mechanism of BL luminescence is similar to the glow
of a gas discharge, and not of a heated body.
The boundary layer of the BL is only partially impermeable to
newtonians and substance, since in some of its places the ether speed
can be smaller than the speed of light due to local disturbances asso-
ciated, for example, with the motion of the ether around atoms and
molecules, and also with the processes of ionization and recombina-
tion of particles. Nozzles appear through which the ether flow goes
beyond the boundary layer. The ether flow in the radial direction can

564
excite atoms and molecules and lead to the glow in the form of needles
and jets (d).
In the etheric interpretation of electrostatics, sec. 18.13, the accel-
eration of the ether flow in the radial direction beyond the boundary of
the BL (compared to the inner region) makes it a negatively charged
object. This causes the electrostatic properties of BL (e), and when it
moves – magnetic. The entrainment of bodies, including heavy ones,
is due to the "reliance" of the BL on the ether, not on the air.
It is important to emphasize that the etheric interpretation of the
object's charge does not require an obligatory excess of negatively or
positively charged particles in it (see sec. 18.13). Therefore, the sub-
stance in the BL may be in the non-ionized state or the number of
positive and negatively charged particles in it may be the same. In this
regard, and also because of the ether boundary layer presence, the
question of retaining an excess number of charged particles of the
same sign in a limited volume, which some BL models encounter, is
not relevant in this approach.
The most surprising property of the BL is the ability to pass
through solid objects (f), leaving almost no visible traces. In the
etheric interpretation of BL, this property is quite natural. The sub-
stance in the boundary layer of the BL may not have a high tempera-
ture. It leaves this layer at the touch point of the object by BL. De-
structions (melting, holes, etc.) on an object remain only at a high
temperature of the substance in the boundary layer. Due to the ex-
tremely small size of the newtonians and the relatively large scale of
their flow in the BL (as compared to the flow of the ether in an electric
or magnetic field), the ether vortex, as has been repeatedly discussed
in the book, can almost freely penetrate the object. At the exit from
the object, the boundary layer is restored from a substance that enters
the ether vortex. It seems that the substance of the BL passes through
the object. In fact, not a substance, but an etheric vortex of the BL
passes through the object. The existence of vortices in the air (phan-
toms), capable of penetrating through the body, was proved in the ex-
periments of sec. 23.6.4.

565
 The charge available to the BL explains its preference for inter-
action with glass. Glass is polarized in the electric field of a charged
object and attracts it to itself.
The emergence of a knock at the impact of the BL with a solid
body (g) depends on the composition and amount of the substance
that has entered the boundary layer.
The lifetime of the BL (h) is determined by the processes leading to
a decrease in the speed of the ether in the boundary layer. The main of
them, apparently, is the runoff of the ether from the BL through the noz-
zles in the boundary layer, since the BL lifetime is appropriate to the time
of neutralization of the object charge by the air background charges.
The explosion of BL with the clap (i) can be associated with the
instantaneous destruction of the boundary layer. Its negative conse-
quences are related to the appearance of a strong shock wave in the
air, including at the sharp filling of the vacuum inside the BL.
The speed of the BL motion can be due to the electric field acting
on it. For example, defined by the speed of a charged cloud motion,
which is usually 5 − 10 [m/s]. At the same time there are no re-
strictions on the BL location height.
The facts of the ring-shaped metal jewelry disappearance (j) can
be explained by the induction of a strong electric current in them when
the BL approaching, since the BL can have a very large electrical
charge depending on the intensity of the ether flow through the noz-
zles in the boundary layer. The absence of a severe burn on the skin
is most likely due to its defensive reaction, in which the liquid evap-
orates almost instantaneously, cooling the contact area.
Emergence of BL from the socket (k) is due to the fact that it is
difficult to keep the current (the ether vortex with the rotor of the ro-
tor) in the wire at a high ether pressure (potential), which is formed
when lightning strikes the power line. It is easier for the vortex to exit
through the stripped contacts of the outlet.
The considered ether mechanism of BL explains the appearance of
BL in nature during a thunderstorm. Often, BL appears when the linear

566
lightning strikes the ground. It can be assumed that a vortex ether mo-
tion is involved in the creation of the linear lightning channel. First, a
flow of the ether appears (as in a gas, sec. 23.9.1), which ionizes atoms
and molecules in the linear lightning channel. When the ether flow in-
teracts with the earth, its reflection occurs with the creation of a region
in which the closed ether flow is formed, perceived as BL.
Thunderstorm activity and the observation of BL are often ac-
companied by the appearance of holes in the ground with a diameter
from ten centimeters to several meters and a depth of up to several
meters [226, 227]. In the vortex model of the BL, such phenomena
are quite natural as a result of the interaction of the swirling ether flow
and the earth matter. At that, the relatively insignificant increase in
the density of the soil outside the hole is explained by the small vol-
ume of the central part of the cylindrical figure (hole) compared to the
peripheral one.
The performed analysis shows that the etheric model of the BL
allows one to explain almost all of its unique properties, and without
complicated theoretical constructions. The BL characteristics, ob-
tained from the model, are close to those observed. Thus, in the meth-
odology of mathematical modeling, the proposed BL model can be
accepted as adequate to the real phenomenon.

24.4. Interpretation of Tesla's experiments with BL.

Resonance mechanism of anomalous phenomena in
electrotechnical devices

The etheric understanding of the BL nature gives an idea of the

experimental conditions in which it should be expected to appear. Ar-
tificial reproduction of the BL will allow to study in detail its proper-
ties, as well as to refine the mathematical model.
Let us analyze, from the standpoint of the ether model of the BL,
the possibility of obtaining the BL in the experiments of Nikola Tesla
and his followers.

567
 N. Tesla claimed that he learned to reproduce the BL in experi-
ments with high-frequency discharges [228]. We present some ex-
tracts from his work by publications [229, 230] in translation [214].
"I managed to define its (ball lightning) structure and get it arti-
ficially.
… the interaction of two frequencies manifests itself in the form
of the ball lightning, when a high-frequency wave shifting in phase is
superimposed in phase with the low-frequency oscillations of the
main circuit …
This condition works as a trigger mechanism for discharging a
powerful low-frequency wave in an infinitely small time interval,
when most of the energy cannot remain in the device itself, but is
splashed out into space with an extraordinary force.
Exploring how high-frequency current can explosively discharge
a low-frequency current is a step towards designing systems where
these explosions are intentional".
The authors of [229, 230] reproduced the installation of N. Tesla
in a reduced size, see fig. 29.
In [229, 230] they describe reproduction of the BL as:
"Tiny dots of light appeared as if from nowhere. Then several
lights floating in the air came under the blows of high-voltage dis-
charges emitted by the pole of the secondary coil. And suddenly we
saw a lot of lightning balls with a diameter of up to several centime-
ters, which "were born" inside the discharges emitted by the coils …
and existed, as a rule, from one and a half to several seconds …
A wide range of colors was presented, similar to what happens
when using pyrotechnic devices.
The cessation of the existence of some light balls was accompa-
nied by a loud bang, while others just quietly faded away …
The balls were pulsating. If they were hit by the discharge current
from the transformer, they increased in size, and then again com-
pressed. This usually happened many times before the balls faded out.
Once the diameter of the ball within a second increased from 6 mm to

568
5 cm and at the same time acquired a fiery red color. Some balls
looked like cans: bright circles with a dark center. The balls had dif-
ferent colors – dense-red, bright white, green, yellow, white-blue, pur-
ple. Often they rotated, and dark areas moved along them, like spots
on the sun. Sometimes the balls looked transparent, and electric dis-
charges flashed inside them. Several times we observed how the balls
change color during their existence, and at the end explode like su-
pernovae.

Fig. 29. The installation of James and Kenneth Corum 1988

according to the Nikola Tesla scheme of 1899.

Sometimes the discharges jump from one ball to another, creating

a dazzling sight, at that their visual appearance changed during the
contact with the discharge".

569
 The most effective results were obtained under the following con-
ditions. 1. Generation of a large number of carbon or evaporated metal
particles in a small region of space. 2. The creation of large electric
fields of the order of 20 − 40 [kV/cm] near the objects. 3. The rapid
rise in the temperature of the particles.
The authors [229, 230] explained the formation of balls using the
theory of fractal clusters [214]. However, the condensation and re-
combination of atomic particles with increasing temperature slow
down, and the growth of clusters of evaporated particles becomes dif-
ficult. So the theory of fractal clusters is hardly suitable for explaining
this experiment.
In [229, 230], a unique series of photographs is presented show-
ing the process of the obtained ball penetration through the window
glass – an analogue of a phenomenon that is often observed when a
BL moves in natural conditions. In [229, 230], this effect is explained
in the assumption that the resulting balls are aerosol particles. The
passage of the ball through the glass is interpreted as their death from
one side of the glass and restoration in a strong field on the other side
of the glass. However, this interpretation is very doubtful, since the
passage of small elements of the ball through the glass must be ac-
companied by the formation of a through hole [224]. Besides, the pho-
tographs of the frontal face of the glass show that the ball passes in-
side the glass without changing its size.
The experiment [229, 230] was repeated in [231]. As in [229, 230],
the formation of luminous objects was observed, but experiments on
the study of their passage through the glass were not carried out.
It should be noted that, in contrast to many attempts of the artificial
reproduction of BL, the experiments of Tesla, Corums and Kopeikin
used resonance phenomena. Electric currents were created in narrow
channels in the region of strong high-frequency electric and magnetic
fields. The combination of all these factors could lead to the formation
of vortex ether structures with a high speed of the ether in them.

570
 Consider the flow of ether in the construction shown in fig. 29.
In operation the vertical coils of such a circuit create high alternating
voltage. In the air between the dischargers, breakdown and alternating
electric current occur, which in the ether representation is the flow of
the ether with velocity 𝐕𝐕. The electron velocity during avalanche ion-
ization is about 0.1𝑐𝑐 − 0.3𝑐𝑐 [185]. Therefore, the ether velocity 𝐕𝐕,
which accelerates electrons, must be of the speed of light order, which
is just necessary to create the boundary layer. Coils and a contour with
a small number of turns parallel to the surface of the Earth create a
magnetic field 𝐁𝐁 in the vertical direction. When it is superimposed on
the ether flow velocity 𝐕𝐕, the generalized Zhukovsky force (121)
arises between the dischargers, the 𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁 component of which twists
the ether in the region of the current flow. An ethereal vortex appears.
It is possible that the parameters of the scheme components in
fig. 29 were selected in experiments so that a longitudinal standing
wave of the ether with still or slow-moving nodes was created be-
tween the dischargers. In such a wave, a region is naturally distin-
guished, for example, in the form of a can between two nodes of
speed. When spinning the ether in this area by applying a magnetic
field 𝐁𝐁 of a certain frequency, a cycled vortex ether motion is formed,
generating the BL. Several areas between the nodes form a lightning
with the bead structure.
Thus, in accordance with the ether model of the BL, it was pre-
cisely BL that could be reproduced in the experiments of Tesla,
Corums and Kopeikin.
The resonant influence of an external electromagnetic field (see
sec. 11.2) on the region between two nodes of the longitudinal stand-
ing wave of the ether allows pumping significant energy into this re-
gion by increasing the amplitude of oscillations of the ether velocity
in it. It is possible that such a mechanism at the macro or micro level
underlies many anomalous, in terms of conventional physics, phe-
nomena observed in electrical devices, including low-temperature

571
transformation of nuclides (LENR), which reveals itself in the for-
mation of isotopes and chemical elements that were initially absent in
the system, see [lenr.seplm.ru].
By analogy with the Chladni figures (see, for example: [en.wik-
ipedia.org]), visualizing the interaction of standing waves with fine
sand, the formation of strata during the explosion of wires, see p. 235,
as well as strata and domains in the glow discharge [185, p. 439, 442,
sec. 12.1.3, 13.7, 13.5.4] can be explained by the interaction of stand-
ing waves in the ether with matter.
In physics, the emergence of strata in the explosion of a wire has
no explanation, see the reference at p. 235. The appearance of strata
in the glow discharge is interpreted as alternation of areas in which
electrons are predominantly born and predominantly die [185, sec.
13.7.2], but explaining the reasons of such areas occurrence causes
great difficulties [185, sec. 13.7.8].
In conclusion, we draw attention to N. Tesla opinion about the
propagation of electromagnetic waves precisely as longitudinal waves
in some medium. The book [232, p. 135] provides quotes from his
interviews with journalists. N. Tesla explained to G. Hertz that it
would be better to call electromagnetic waves "electric sound waves
or sound waves of electrified air". "When Dr. Heinrich Hertz con-
ducted his experiments from 1887 to 1889, his goal was to demon-
strate the theory that the medium that fills all space, called the ether,
does not possess structure, is very thin, but at the same time extremely
durable. He achieved certain results, and the whole world recognized
them as a reliable confirmation of this all-favorite theory, but in real-
ity his observations turned out to be erroneous.
Many years before that I had established that such a media could
not exist, and that the whole space is filled with gaseous substance.
Repeating the experiments of Hertz with advanced and very powerful
equipment, I made sure that he observed nothing but the effect of lon-
gitudinal waves in the gaseous medium, that is, the waves propagated
through compression and expansion. These waves resembled sound

572
waves in the air, rather than transverse electromagnetic waves, as was
commonly assumed".
Studies in our book theoretically confirm the experimental results
of N. Tesla. Longitudinal waves exist in the ether, see sec. 4, as in
other compressible media. It is clear that the description of the ether
medium in terms of the convective derivative 𝐄𝐄 (21) and the rotor 𝐁𝐁
(20) causes enormous difficulties in interpreting the processes occur-
ring in it.

25. Etheric model of the Earth structure

In this section, a model of the structure of the Earth and its sur-
roundings is proposed. The model is based on the understanding of all
processes in nature as the ether motion. The directions of the global
motion of the ether and substance are considered. The possibility and
general conditions for the formation of chemical elements and their
compounds are discussed.
The analysis presented here was carried out jointly with a spe-
cialist in geophysics, Ph.D. in geological and mineralogical sciences
V.I. Sharov, and also with the participation of Ph.D. in technical sci-
ences V.A. Chizhov.
Before proceeding to the presentation of the Earth’s etheric
model, we recall the basic information about its global structure.
The Earth consists of the dense part and the atmosphere surround-
ing it, see fig. 30.
The composition and structure of the atmosphere are studied in
much more detail than the dense part of the Earth, since there is direct
access to almost any point of the atmosphere. Here we will focus on
the properties of the dense part of the Earth.
The internal structure of the Earth is described by models that
characterize changes with increasing depth of density, pressure, grav-
itational acceleration, seismic waves velocity and other parameters.
Classic models are spherically symmetrical. The difference in the

573
structure of the Earth under the oceans and continents at the depth of
420 [km]is taken into account in the oceanic and continental models.
The average model is their combination. For greater depths such a
separation is not carried out.
We consider the model from [121, ch. 44] as a model of the in-
ternal material structure of the Earth. At the initial stage of the global
ether analysis, it is sufficient to take the average classical model of
the Earth [121, table. 44.1].

Fig. 30. Layers of the Earth and atmosphere.

The set of methods for studying the global structure of the Earth
is quite limited. At present, direct methods for its study using drilling
are possible only to the depth of ~12 [km], which the Kol’skaya su-
perdeep well has [233, 234]. At the depth of 10 − 12 [km], serious
problems with the passage of rock formations begin, apparently con-
nected with the destruction of the drill. Measuring the acceleration of
free fall in the mine gives too approximate results [26, p. 346]. The

574
internal structure of the Earth at a great depth is estimated by the
known mass and the moment of inertia of the globe, and on the basis
of the elastic waves study.
Analysis of the propagation of longitudinal and transverse elastic
waves, arising from earthquakes or artificially created, is one of the
main methods for obtaining information about the internal structure of
the Earth. The state close to the liquid transmits only the longitudinal
waves as a result of a change in volume. The boundaries between the
states refract longitudinal waves and poorly transmit transverse waves.
The study of wave propagation shows that the Earth has a layered
structure in the form of spherical rings nested in each other. The sub-
stance in the rings is in solid and close to liquid states.

Fig. 31. Structure of the Earth.

The most important boundaries are the surface of Mohorovičić,

which lies at the depth of 10 − 70 [km], and the surface of the
Wiechert – Gutenberg at the depth of 2900 [km]. These boundaries

575
divide the globe into three main zones: the crust, the mantle and the
core, see fig. 31. The core has the greatest rigidity, the mantle is char-
acterized by high viscosity, and the core is in a state close to liquid.
Within the three main zones of the Earth there are less clearly defined
boundaries, fig. 31.
Also, the solid shell of the Earth is distinguished – the litho-
sphere, consisting of the Earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle
to the asthenosphere (fig. 31), where the speed of seismic waves de-
creases, indicating an increase in the plasticity of rocks.
The mass of the core in percent is 0.3259, of the mantle is
0.6697, of the crust is 0.435 ∙ 10−2 , of the oceans is 0.23 ∙ 10−3 , of
the atmosphere is 0.854 ∙ 10−6 [121, p. 1180]. That is, the main mass
of the Earth is in the mantle and the core.
The table below shows the data from [121, table. 44.1] on density
and pressure inside the Earth. It is interesting to note that density does
not change as much as the pressure. Abrupt changes in density with
depth are possible, caused by differences in the composition of rocks
and their phase state.

Distance from Density Pressure

Depth [km]
the center [km] [g/cm3 ] 108 [Pa]
0 6371.0 13.012 3632.4
1217.1 5153.9 12.704 3288.7
1217.1 5153.9 12.139 3288.7
3485.7 2885.3 9.909 1354.0
3485.7 2885.3 5.550 1354.0
5701.0 670.0 5.377 239.1
5701.0 670.0 4.077 239.1
5951.0 420.0 3.768 141.1
5951.0 420.0 3.553 141.1
6352.0 19.0 3.310 4.8
6352.0 19.0 2.902 4.8
6357.0 14.0 2.902 3.3

576
 6357.0 14.0 2.802 3.3
6368.0 3.0 2.802 0.3
6368.0 3.0 1.030 0.3
6371.0 0.0 1.030 0.0

The most amazing properties of the Earth are the growth of its
radius and the self-renewal of exhausted fields of minerals. The con-
clusion about the growth of the Earth size was established on the basis
of the experimental facts analysis [235]. The issues of long-term high
recoil of deposits and recovery of depleted fields are actively dis-
cussed among geologists and geophysicists.
Modern physics has difficulties in explanation of these phenom-
ena. Understanding of nature as the ether (newtonians) motion allows
one to construct a simple and illustrative model of the processes oc-
curring in the Earth.
According to the etheric concepts, the Earth rotates in a powerful
external gravitational flow of the ether. Its properties and the proper-
ties of material objects falling into it are considered in sec. 15.2, 16.2,
17.2, 22.2. Structural elements of the Earth's substance create their
own gravitational flow, which is superimposed on the external flow.
The study of the ratio of the velocities of these flows requires addi-
tional research. The angular velocity of rotation of the total gravita-
tional flow may be non-uniform in space, since the neighboring layers
of the ether flow weakly interact due to its low viscosity and self-
diffusion (sec. 21.7, 21.8).
In favor of the etheric basis of the Earth structure is the correspond-
ence between the real shape of the Earth and the theoretically calculated
in the etheric gravity force, proportional to 1/𝑟𝑟 2 (sec. 15.2). Such a
calculation for any force ~1/𝑟𝑟 2 was done in [9, sec. 27].
Fig. 32 shows the diagram of the forces densities and directions
of the ether and substance (tangible matter) motion arising in the grav-
itational ether flow. It should be borne in mind that the south magnetic
pole is located in the northern hemisphere, and the north magnetic

577
pole – in the southern. In physics, it is agreed that the magnetic field
lines emerge from the north magnetic pole.

Fig. 32. Scheme of the ether and substance flows.

In the gravitational ether flow: 𝐄𝐄 + 𝐮𝐮 × 𝐁𝐁/𝑐𝑐 ≈ 0 (162).
Gray arrows denote the flow of the ether to the center of the Earth,
bold black – the flow of the matter from the center of the Earth.
𝐑𝐑 gr is the force of gravitational attraction of the object (178)–(180).

Newtonians (ether) from the near-Earth space move in the direc-

tion of the center of the Earth under the action of the pressure gradient
of the gravitational vortex −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 (sec. 16.2). Inside the Earth, it is super-
imposed on the density of the generalized Zhukovsky force 𝐅𝐅Ж,unipol,
arising due to the rotation of the Earth in the magnetic field, as in the
unipolar generator, see sec. 18.11. Since the linear speed of the Earth
rotation is much smaller than the linear speed of the gravitational ether
flow rotation (see sec. 22.2), 𝐅𝐅Ж,unipol can be neglected in comparison

578
with 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝. Thus, the equation of motion (5) of the newtonians global
flow density near the Earth and inside it has the form

𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐮𝐮
= −𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The ether flow with a weak gradient and vorticity of the flow
density has a high penetrating ability due to the extremely small size
of the newtonians (234) and the low viscosity of the ether (sec. 21.7).
Therefore, it reaches the core of the Earth.
The problem of the motion of a spherical shell toward the center is
solved by E.I. Zababakhin [236, p. 28–31; 237; 238]. It is shown that
when the shell converges, unlimited accumulation (increase) of kinetic
energy occurs both for the substance and for the electromagnetic field.
As a result, by analogy with gas-hydrodynamics, an area with
high density and energy of newtonians should be formed in the center
of the Earth. The interaction of local vortices and ether flows from the
structural elements of the Earth’s core leads to the formation of stable
in the ether medium vortex sources (electrons) and vortex sinks (pro-
tons), at the boundary of which the linear flow velocity reaches the
speed of light (characteristic speed of free propagation of disturbances
in the ether).
The pressure (energy density) in the core of the Earth, according
to the data in the table above, is almost four times greater than the
pressure of the unperturbed ether (230). In such conditions, when a
resonant motion occurs, there should be a fusion of protons and elec-
trons into hydrogen nuclei and neutrons. The state energy of protons
and neutrons decreases with the formation by them of light elements
nuclei (up to iron) [239, ch. 6, sec. 2]. Therefore, in the center of the
Earth, nuclei of light chemical elements should be born. In such a way
substance (tangible matter) can appear in the center of the Earth.
The reactions occurring in the core of the Earth should be referred
to the so-called low energy nuclear reactions (LENR) or low-temper-
ature transformation of nuclides, see, for example: [lenr.seplm.ru],

579
since the energy released during such reactions is much smaller than
the energy released in nuclear fusion reactions as on the Sun, or decay
(disintegration) during fission of heavy elements.
In this model, the weakening of the ether flow to the center of the
Earth will lead to the cessation of the matter formation in the core.
However, the transformation of nuclides may occur for a long time
after this, since the intensity of such reactions is usually low due to
the relative smallness of the occurrence probability of the conditions
for resonance [240, 241].
Thus, in the core of the Earth the formation of matter takes place,
the density of matter increases, its pressure grows. As a result, the
outer layers are moved apart, and the size of the Earth increases.
One of the confirmations of the hypothesis about the formation
of matter in the Earth's core is a decrease in the thickness of layers
with a distance from its center, since as the radius of the spherical ring
increases, the width of the ring decreases while maintaining the vol-
ume. Note that the thickness of the rings can be used within the frame-
work of various models to estimate the speed of the substance for-
mation in the core or the periods of its special activity.
It is clear that the matter motion in the core and in the mantle is
influenced by many factors, including random, as well as the structure
features (breaks, surface tension) and thickness (width) of the Earth's
lithosphere. Therefore, the description of the details of this process is
a complicated task. We will focus here only on the analysis of the
general causes of the occurrence of minerals wide variety and the ex-
planation of their renewal possibility.
As has been repeatedly noted in the book, a weakly modulated
ether flow has a high penetrating ability due to the extremely small
size of newtonians. Therefore, energy in this form can move freely
enough inside the Earth.
In the Earth crust there are resonator regions in which the ether
flow can be blocked, for example, due to the presence of a large ether
pressure gradient (electric field) at its boundaries, see equation (23).

580
Besides, the ether vortices can form in the Earth, for example, when
ether flows meet.
The existence of resonator regions in the Earth is confirmed by
their emergence to the surface in the form of so-called anomalous ge-
opathogenic zones, in which strong electric and magnetic fields are
detected and the formation of plasmoids and fireballs is observed. Ge-
ophysics data also confirm the presence of resonator regions. For ex-
ample, under large oil fields, an extensive system of enemas-type ar-
eas is observed with upward necks [242]. Besides, many deposits of
solid substances are in places of vertical or inclined fractures of rocks.
Moving in the crust of the Earth, the matter enters the resonator
regions, where electric discharges and longitudinal or transverse stand-
ing waves arise as a result of interaction with the ether wave. Energy is
pumped in the area between the nodes of the standing wave, when res-
onating with an external wave flow of the ether (for example, an elec-
tromagnetic field). If this energy exceeds a certain threshold, then the
low-temperature transformation reactions of nuclides (LENR) begin to
occur. New chemical elements appear. This mechanism explains the
variety of minerals and the recovery of their exhausted deposits, includ-
ing the origin of water in the inexhaustible sources coming from the
deep bowels.
Approaching the Earth surface, the volume of the resonator re-
gions decreases [242], the release of energy as a result of nuclide
transformations occurring in them decreases. Besides, on the surface
the Earth thermal energy is spent on radiation and heating of the at-
mosphere. All this explains the temperature drop with decreasing
depth and the rigidity of the Earth's crust, at the temperature of which
many substances are in a solid state.
The conclusion about the important role of LENR in the dynam-
ics of the Earth matter is confirmed by the impossibility of drilling by
traditional methods at depths of the order of 10 [km]. If we assume
that the pressure of the water column every 10 [m] increases by
1 [atm], then at the depth of 10 [km] it reaches 103 [atm] ≈ 108 [Pa]

581
and, taking into account local stresses, approaches or even exceeds
the pressure of the unperturbed ether (230). In such conditions, the
rearrangement of the substance structure, including chemical ele-
ments, begins.
In order to confirm and develop the presented model of the Earth
internal structure, test experiments on the artificial creation of condi-
tions similar to those occurring in the Earth’s lithosphere are neces-
sary, under which the low-temperature transformations of nuclides
occur and various minerals are formed. Specific conditions may be
prompted by facts accumulated in geology and geophysics, see, for
example: [243, 244]. Solving such a complex task will require a lot of
effort, but it can be a significant new breakthrough in methods of pro-
specting and analyzing deposits, comparable with the period of devel-
opment of such technologies in the 1960s.
The qualitative considerations given here can serve as a basis for
creating a detailed quantitative model of the Earth structure, which, in
combination with a computational experiment, will provide new sub-
stantiated informative results on the details of the Earth composition,
allow to develop new ways of searching for mineral deposits and un-
derstand the conditions contributing to their enrichment and recovery.
A similar etheric model can be proposed for the Sun. The main
differences from the etheric model of the Earth are the larger-scale
gravitational flow with the higher speed of newtonians flow, in the
center of which the energy density (pressure) is reached, sufficient to
initiate thermonuclear fusion reactions with much more energy re-
lease compared to LENR.

582
 Conclusion

The active development of etheric ideas about natural phenomena

is due to the need for a convincing explanation of well-known and
new experimental facts (see, for example: [63, 80, 81, 88–91, 94, 95,
109–112]), and also the task of creating fundamentally new technical
devices. Many publications are devoted to the analysis of generally
accepted physical concepts and the presentation of etheric models
(see, for example: [73–93]). The ether theory presented in the book is
distinguished by the logical rigor of construction based on the matter
conservation law and the law of momentum conservation (Newton's
second law), the consistent application of the applied mathematics
methodology to verify the mathematical model of the ether.
The set of systematic multilateral studies conducted in the book, the
comparison of theoretical concepts with a large number of experimen-
tally established laws and experimental facts substantiate the hypothesis
of the ether existence, expressed in the form of generally accepted pos-
tulates: conservation of matter and conservation of momentum.
Let us single out some sufficiently reliable experimental results,
which already now convincingly confirm the presence of the ether: the
explosion of wires by an electric current, sec. 18.10; charge in electro-
statics, sec. 18.13; attracting magnet and ferromagnetic materials, sec.
19.2; sublimation and evaporation of substances, sec. 21.12; current in
the unipolar generator, sec. 23.3; heating of the metal, sec. 23.5.1,
23.5.2; current at a deceleration of the coil, sec. 23.6.1, 23.6.2; creation
of a magnetic field by a rotating superconductor, sec. 23.6.3; phantom
generation in the ether, sec. 23.6.4; the destruction of the material by
a laser beam, sec. 23.8; motion of asymmetrical capacitors in high vac-
uum, sec. 23.9.5; Cherenkov radiation, sec. 23.11; artificial ball light-
ning, sec. 24.4, 23.13; cyclotron ether resonance, sec. 11.2.
For additional verification of the ether existence hypothesis and
the specification of characteristics of the ether, new experiments, in-

583
cluding relatively inexpensive, and modifications of known experi-
ments are proposed in this book, see sec. 10, 12.1, 16.1, 18.11, 19.2,
21.5, 21.9, 23.2.3, 23.3 (p. 407), 23.5.1, 23.6.1, 23.6.2, 23.6.6, 23.6.7,
23.9.2–23.9.5, 23.10.4, 23.11, 23.12.
According to the methodology of mathematical modeling [1–5],
which establishes the adequacy of the mathematical model on the ba-
sis of its consequences correspondence to well-proven experimental
facts, the conducted studies allow making the substantiated conclu-
sion about the adequacy of the description of electrical, magnetic,
gravitational and kinetic phenomena as the ether dynamics in the
model of continuous media mechanics (4)–(6), without involving the
theory of relativity. Therefore, the mathematical formalism presented
in the book has a good prospect of becoming a common platform for
consolidating the efforts of the ether theory proponents to assert it as
a basic concept in analyzing natural phenomena. Including to give a
reliable mathematical platform for analyzing the physical-phenome-
nological and natural-philosophical models of the ether.
It is important to emphasize that currently in the methodology of
mathematical modeling there is no reason to consider the Maxwell
equations as the initial equations for the description of nature, as
there are no results yet for deriving from these equations the law of
electromagnetic induction, the Ampere laws, the Lorentz force, the
law of gravity and other laws.
Besides, the description of the phenomena discussed in the book
does not require the use of the quantum mechanics model with its set
of postulates and principles. Herewith, quantization of processes is
not excluded (see sec. 6).
The denial of the ether existence is usually based on the interpre-
tation of Michelson's experiments and observations of moving light
sources (see, for example: [29, sec. 102, 103]). However, as the de-
tailed analysis shows, the generally accepted interpretation of these
experiments is not adequate (see Appendices 2 and 3). In particular,
it is necessary to take into account the presence of vortices and the

584
possibility of a substantial change of the ether velocity near the Earth
and other cosmic bodies. In other words, it is necessary to look for the
etheric wind where it is present.
The existence of the ether is confirmed by the large number of
experimental facts (more than seventy) considered in the book, in par-
ticular those described in sec. 23.
Another important fundamental conclusion from the research
presented in the book is that the ether equations (4)–(6) must be taken
into account when constructing detailed self-consistent mathematical
models of electrodynamics, gas-hydro-dynamics and kinetics, since,
for example, in the general case the vectors 𝐄𝐄 and 𝐁𝐁 do not contain all
the information about motion of the ether density flow 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 (see for-
mulas (20), (21)), that is, they may not give a complete description of
some processes. Maxwell's equations also lose some information con-
tained in the original ether equations, as they are a particular conse-
quence of them (sec. 2).
Moreover, the systematic use of the ether equations (4)–(6) leads
to the conclusion that the primary cause of the electric currents and
magnets properties is the ether flow, and the possible motion of
charged particles is a concomitant effect in this flow.
Note that in models of phenomena, in addition to the laws of con-
servation of matter and momentum, other conservation laws known
in continuous media mechanics can be applied.
In the mathematical theory of the ether, complex and seemingly
paradoxical phenomena find the common and clear interpretation of
continuous media mechanics. The book analyzes such phenomena as:
wave-particle duality; different behavior of oppositely charged bodies
in electric and magnetic fields; gravitational effect; phenomena asso-
ciated with electric currents and magnets, including superconductiv-
ity; thermal conductivity; interaction of bodies with smooth surfaces;
phase state of objects; quantization.
In the theory of the ether, the mechanism of electric current and
heat conduction in metals is explained by the creation of newtonians
pressure gradient (energy density gradient) and does not require the

585
presence of free electrons, see sec. 21.5, 21.6, 21.9–21.11, 23.2.1,
23.5, 23.6.1, 23.6.2. We emphasize that for modern physics, the strug-
gle for the electronic theory of conductivity and thermal conductivity
of metals is fundamental since the small role or absence of free elec-
trons in metals makes it necessary to introduce the ether or its ana-
logues to explain these processes. Physics, despite the internal contra-
dictions of the classical electronic theory of metals conductivity (sec.
23.2.1) and it's substantial (about 10 thousand times) quantitative in-
consistency with the experiments [32, p. 213; 152, ch. 6, p. 55; 154,
ch. 3], instead of recognizing the presence of the ether, tries to pre-
serve the electronic theory of conductivity by the endowment of elec-
trons in quantum theory with the properties necessary for explaining
experiments. In particular, an electron is represented by a wave capa-
ble of bending around obstacles [28, p. 424]. But such an approach
means that physics, denying the existence of the ether, still introduces
some exotic analogue of the ether flow.
Let us draw attention to the well-known opinion about the need
to clarify the molecular model of various macroscopic media [245, p.
47–48]. Theoretically obtained formulas of physics for thermal con-
ductivity, viscosity, electrical conductivity and diffusion are usually
too rough for application. Instead experimental data are used in prac-
tice. Particularly noticeable are the contradictions between the theory
and the experiment in the molecular-kinetic description of a liquid,
solidification, and a solid body [151]. The theory of the ether allows
to hope for the removal of existing contradictions between the theory
and the experiment through the development of the model of atoms,
molecules and forces acting between them.
An important result is a conclusion that the gravitational interac-
tion of objects in the ether can occur at distances of the order of their
boundary layers size, which can differ significantly from the size of
the objects themselves. This effect is similar to the contactless inter-
action of magnets (p. 272) and charged objects (sec. 18.13).
The book reveals the unity of the origin of the electromagnetic
and gravitational forces as a result of the ether motion. Proceeding

586
from this, and also taking into account the obtained approximate esti-
mate, showing the high speed of the ether around the Earth (sec. 22.2),
it is natural to pose the task of studying the possibility of creating tech-
nical devices that convert the gravitational motion of the ether near the
Earth into electromagnetic and vice versa in order to extract energy,
gravity control and the creation of new vehicles for motion in space.
Analysis conducted in sec. 23.10, allows to start solving this problem.
It is known that the electric field of the Earth at the surface is
~130 [V/m], which at a person’s height gives a voltage of ~200 [V]
(see, for example: [28, p. 82]). The total potential difference between
the surface of the Earth and the upper layers of the atmosphere is al-
most 400 [kV]. In physics, it is believed that some unknown processes
impede the rapid loss of its charge by the Earth [28, p. 83]. However,
as shown in sec. 18.11, the presence of charged particles is not required
to maintain the Earth’s electric field. The study of the essential mech-
anisms details of terrestrial and atmospheric electricity can lead to the
creation of efficient technical devices that allow the use of energy
stored in the electric field of the Earth, see the end of sec. 23.2.2. It is
possible that Nikola Tesla possessed exactly such technologies.
Sec. 21.5 shows that the ether is in fact a thermostat. The colossal
heat capacity of the ether can be tried to be used for practical purposes.
The analysis of the ether carrier structure (mass and size of the
newtonians, see sec. 21.2) shows the enormous structural and infor-
mation capacity of the ether even at distances of the order of the pro-
ton radius. This causes a large variety of objects of the microworld,
opens up almost unlimited possibilities for creating new information
and computing technologies.
The high penetrating ability of certain ether flows allows offering
the presented mathematical theory as a tool for a grounded analysis
of so-called psychophysical and paranormal phenomena.
The given material, regardless of attitude to the hypothesis of the
ether existence and its physical interpretation, can be considered as a

587
new effective mathematical apparatus for the detailed study of elec-
trical, magnetic, gravitational and kinetic effects.
The presented results form a unified physical and mathematical
methodology for studying various phenomena of nature, show a close
relationship between electromagnetic processes and gravity, give a
new mathematical tool for a deeper study of the micro and macro-
cosm, open up the possibility of developing fundamentally new tech-
nical systems for the production and storage of energy, motion in
space, gravity control, operating with information.
Once there is the media in which everything happens, then it can
be used for practical purposes.
The next stage of research is to detail models taking into account
the peculiarities of the processes’ specific conditions, carrying out
computational and real experiments, creation of breakthrough inno-
vative technologies.
In modern fundamental research, there is a convergence (synthe-
sis) of various branches of science [246]. Scientific research in the
previous 200–300 years was directed mainly at creating methods for
studying phenomena, accumulating and applying knowledge in spe-
cific areas. The modern needs of society require new fundamental dis-
coveries to create fundamentally new, effective, nature-like, environ-
mentally friendly technologies. This problem is difficult to solve in
the framework of one area of science. Therefore, there is a synthesis
of approaches from various branches of knowledge. The material of
the book can be viewed as a mathematical apparatus for convergence,
which allows to quantitatively unite various branches of science on
the basis of a single universal model of nature.
The new approach to understanding the fundamentals of nature
should stimulate the development of the natural sciences and related
organizational and financial activities. The large-scale work is ex-
pected on the preparation of new monographs and training courses,
volumetric reissue of educational literature in a modern edition, the

588
opening of new directions in research institutes and training of spe-
cialists for them in higher education institutions, creation of funda-
mentally new technical devices.
In the humanitarian sphere, it is important to perform a compre-
hensive analysis of historical, social, psychological, economic and
philosophical reasons due to which the methodology of modern phys-
ics in terms of theory turned out to be dogmatic, hindering the transi-
tion to new technologies. Measures should be developed on the basis
of such studies that ensure the dynamic development of mankind.

589
 Appendix 1. Derivation of the Ampere equation

Analysis of the result of the directional derivative operator

(𝐧𝐧 ∙ 𝛁𝛁) applying to equation (23) in the general case with the extrac-
tion of the term of the form 𝛁𝛁 × 𝛁𝛁 × and justification of its uniqueness
was given by F.S. Zaitsev using the representation of complex differ-
ential operators through the simplest. However, the corresponding
calculations are very cumbersome. Therefore, we give here a rela-
tively brief derivation of equation (29) proposed by N.A. Magnitskii
in case of 𝑞𝑞 = 0, 𝐅𝐅 = 0 [45].
Apply the derivative operator along the curve (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁) to equation
(23). Will get

𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄 𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮
+ (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)�(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� − � ∙ 𝛁𝛁� (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) = 0.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Denote 𝐚𝐚 ≡ 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮, 𝐛𝐛 ≡ (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐚𝐚.

Consider the term (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)�(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)�. We use the penultimate
formula from the table 5.5-1 in [51]

(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)�(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� = (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐛𝐛 =

(𝐛𝐛 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 + 𝐮𝐮(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐛𝐛) − 𝐛𝐛(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮) − 𝛁𝛁 × (𝐮𝐮 × 𝐛𝐛).

Calculate 𝛁𝛁 × (𝐮𝐮 × 𝐛𝐛) using the second formula from the list (b)
of the table 5.5-1 in [51]

𝛁𝛁 × (𝐮𝐮 × 𝐛𝐛) = 𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮 × �(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐚𝐚�� =

𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐚𝐚) − (𝐚𝐚 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 − 𝐚𝐚 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮) − 𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)�� =
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐚𝐚) − (𝐚𝐚 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 − 𝐚𝐚 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)�� −
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮 × �𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)��.

590
 Transform the last term using the expression for the double vector
product

𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮 × �𝐮𝐮 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)�� =

𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮�𝐮𝐮 ∙ (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)� − (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐮𝐮)𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚�.

We have

𝛁𝛁 × (𝐮𝐮 × 𝐛𝐛) =
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐚𝐚) − (𝐚𝐚 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 − 𝐚𝐚 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)�� −
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮�𝐮𝐮 ∙ (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)� − 𝐮𝐮2 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚�.

Then

(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)�(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� =

(𝐛𝐛 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 + 𝐮𝐮(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐛𝐛) − 𝐛𝐛(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮) −
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐚𝐚) − (𝐚𝐚 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 − 𝐚𝐚 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)�� +
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮�𝐮𝐮 ∙ (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)�� − 𝛁𝛁 × (𝐮𝐮2 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚).

The derivative 𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 can be represented using the equation (30).

Substituting (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)�(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)(𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮)� and 𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮/𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 into the original
equation, we get

𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄
+ (𝐛𝐛 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 + 𝐮𝐮(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐛𝐛) − 𝐛𝐛(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮) −
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐚𝐚) − (𝐚𝐚 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 − 𝐚𝐚 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)�� +
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮�𝐮𝐮 ∙ (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)�� −
��(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮)𝐮𝐮 − (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮� ∙ 𝛁𝛁� 𝐚𝐚 = 𝛁𝛁 × (𝐮𝐮2 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚).

591
 Denoting

4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣 ≡ (𝐛𝐛 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 + 𝐮𝐮(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐛𝐛) − 𝐛𝐛(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮) −

𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮 × �𝛁𝛁(𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐚𝐚) − (𝐚𝐚 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 − 𝐚𝐚 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)�� +
𝛁𝛁 × �𝐮𝐮�𝐮𝐮 ∙ (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐚𝐚)�� − ��(𝛁𝛁 ∙ 𝐮𝐮)𝐮𝐮 − (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮� ∙ 𝛁𝛁� 𝐚𝐚,

we come to the equation (29)

𝜕𝜕𝐄𝐄 |𝐮𝐮|2
+ 4𝜋𝜋𝐣𝐣 = 𝛁𝛁 × � 𝐁𝐁�.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐

592
 Appendix 2. On the search for the ether wind

In relation to with the study of electrodynamic processes in the

ether, we will stop on the question of the ether wind. Various experi-
ments carried out by different authors in the XIX century gave a pos-
itive answer to the question of the existence of the ether wind [80].
Since 1887, A. Michelson and E. Morley conducted experiments us-
ing an interferometer, the purpose of which was to detect the motion
of the Earth relative to the ether of outer space [74]. The Earth moves
in its orbit at a speed of about 30 [km/s], participating in the general
motion of the Solar system relative to the center of the galaxy at a
speed of 220 [km/s] and in the motion of the galaxy itself. It was
expected that the etheric wind speed is 30 [km/s], but the resulting
value was much less than the expected value of 30 [km/s].
These works were the reason for abandoning the concept of the
existence of the ether instead of dealing with the model of the ether.
Nevertheless, Dayton Clarence Miller carried out experiments from
1902 to 1926 [74], which gave a systematically measured speed of the
etheric wind of 10.5 [km/s], which was not consistent with the denial
of the ether. As a result of the subjective attitude towards Miller’s
experiments, which did not agree with the provisions of the SRT, ig-
noring the opinions of J. Stark and F. Lenard (Nobel Prize winners)
[80], V.F. Mitkevich, A.K. Timiryazev et al., the postulate about the
absence of the ether was established.
The main idea of the A. Michelson and E. Morley experiments
was that under the assumption of the existence of the non-moving
ether, the motion of the Earth should lead to the appearance of a no-
ticeable difference in the numerical values of a number of optical
quantities when the light beam propagates along and across the direc-
tion of the Earth’s motion. Experiments conducted using interferom-
eter and the methods are described in many books, for example, [74].

593
 A simplified scheme of the
Michelson interferometer is
shown in the figure to the left,
see, for example: [114, sec. 63].
The beam coming from the
source 𝑆𝑆0 , is partially reflected at
the point 𝑂𝑂 from the slightly sil-
ver-plated glass plate 𝐴𝐴; then it
reflects from the mirror 𝑅𝑅2 , and
part of it, passing through the
plate 𝐴𝐴, enters the telescope at
point 𝐹𝐹. Another part of the beam
𝑆𝑆0 passes through the plate 𝐴𝐴, then reflects from the mirror 𝑅𝑅1 , again
is partially reflected at point 𝑂𝑂 and also gets into the tube 𝐹𝐹. Distances
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑂𝑂𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑂𝑂𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑂𝑂𝑆𝑆0 = 𝑙𝑙. The observer in the tube 𝐹𝐹 sees inter-
ference fringes depending on the difference in the transit time of the
paths 𝑂𝑂𝑅𝑅1 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 and 𝑂𝑂𝑅𝑅2 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 of these two beams. If the device is station-
ary relative to the ether, then the times spent by the rays of light for
the motion are the same, since each of them travels the path 4𝑙𝑙 with
the speed of light 𝑐𝑐. This time is 𝑡𝑡 = 4𝑙𝑙/𝑐𝑐.
Suppose the wave nature of light. In this case, the speed of light
can depend only on the properties of the ether and/or on the internal
properties of the propagating light itself.
Let the speed of light, in the presence of the ether, depend on the
properties of the ether and behave similarly to the speed of sound.
Consider the propagation of sound from the jet supersonic airplane.
The sound propagates through the medium in all directions at a con-
stant speed determined by the medium, 𝑐𝑐 2 ~ 𝑝𝑝/𝜌𝜌. At the same time
the plane (sound source) moves faster than the sound. That is, the
speed of sound in the medium does not add up with the speed of the
sound source. The same situation takes place at lower airplane speeds,
see the second paragraph of appendix 3.

594
 Within the framework of the analogy between the sound in the
medium and the light in the ether, the speed of light in the ether does
not add up to the speed of the light source motion. Therefore, when
the device moves together with the Earth, the time of passage of two
rays, in the absence of light interaction with the ether, must be the
same 𝑡𝑡 = 4𝑙𝑙/𝑐𝑐.
However, light interacts with a substance in the ether, for exam-
ple, in the form of a gas or particles, which is observed in the form of
scattering or absorption. Experiments show the possibility of light in-
teraction with the ether itself (as a sound wave with the wind), the
speed and density of which are defined by local and global processes
in space. Thus, when shielding a chamber with a metal casing, the
result of measuring the ether wind was close to zero [78]. Similarly,
the local speed of sound in the cabin of an airplane, including when it
is supersonic, remains constant, independent of the external wind and
the same in all directions.
Besides, even without a metal shell, the thinnest plate of glass is
sufficient to allow for the re-emission of light by this fixed object [78].
Thus, in the concept of the ether interacting with a substance, the
local speed of the ether observed in experiments can be smaller than
the speed of the Earth’s motion along the orbit, smaller than the speed
of rotation of a local ether vortex, which creates attraction to the Earth
(see sec. 22.2), and smaller than the speed of the ether around the
Earth in the global ether vortex of the Solar system.
Note that the speed of the ether near the Earth in the global vortex
of the Solar system must be greater than the orbital speed of the Earth,
because for the emergence of the generalized Zhukovsky force, which
provides gravity to the Sun, this vortex must "penetrate" the Earth (see
sec. 16.2, 22.2), that is have a speed relative to the Earth.
According to the author of the book [80], starting with the exper-
iments of Michelson and Morley and ending with Miller's experi-
ments, the ether wind associated with the rotation of the planet was
measured in all cases, which in order of magnitude should be close to

595
the first cosmic velocity equal in the case of the Earth to 7.91 [km/s].
We emphasize that the ether vortex, which provides gravity to the
Earth, differs from the vortex created by the rotation of the Earth
around its axis.
Thus, the experiments of Michelson, Morley and Miller do not
support the constancy of the speed of light and do not deny any prin-
ciples of classical physics, including the existence of the ether.
Various experiments confirm that the basis of the gravity phe-
nomenon are vortices in the ether. So, the experiments of Majorana
[94] showed a decrease in the measured weight of objects in the pres-
ence of a metal shell on the chamber in which the experiments were
conducted. In the etheric interpretation, the shell weakens the terres-
trial ether vortex inside the chamber, the generalized Zhukovsky force
decreases and, as a result, the weight of the object decreases. This
experiment also indicates the dependence of the gravitational flow of
the ether (162) on the presence of a substance.
The Earth and other space objects are in the global etheric vortex
of the Solar system. The generalized Zhukovsky force arising in it
attracts cosmic objects to the Sun. The etheric vortex of the Solar sys-
tem consists of a nucleus, in the paraxial zone of which the Sun is
located, and a distributed vorticity in the planetary zone [80]. Outside
this zone, the vortex is weakened or destroyed, and the universal grav-
ity law can stop working.
Instead of exploring the vortex flow of the ether, the etheric wind
near objects, studying the effects of vortices on planets and star sys-
tems, modern relativists, based on the absolutization of the universal
gravitation law, introduce the concept of "dark matter" and other ab-
stract entities.

596
 Appendix 3. On moving light sources

As known [29, 114], one of the main questions for the theory of
relativity (RT): is the speed of light constant?
The answer to this question in the methodology of mathematical
modeling is determined by the mathematical model used. If the prop-
agation of light is described by the mathematical model (4)–(6) used
in this book, basing on the law of momentum conservation, and it is
assumed that in experiments the light source creates small perturba-
tions of the medium that satisfy equations (78), then, as well known
from the course of mathematical physics, the wave in such conditions
propagates with the speed 𝑢𝑢∗ , determined by the properties of the me-
dium, and not the magnitude of the initial value of the velocity. For
example, in the d'Alembert formula [62, p. 56] the wave propagation
velocity is described by the argument 𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑢𝑢∗ 𝑡𝑡, which does not depend
on the initial velocity of the wave.
Thus, in this mathematical model, the wave propagation velocity
does not depend on whether the wave source is moving or not. There-
fore, if the experiments do not observe the dependence of the speed
of light on the speed of the source, this circumstance, according to the
methodology of applied mathematics, should be considered as one of
the mathematical model correctness confirmations, that is, the cor-
rectness of the assumption about the propagation of light in a medium
characterized by the relation (19), in which the speed 𝑢𝑢∗ is equal to
the speed of light 𝑐𝑐. In other words, experiments showing the con-
stancy of the speed of light should confirm the hypothesis of the prop-
agation of light in a certain medium.
We now consider the important physical aspects of this issue, fol-
lowing [79]. The term "constant" means independence of time, spatial
coordinates, the direction of light propagation and, finally, from the
properties of the light itself.
Taking into account these aspects, one can ask what could be de-
termined in the Michelson interferometer. Two unpolarized light

597
beams in it moved in two mutually perpendicular directions. The tra-
jectories of light began and ended at the same points. Therefore, in
experiments they dealt only with a certain "average" speed of light for
opposite directions. As a result, it could only be shown that the aver-
age speed of light for two opposite directions in some system of ref-
erence does not depend on the motion of this system.
The result of this experiment does not answer the following ques-
tions. Is the speed of light constant regardless of its propagation di-
rection, or is it anisotropic? Does the speed of light depend on time
and the choice of coordinate system? Does it depend in vacuum on
the characteristics of the light itself, in particular on its frequency?
There are other unanswered questions in RT. What is the mecha-
nism of light propagation and electromagnetic waves in the vacuum?
Do vacuum properties change when disturbances or particles are in-
troduced into it?
All these questions in the absence of the medium – the ether –
remain unanswered, and the constancy of the speed of light in RT is
the postulate that does not have experimental confirmation.
The problems and internal contradictions of RT are discussed in
detail in [78, 79, 110], which we recommend to read carefully.

598
 Appendix 4. Trajectories of Lagrangian particles for the
equation of motion with zero right side

We prove that for the equation of motion with the zero right hand
side (2) the Lagrangian particles trajectories of the medium outside of
its discontinuities are straight lines. The attention to this problem in
the N.N. Magnitskii model of the ether was drown by T.T. Sultan-
Zade. The following proof is proposed by F.S. Zaitsev.
Integrate equation (2)

𝑑𝑑 �𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��

=0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

over the time interval [𝑡𝑡0 , 𝑡𝑡], where 𝑡𝑡0 is the initial moment of time, 𝑡𝑡
is the arbitrary final moment, assuming the continuity of the left side
of the equation. According to the Newton – Leibniz formula we have

𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� − �𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�� = 0,

𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡0
�𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��
𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡0
𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� = � 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�� ,
𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡0

which means the preservation of the velocity vector 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� direc-
tion at 𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)� ≠ 0 on [𝑡𝑡0 , 𝑡𝑡].
Preserving the direction of the velocity vector of a point implies
its motion 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) along the straight line, since from the equation

𝑑𝑑𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)
= 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

assuming the continuity of both parts, we get by integrating

599
 𝑡𝑡
𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) − � 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡 = � 𝐮𝐮�𝑦𝑦, 𝐫𝐫(𝑦𝑦)�𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
0
𝑡𝑡0

𝑡𝑡 �𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)��
𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡0
𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) − � 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡 = � � 𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡, 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)�� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
0
𝑡𝑡0 𝜌𝜌�𝑦𝑦, 𝐫𝐫(𝑦𝑦)� 𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡0

𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡0 ) + 𝜌𝜌�𝑡𝑡0 , 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡0 )�𝐮𝐮�𝑡𝑡0 , 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡0 )�𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡),

𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) ≡ � ,
𝑡𝑡1 𝜌𝜌�𝑦𝑦, 𝐫𝐫(𝑦𝑦)�

which is the parametric representation of the straight line with the pa-
rameter 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡). The statement is proven.
Recall that current lines (vector lines) are called lines, at each
point of which the velocity vector of the medium is tangential to them.
In the general case of the non-stationary flow, the current lines can be
completely different from the trajectories of the Lagrangian particles,
see, for example: [9, sec. 11; 14, p. 43, 44].
However, for steady state motion (with zero partial derivatives
with respect to time), that is, the stationary velocity field, the equa-
tions for the trajectories and for the current lines coincide, therefore,
the trajectories and current lines themselves coincide at any moment,
see, for example: [9, p. 43]. But, as has just been shown, the trajecto-
ries for the equation (2) are always straight lines (both for the steady
state and for the unsteady state motion). Then, in the steady state flow,
the current lines are also straight, since in this case they coincide with
the trajectories.

600
 Appendix 5. New systems of units associated with the ether

The CGS system uses three basic units of measurement

(length, mass, time) = (𝑙𝑙, 𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑡), on the basis of which the dimen-
sions of other basic physical quantities are constructed, see, for exam-
ple: [55]. However, the dimensions of the electric and magnetic quan-
tities in the CGS contain powers of 1/2 and 3/2, which can make it
difficult to understand the physical meaning of the formulas in which
these quantities occur.
The SI system of units has four basic units of measurement:
(𝑙𝑙, 𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑡, 𝑞𝑞), which include charge (or current). In this system, the basic
physical quantities are expressed in terms of the integer powers of the
base units. However, from the mathematical point of view, the SI sys-
tem is excessive, since the CGS units (𝑙𝑙, 𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑡) are sufficient to de-
scribe the physical quantities and the relations between them. This
leads to the fact that in one of the physical laws written in the SI, in
order to match its variables, it is required to introduce the constant 𝜇𝜇0
or the constant 𝜀𝜀0 , associated with 𝜇𝜇0 by the formula 𝑐𝑐 = (𝜀𝜀0 𝜇𝜇0 )−1/2
[55, p. 18], where 𝑐𝑐 is the electrodynamic constant equal to the speed
of light in the vacuum. As a result, 𝜇𝜇0 and 𝜀𝜀0 appear in various ex-
pressions, complicating their appearance and interpretation. In this
sense, the SI system is inconvenient. Therefore, many researchers
continue to use the CGS, despite the requirement of most of the cen-
tral scientific publishers to use the SI units.
The main complaint to the CGS system (the use of radicals that
are difficult for perception) can be eliminated with the help of a sim-
ple method – by introducing symbols for the units of measurement of
charge [statCoulomb] and electric potential [statVolt], as was done,
for example, in [55, p. 12]. From the mathematical point of view, such
an approach makes no sense to use the excessive SI system of units
with the constants 𝜇𝜇0 and 𝜀𝜀0 artificially introduced into it [28, sec.
85]. For this reason, in the theory of the ether, we use a more natural
and convenient system of CGS.

601
 The density 𝜌𝜌 and the velocity 𝐮𝐮 of the ether generate electric and
magnetic fields, charge density and mass, see formulas (20), (21),
(66), (179), (229).Therefore, the system of units of measurement
(𝑙𝑙, 𝑓𝑓(𝜌𝜌), 𝑡𝑡), where 𝑓𝑓 is the given function, will be sufficient to con-
struct the dimensions of all the basic physical quantities of the CGS
and SI systems.
Consider two options for introducing a new system of units associ-
ated with the ether. In these options, the dimension of the mass in the
ether units is appropriate to its definition in [52]. If the mass is intro-
duced by the formula (179), then its dimension is determined by the di-
mension of 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 . The dimension of 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 can be chosen arbitrarily from one
or the other reason. According to (229), the choice of 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 dimension
determines the dimension of the constant 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 of converting formulae
in the derived (mechanical) units of measurement, which uses 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 , into
the original ether units of measurement associated with 𝜌𝜌: 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 𝜌𝜌.
Variant 1.
We introduce the unit of measurement of the ether amount

Э = � 𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ,
𝑉𝑉

which can be called "э" from "ether" in Russian: "эфир". In the sys-
tem (𝑙𝑙, э, 𝑡𝑡) the dimensions of the ether density, magnetic and electric
fields, charge and mass will be

э э2 э э2
[𝜌𝜌] = 3 , [𝐁𝐁] = [𝐄𝐄] = 2 2 , [𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 ] = 2 , [𝑚𝑚] = 2 3 .
𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙
The dimensions of mass and charge differ in 1 э/𝑙𝑙 3 , and dimen-
sions of 𝐁𝐁 and 𝐄𝐄, as in the CGS system, are the same, but do not con-
tain radicals. The dimensions of the remaining physical quantities are
based on the dimensions of the charge 𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 and mass 𝑚𝑚.

602
 Variant 2.
The most interesting is the variant of the system of units (𝑙𝑙, 𝜌𝜌, 𝑡𝑡),
in which the ether density 𝜌𝜌 is a dimensionless quantity. Then

𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙 3 𝑙𝑙 3
[Э] = 𝑙𝑙 3 , [𝐁𝐁] = [𝐄𝐄] = , [𝑞𝑞𝜎𝜎 ] = , [𝑚𝑚] = .
𝑡𝑡 2 𝑡𝑡 2 𝑡𝑡 2

In such a system, the dimensions of all basic physical quantities

will be expressed only through time 𝑡𝑡 and length 𝑙𝑙. In this case, the
dimensions of mass and charge do not differ, which emphasizes their
common origin from the ether. The dimension of the ether amount
coincides with the dimension of the volume. Besides, in the consid-
ered system, the dimensions of all basic quantities in the CGS and SI
coincide and are expressed in terms of integer powers 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑙𝑙. Here-
with, of course, the units of measurement of length in the CGS and SI
are different.

603
 Appendix 6. Concentrations of electrons and ions in air at
low pressure

Sec. 23.9.1 considers an experiment at low air pressure, when the

particle density is ~1014 [1/cm3 ]. To analyze this experiment, it is
required to know the concentrations of electrons and ions in the resid-
ual air. It was not possible to find such data in the known literature.
Therefore, we carry out the necessary calculations here. We use pa-
pers [1–10], see below the list of references to this section.
We take into account the following basic elementary processes
involving electrons and positive and negative ions in air at various
pressures and relatively low electric fields 𝐸𝐸 ~ 1 − 2 [V/cm].
1. Atmospheric background ionization with fast particles arriv-
ing from the ionosphere and resulting from the decomposition
of radon:

𝑒𝑒 ′ + 𝑂𝑂2 → 𝑂𝑂2+ + 𝑒𝑒 ′ + 𝑒𝑒,

(1)
𝑒𝑒 ′ + 𝑁𝑁2 → 𝑁𝑁2+ + 𝑒𝑒 ′ + 𝑒𝑒.

Here 𝑒𝑒 ′ and 𝑒𝑒 are fast and slow electrons, 𝑂𝑂2 and 𝑁𝑁2 are mol-
ecules of oxygen and nitrogen, 𝑂𝑂2+ and 𝑁𝑁2+ are molecular ions
of oxygen and nitrogen.
The rate of background ionization in air depends on pres-
sure and can be described as 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺/𝑛𝑛0 , 𝐺𝐺 = 4 − 10 [1/(s ∙
cm3 )] [3, 4], 𝑛𝑛 is the concentration of air molecules at a given
pressure, 𝑛𝑛0 = 2.687 ∙ 1019 [1/cm3 ] is the concentration of air
molecules at the atmospheric pressure (the Loshmidt number).
2. Three-body attachment of a slow electron to oxygen mole-
cules [9]:

𝑒𝑒 + 𝑂𝑂2 + 𝑂𝑂2 → 𝑂𝑂2− + 𝑂𝑂2 (2)

with the rate constant 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−30 [cm6 /s] at the electron
temperature of about the room one.

604
 3. Electron detachment from the negative oxygen ion when col-
liding with the molecule 𝑀𝑀 [8, 10]:

𝑂𝑂2− + 𝑀𝑀 → 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑂𝑂2 + 𝑀𝑀 (3)

with the rate constant 𝑘𝑘det ≈ 10−15 [cm3 /s] [10] at the gas
temperature of about room temperature and a low value of the
electric field.
4. The balance of positive ions, defined by electron-ion and ion-
ion recombination reactions involving positive ions 𝑀𝑀2+ :

𝑒𝑒 + 𝑀𝑀2+ : → 𝑀𝑀 + 𝑀𝑀, (4)

𝑂𝑂2− + 𝑀𝑀2+ : → 𝑂𝑂2 + 𝑀𝑀2 . (5)

In the air, fast charge-exchange of 𝑁𝑁2+ ions on oxygen

molecules occurs with the formation of the 𝑂𝑂2+ , ion, so by 𝑀𝑀2+
we mean the positive oxygen ion 𝑂𝑂2+ .
The dissociative recombination coefficient at room tem-
perature is 𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−7 [cm3 /s] [5, 6], and the ion-ion re-
combination coefficient with the participation of positive and
negative oxygen ions 𝛼𝛼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−7 [cm3 /s] [5, 6].
We write the equation of the charged particles balance in reac-
tions (1)–(5)

𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)
= 𝑄𝑄 − 𝜈𝜈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑘𝑘det 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2− (𝑡𝑡)𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2 − 𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ (𝑡𝑡), (6)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2− (𝑡𝑡)
= 𝜈𝜈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 − 𝛼𝛼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2− ()𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ (𝑡𝑡) − 𝑘𝑘det 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2− (𝑡𝑡)𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2 , (7)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ (𝑡𝑡)
= 𝑄𝑄 − 𝛼𝛼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2− (𝑡𝑡)𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ (𝑡𝑡) − 𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ (𝑡𝑡), (8)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝜈𝜈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2 2 is the frequency of the three-body attachment

process (2), 𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , 𝛼𝛼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 are the coefficients of electron-ion and ion-ion

605
recombination, 𝑘𝑘det is the rate constant of the detaching process of
electrons (3), 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2 is the concentration 𝑂𝑂2 of oxygen molecules. 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2−
is the concentration of oxygen ions 𝑂𝑂2− , 𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ is the concentration of
ions 𝑀𝑀2+ , 𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ ≈ 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2+ .
The system of equations (6)–(8), supplemented by the condition
of plasma quasi-neutrality 𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ ≈ 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 + 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2− , has the following solu-
tion established as 𝑡𝑡 → ∞ [7]

𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ = �𝑄𝑄/𝛼𝛼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = �𝑄𝑄/𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , (9)

𝜈𝜈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒
𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2− = , (10)
𝑘𝑘det 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2 + �𝑄𝑄𝛼𝛼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑄𝑄
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = . (11)
𝑘𝑘det 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2
𝜈𝜈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 �1 − � + �𝑄𝑄𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑘𝑘det 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2 + �𝑄𝑄𝛼𝛼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

In the conditions of pressure reduction by 5 ∙ 104 times: 𝑛𝑛 =

𝑛𝑛0 /50000, 𝑄𝑄 ≈ 4 𝑛𝑛/𝑛𝑛0 ≈ 8 ∙ 10−5 [1/(s ∙ cm3 )], 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2 ≈ 0.21 𝑛𝑛 ≈
1.1 ∙ 1014 [1/cm3 ], 𝜈𝜈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≈ 2.5 ∙ 10−2 [1/s].
Then 𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ ≈ 20, 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2− ≈ 3.7, 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 ≈ 16.3 [1/cm3 ].
Note that at atmospheric pressure 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛0 and 𝑄𝑄 ≈ 4 [1/(s ∙
cm3 )], formulas (9)–(11) give the results 𝑛𝑛𝑀𝑀2+ ≈ 4.5 ∙ 103 , 𝑛𝑛𝑂𝑂2− ≈
4.5 ∙ 103 , 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 ≈ 0.4 [1/cm3 ], which are close to the results [1, 2], and
also agrees with the data for ions 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 ~ 103 [1/cm3 ] from [185, p. 625,
172]. This confirms the correctness of formulas (9)–(11).

References to Appendix 6

1. N.V. Ardelyan, V.L. Bychkov, K.V. Kosmachevskii. On Elec-

tron Attachment and Detachment Processes in Dry Air at Low
and Moderate Constant Electric Field. IEEE Transactions on
Plasma Science. 2017, v. 45, N 12, p. 3118–3124.

606
 2. N. Ardelyan, V. Bychkov, A. Belousov, K. Kosmachevskii. Pro-
cesses of electron attachment and detachment in near breakdown
conditions in air plasma. IOP Journal of Physics: Conf. Series.
2017, v. 927, N 012012.
3. N. Ardelyan, V. Bychkov, D. Bychkov and K. Kosmachevskii.
Plasma assisted combustion, gasification and pollution control.
Ed. I. Matveev (Denver, Colorado: Outskirts press). 2013, v. 1,
p. 183–372.
4. V. Konovalov and E. Son. Plasma chemistry. Ed. B. Smirnov
(Moscow: Energoatomizdat). 1987, v. 14, p. 194–227.
5. Y. Akishev, A. Deryugin, V. Karalnik, I. Kochetov, A. Napar-
tovich and N. Trushkin. Plasma Phys. Rep. 1994, v. 20, p. 511–
524.
6. I. Kossyi, A. Kostinsky, A. Matveyev, and V. Silakov. Plasma
Sources Sci. Technol. 1992, v. 1, p. 207–220.
7. B. Smirnov. Reference Data on Atomic Physics and Atomic Pro-
cesses. – Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2008.
8. A. Mnatsakanyan and G. Naidis. Reviews of Plasma Chemistry.
Ed. B. Smirnov (New York: Consultants Bureau). 1991, p. 259–
285.
9. N. Aleksandrov. Plasma chemistry. Ed. B. Smirnov. – Moscow:
Energoizdat, 1981, v. 8, p. 90–122.
10. A. Ponomarev and N. Aleksandrov. Plasma Sources Sci.
Technol, 2015, 24 03501.

607
 Appendix 7. The ion wind in the corona discharge

The corona discharge is a low-current low-luminous discharge that

appears in the vicinity of the conductor tip, see [1, p. 558] in the list of
references to this section. Corona discharges are currently well studied,
see, for example: [1, ch. 17; 2–4] in the same list. The corona discharge
in air occurs at room temperature and atmospheric pressure at a voltage
of 5 − 25 [kV] between the electrodes at a distance of several centime-
ters. With increasing of voltage, the corona goes into a spark or arc
discharge with the formation of a brightly luminous channel.
The corona discharge in the air is accompanied by the so-called
ion, or electric, wind. We consider here briefly the cause of the ion
wind and the associated mechanical effects.
The electric field at the tip of the electrode increases [28, p. 51].
In a strong field, the background electrons, formed during decelera-
tion of cosmic rays in the atmosphere and during the decay of radon
in the soil of the Earth (see appendix 6), are accelerated and ionize the
air at some distance from the tip, see fig. 33. Plasma appears. From
the law of conservation of the amount of charge and a large number
of generated charged particles, it follows that the plasma is quasi-neu-
tral, that is, the number of negatively charged particles in it is approx-
imately equal to the number of positively charged particles.
In the corona discharge, the following main processes occur dur-
ing ionization:
1. Ionization of 𝑂𝑂2 oxygen molecules and 𝑁𝑁2 nitrogen by acceler-
ated background electrons 𝑒𝑒 ′ , leading to the appearance of 𝑂𝑂2+
and 𝑁𝑁2+ ions and slow electrons 𝑒𝑒 according with the reactions:

𝑒𝑒 ′ + 𝑂𝑂2 → 𝑂𝑂2+ + 𝑒𝑒 ′ + 𝑒𝑒,

𝑒𝑒 ′ + 𝑁𝑁2 → 𝑁𝑁2+ + 𝑒𝑒 ′ + 𝑒𝑒.

2. The formed slow electrons 𝑒𝑒 collide with 𝑂𝑂2 and 𝑁𝑁2 molecules
and ionize them:

608
 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑂𝑂2 → 𝑂𝑂2+ + 2𝑒𝑒,
𝑒𝑒 + 𝑁𝑁2 → 𝑁𝑁2+ + 2𝑒𝑒.

3. Positive nitrogen ions 𝑁𝑁2+ participate in charge exchange pro-

cesses with the formation of positive oxygen ions:

𝑁𝑁2+ + 𝑂𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑁2 + 𝑂𝑂2+ .

4. On the background of sufficient size electric field in the air,

dissociative attachment of electrons to oxygen molecules oc-
curs:

𝑒𝑒 + 𝑂𝑂2 → 𝑂𝑂− + 𝑂𝑂.

The processes numbered 1, 3–11 in the list of sec. 23.9.1 practi-

cally do not occur in the corona discharge, in particular, due to the
relatively small electric field.
So, the positive 𝑂𝑂2+ and negative 𝑂𝑂− oxygen ions are the main
types of ions in the resulting plasma.
Under the conditions of plasma quasi-neutrality, the number of
positive ions exceeds the number of negative ions, since among the
negatively charged particles, in addition to 𝑂𝑂− , there is a significant
number of electrons. Therefore, experiments, in which the behavior
of ions is essential, are usually carried out with a positively charged
electrode, see, for example: [www.youtube.com/watch?v=af2Ag
TyDRyI] and other demonstrations from the series "Physics in tests
and experiments".
If the tip is positively charged, then according to the Coulomb
law, negative ions 𝑂𝑂− are attracted to the tip and are neutralized on its
surface by a positive charge. Positive ions 𝑂𝑂2+ repel from the tip and
leave their region of their formation. Herewith, the presence of a neg-
atively charged electrode is not necessary, but its presence accelerates

609
the motion of positive ions due to the increase in the electric field. 𝑂𝑂2+
ions move longer in the electrode electric field than 𝑂𝑂− ions, which
are neutralized on its surface. Therefore, according to Newton's sec-
ond law, the 𝑂𝑂2+ ions acquire the larger impulse than the 𝑂𝑂− ions. The
uncompensated impulse of positive ions 𝑂𝑂2+ manifests itself in the
form of a wind in the direction from the positively charged electrode.
Similarly, in the case of the negatively charged tip, the ion wind
arises of negative ions 𝑂𝑂− , directed from the tip.
Electrons play a small role in the transfer of momentum, since
they have a much smaller mass and at the same speed as the ions one
carry a much smaller momentum.
In the breakdown mode, the mobility of positive ions is approxi-
mately two times smaller than the mobility of negative ions [5, p. 331,
332] (recall that the mobility is called the drift velocity acquired by a
charged particle under the action of the constant unit electric field [28,
p. 182]). The formation of the ionic wind is not related to the mobility
of ions, but its consideration may be important in the quantitative de-
scription of the ion wind properties, see below.
The ion wind has a mechanical effect on the obstacles: the rota-
tion of the glass cylinder [28, sec. 51] or a propeller (sec. 23.9.3), the
formation of a depth (funnel) on the surface of the water [2], the sup-
pression of a burning candle, etc.
If the electrode is not fixed, then, in accordance with the third law
of Newton, it can be set in motion. This explains, for example, the
rotation of a brace (Franklin wheel) in air, see [28, p. 51] and also sec.
23.9.4.
The different nature of the neutralization of negative and positive
ions on the electrode surface can lead to different efficiency of the
transfer of impulse from the ions to it.
Thus, the ion wind in a corona discharge is a rather complex phe-
nomenon, since it is formed by the overlaying of multiple effects.
The principle of many electrostatic engines operation is based on
the use of the ionic wind pressure, created by the corona discharge.

610
Let us estimate the pressure of the ion wind on the liquid. The ideas
of the presented technique can be useful for analyzing the pressure of
the flow of the ether in certain experiments.

Fig. 33. Scheme of the ion wind influence on the liquid.

Fig. 33 shows schematically the corona discharge region. The
sharpened electrode with a radius of curvature 𝑟𝑟 is at the distance 𝐻𝐻
from the surface of the liquid. Under the action of the ion wind, a
funnel of radius 𝑅𝑅 and depth ℎ is formed on the surface of the liquid.
Find the air velocity under the action of accelerating ions from
the Euler equation

𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝 𝐅𝐅
+ (𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝛁𝛁)𝐮𝐮 = − + ,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎

where 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 and 𝐮𝐮 are the density and velocity of air, 𝑝𝑝 is the pressure
in its flow, 𝐅𝐅 is the density of the force creating the air flow.

611
 In the simplest model, we neglect the pressure gradient as com-
pared with the density of the electric field force, the heating of the air
by discharge, and assume that the ion wind in the ion drift region (fig.
33) is formed by ions of the same type and sign, and also the air in
this region moves with ions (that is, the number of ions and the size
of the drift region are sufficient for the ions to entrain uncharged air
particles through elastic collisions with them). Then from the Euler
equation for steady one-dimensional air flow we get [3]

𝑑𝑑 1 2 |𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 ||𝐸𝐸|𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖
� 𝑢𝑢 � = , (1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎

where |𝐸𝐸| is the value of the electric field, 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 is the concentration of
ions, |𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 |is the ion charge.
We take into account the resistance of the medium to the motion
of ions, expressing the force density |𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 ||𝐸𝐸|𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 in the right hand side
of (1) through the full current using the relations for the drift velocity
of ions.
The electric field is related as follows with the mobility of ions
𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 and their drift velocity 𝐮𝐮𝑖𝑖 [28, p. 182]:

𝐮𝐮𝑖𝑖
𝐄𝐄 = .
𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖

For the drift velocity of ions, we apply the usual representation

of the charged particles electric current density in a gas

𝐣𝐣 = |𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 |𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝐮𝐮𝑖𝑖 .

We get
1
𝐄𝐄 = 𝐣𝐣.
𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 |𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 |𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖

612
 The current density 𝑗𝑗 is expressed in terms of the total current 𝐼𝐼
and the cross-sectional area 𝑆𝑆(𝑥𝑥), through which it flows:
𝐼𝐼
𝑗𝑗 = .
𝑆𝑆(𝑥𝑥)

Then
|𝐼𝐼|
|𝐸𝐸| = .
𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 |𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 |𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑆𝑆(𝑥𝑥)

Substituting |𝐸𝐸| in equation (1), we have

𝑑𝑑 1 2 |𝐼𝐼|
� 𝑢𝑢 � = . (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 𝑆𝑆(𝑥𝑥)

Approximate 𝑆𝑆(𝑥𝑥) by the area of the horizontal section of the

cone with the vertex at point 0 and the base on the surface of the liq-
uid, fig. 33,

2 2
𝑅𝑅 2 2
𝑆𝑆(𝑥𝑥) = 𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥 tg 𝛼𝛼 = 𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥 2 .
𝐻𝐻
For the density of the air kinetic energy, understood in the usual
sense (not pulsed, sec. 1.4)) as the density of the work of moving its
elementary volume from the point 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥∗ to the point 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐻𝐻 [26, p.
131], we obtain from (2)

𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢2 |𝐼𝐼| 𝐻𝐻 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= � .
2 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥∗ 𝑆𝑆(𝑥𝑥)

𝑆𝑆(𝑥𝑥) has a physical interpretation of the area through which the

current flows, starting from the point 𝑥𝑥∗ , such that 𝑆𝑆(𝑥𝑥) is equal to the
cross-sectional area of the wire 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 : 𝑥𝑥∗ = 𝑟𝑟/ tg 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑅𝑅.

613
 Then

𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢2 |𝐼𝐼| 𝐻𝐻 2 𝐻𝐻 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 |𝐼𝐼| 𝐻𝐻 2 1 𝑅𝑅 |𝐼𝐼| 𝐻𝐻 𝑅𝑅

= 2
� 2= 2
�− + � = � − 1�.
2 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥∗ 𝑥𝑥 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 𝐻𝐻 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 2 𝑟𝑟

In accordance with the Bernoulli integral [9, sec. 30], the air flow
exerts the pressure on the surface of the liquid

𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢2 |𝐼𝐼| 𝐻𝐻 𝑅𝑅

∆𝑝𝑝 = = � − 1� (3)
2 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 2 𝑟𝑟

or at 𝑟𝑟 ≪ 𝑅𝑅

𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢2 |𝐼𝐼| 𝐻𝐻

∆𝑝𝑝 = ≈ .
2 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑅𝑅

Substituting in (3) for oxygen ions 𝑂𝑂− the tabular value 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 = 5 ∙
10−4 [m2 /(V ∙ s)] [5, p. 332], measured in the experiment [3] con-
stant current |𝐼𝐼| = 30 [μA], the funnel radius 𝑅𝑅 = 4 [mm], electrode
curvature radius 𝑟𝑟 = 0.7 [mm] and the distance between the tip and
the surface of the liquid 𝐻𝐻 = 7 [mm], we find

∆𝑝𝑝 ≈ 39 [Pa] ≈ 3.9 ∙ 10−4 [atm].

According to the air density 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 = 1.29 [kg/m3 ], we determine

the ion wind velocity 𝑢𝑢 = �2∆𝑝𝑝/𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 ≈ 7.8 [m/s]. The obtained value
is consistent in order of magnitude with the results of [2, 4], where
measurements of the ion wind velocity at large distances between the
electrodes were 3 − 5 [m /s ].
The pressure exerted by the ion wind can also be estimated from
the volume 𝑉𝑉 of the displaced fluid

614
 𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑆(𝐻𝐻)ℎ𝑔𝑔
∆𝑝𝑝 = = = 𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑔ℎ,
𝑆𝑆(𝐻𝐻) 𝑆𝑆(𝐻𝐻)

where 𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙 is the density of the liquid, ℎ is the depth of the funnel. In
experiments [3] with water 𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙 = 103 [kg/m3 ], the depth of the funnel
was ℎ ≈ 4 [mm]. Hence, ∆𝑝𝑝 ≈ 39 [Pa], which is consistent with the
estimate obtained on the basis of considering the ion wind effects.
The correspondence of the theoretical estimates of the ion wind
velocity and its pressure to experimental data confirms the adequacy
of the considered ion wind model.

References to appendix 7

1. Y.P. Raizer. Gas Discharge Physics. 3-rd edition, revised and sup-
plemented. – Dolgoprudny: Publishing House "Intellect", 2009,
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637
 Views of some great scientists about the structure of matter

After the ancient Greeks, R. Descartes (1596–1650) raised the

question of the matter existence, completely filling the entire space
and responsible for the transmission of light waves. He explained the
formation of matter and planets, in particular, by the property of the
ether vortices, consisting of many large particles.
I. Newton (1643–1727) considered it possible to derive all other
phenomena of nature from the beginnings of mechanics, believing
that all these phenomena are caused by certain forces with which par-
ticles of bodies, due to causes "while unknown", either tend to each
other and interlock in proper figures, or mutually repel and move
away from each other. Light can transform into a substance and back.
M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) rejected all specific types of mat-
ter and recognized only the ether.
M. Faraday (1791–1867) imagined the "world ether" as a com-
plex of certain lines of force. He categorically denied the possibility
of acting at a distance through emptiness.
J.K. Maxwell (1831–1879) in his studies draws a conclusion
about the distribution of perturbations from point to point in the world
ether. Maxwell mentions the ether as a fluid and derives his equations
based on the ideas of Helmholtz, Rankin and other hydrodynamicists
about the motion of vortices in the ideal liquid medium.
During the XIX century, several models of the ether were put for-
ward. A significant part of them did not answer the question about the
structure of the ether and the nature of the interaction. For example,
Hertz has advanced the idea of the complete capture of the ether by
matter.
W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin, 1824–1907) proposed several models
of the ether. He made assumptions about the speed of the ether as a
magnetic flux and about the speed of the ether rotation as the value of

638
the dielectric displacement. He also showed that if the ether is a per-
fect incompressible fluid without friction, then the atoms are the
Helmholtz toroidal rings.
School of J.J. Thomson (1856–1940) continued this line. J.J.
Thomson consistently developed the vortex theory of matter and in-
teraction. On the basis of the vortex theory of the ether he showed in
1903 that 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 .
Thus, Lord Kelvin and J.J. Thomson considered a unified matter
– the Ether. Different types of its manifestation were associated with
various forms of its kinetic motion.
D.I. Mendeleev (1834–1907) tried to determine the chemical
properties of the ether. His ether was included in the table of chemical
elements in the "zero line" under the name "newtonian".
N.E. Zhukovsky (1847–1921) also adhered to the position of the
existence of the ether. He tried to obtain the Maxwell equations from a
mechanical model. He wrote: "I am convinced that the problems of
enormous speeds, the basic problems of the electromagnetic theory will
be solved with the help of the old mechanics of Galileo and Newton."
K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935): "I do not agree with those scien-
tists who despaired to explain the phenomenon of nature by mechan-
ical means. It seems to me that the newest path of the scientific re-
search will not last long: they will again turn to the mechanical fun-
damentals".
Of particular note is the Soviet academician V.F. Mitkevich
(1872–1951). He defended the need to recognize the existence of the
ether and the mechanical point of view on the ether. His books "Basic
physical views" and "Magnetic flux and its transformations" are still
relevant.

639
 Quotes from comments on the first and the second Russian
editions of the book

"The mathematical basis of convergence and breakthrough tech-

nologies is proposed.” – Publication in the newspaper of the scientific
community "Poisk", No. 26, p. 13.

"They have no mistakes, because they work with the conservation

laws!" – A.A. Rukhadze.

"That is how it should be! Some things have always been obvious
to me. The book is wonderfully written! So beautiful and elegant set
out that I was shocked! I drove home, flipped through it. Then I sat
down without dinner and finished at five in the morning. Read it in
one breath! I recommend." – N.V. Samsonenko.

"Having received this book in the evening, I could not keep myself
from work on it until two in the morning. You know, I recommend it to
everyone. This is really a very interesting, unique work." – M.Ya. Ivanov.

"I insist that this is not just a modeling, but a classical under-
standing of the whole nature in general, because here is the Galileo
transformation and Newtonian mechanics, the mechanics of a contin-
uous medium. Vision of the world from the point of view of classical
science. ... Actually, we are present at the time of the birth of a new
program, a whole direction that only rises on good mathematical feet.
... This book does not attract marginals, in fact, they understand little
there, it attracts professionals. In this I see its great role. Authors are
professionals in their field. They really understand what we can, what
we cannot, what we know, what we do not know and cut through the
path that we can cut through." – A.Yu. Gryaznov.

"In my opinion, this is the best work on the unified field theory!"
– I.A. Gudovshikov.

640
 "The most essential thing is to try, through practical applications,
to solve the problems that are now central. This will provide an op-
portunity to prove to scientists, ordinary people that the theory works.
In geology, there are actually two the most acute problems – under-
standing of the causes of earthquakes and the conditions for the for-
mation of huge deposits. Here we inevitably go into the fundamental
physical and philosophical side of the question: matter, motion. New
ideas and models in the book are extremely important and interesting
for advancement in the study of the internal structure of the Earth." –
V.I. Sharov.

"The approach is very sympathetic to us. We know enough about

these issues from our education to understand that you have done a good
job." "Outstanding scientists of the XX-XXI centuries have not found an
explanation for ball lightning. It is necessary to rely on something new.
The etheric paradigm looks very attractive." – V.N. Zatelepin.
"They broke down theoretical physics." – B.M. Pakhomov.

"The mathematical model of the theoretical physics modern par-

adigm is similar to a patchwork blanket sewn with white threads."
"The Ether was replaced somewhere by electrons with a tunnel effect,
and somewhere simply with virtual particles." "Physics now turned
from the irrational science, endowing objects with contradictory
properties, into the rational science." "Suggested a theory – suggest
its exhaustive experimental test." "It is necessary to open a new sci-
entific direction in Russia! The tentative title is the mechanics of a
loosely coupled continuous media." – F.S. Zaitsev.

"The book is of great importance for science." "Paradigm change

in the natural sciences." "ABC book on physics." "Authors had to
clean out the Augean stables in physics." "Now, every researcher who
offers his own theory faces a choice: either repeat in his model all the
quantitative results presented in this book, or switch to the proposed
ether model, develop it if necessary, and try to create new technolo-
gies on its basis." – From discussions.

641
 Falsifications, misrepresentation and misunderstanding of
the methodology and results of the book

The publication of the book raised the bar for mathematical mod-
els of nature to a new high level. The time had passed when research-
ers proposing their models of nature could restrict themselves to a
small class of phenomena. Now, to justify the adequacy of a model,
it is necessary to logically derive all the basic laws of electricity, mag-
netism, electrodynamics, gravitation and all the other quantitative re-
sults presented in the book. Such a situation can naturally cause hos-
tility among researchers who are limited to a narrow range of tasks.
Besides, the book does not give rest to some pseudo-scientists,
who, instead of substantive scientific discussion of the results ob-
tained in the paradigm of mathematical modeling, aggressively try to
attract to themselves the attention of the public with all sorts of falsi-
fications and misrepresentations, in some places going beyond the
bounds of decency. Investigating the reasons for this behavior will
reduce distrust to new scientific directions.
However, let us leave the study of the details of such scientists'
behavioral motives to sociologists and psychologists, as well as to
neuropathologists and educators. Here we will consider only the log-
ical inconsistency of the falsifications that have appeared. We will use
the neutral terms accepted in scientific discussions: "misunderstand-
ing" or "misleading". Herewith, we will not dwell on banal assertions
showing that their author has not bothered to read the preface and the
first chapter of the book, or simply does not know the basics of con-
tinuous media mechanics, higher mathematics, and mathematical
modeling. We hope that the explanations provided here, as well as the
comments already given in the reviews of the book, see site eth21.ru,
will enable us not to return to the relevant topics any more.
Many scientists working at the forefront of science, unfortu-
nately, do not find time to respond to public insinuations. This leads
to negative consequences, including the difficulty of involving a wide
range of sane researchers in theoretically sound quantitative work on

642
fundamentally new technologies and ultimately hindering the timely
satisfaction of the urgent needs of society.

Misunderstanding 1. Criticism of the book in the paradigm of

methodology, significantly different from the methodology of math-
ematical modeling.
Explanation.
Methodologies of sciences are not usually taught in universities,
especially in physical, engineering and technical specialties. There-
fore, such a topic may be simply unfamiliar to many people.
Briefly, each scientific methodology has its own rules for sub-
stantiating statements: mathematics, applied mathematics, experi-
mental physics, theoretical physics, philosophy, natural philosophy,
etc. Moreover, the basic rules of one methodology are often categor-
ically rejected by another methodology.
In this book, research is carried out according to the methodology
of mathematical modeling, developed in the second half of the XX
century by outstanding scientists (see references on p. 12 of the book).
This is one of the most successful and demanded methodologies,
thanks to which fundamentally new sophisticated devices, materials
and technologies are created. In particular, this methodology considers
a mathematical model adequate if its consequences correspond to all
well-established experimental facts. At the same time, many different
models of one phenomenon are allowed, with the possibility of a com-
plete revision of the models foundations. With time, the simplest and
most complete model useful for practical application is selected.
Other scientific methodologies have different rules for substanti-
ating statements, for example, in theoretical physics, the postulates of
relativism and quantum mechanics are accepted once and for all,
while in the methodology of natural philosophy, one can rely on any
theories and facts from the natural sciences.
Criticizing the book in the paradigm of another methodology, the
substantiation methods of which are not accepted in mathematical
modeling, is a logical error.

643
 The current criticism of the book is given only from the stand-
point of the methodology of vulgar natural philosophy, in which al-
most everything is possible, as well as its mixture with the methodol-
ogy of theoretical physics, based on dogmas. The main ways of sub-
stantiating statements in these methodologies are unacceptable in the
methodology of mathematical modeling used in the book. Therefore,
such a criticism is untenable.
Misunderstanding 2. Confronting physics and mathematics.
Explanation.
Physics expresses quantitative laws using mathematical con-
cepts. Many mathematical concepts have been created for this very
purpose. Once a physical law is formulated by means of mathematics,
it is immediately becomes possible to apply the entire relevant arsenal
of mathematical theorems and methods to physics, since in mathemat-
ics they are rigorously proved logically, and logic is the basis of any
scientific methodology. Without mathematics, physics would become
a phenomenological science, difficult to use in practice.
There is also the inverse question of the physical interpretation of
a formal mathematical relation. The task of interpreting mathematical
relations in various branches of science is dealt with in applied math-
ematics, including in the section "mathematical modeling". This is a
large segment of knowledge usually not taught to physicists, engi-
neers, and technicians. Therefore, representatives of such specialties
may have problems with the application of mathematics in scientific
research and understanding its role.
Misunderstanding 3. The ether theory presented in the book
does not reproduce relativism, therefore it is not complete.
Explanation.
From the point of view of mathematical modeling methodology,
the model of relativism is unsuitable, since its consequences are not
observed in nature: mass turning to infinity, loss of geometric dimen-
sions by an object, stopping time, turning to infinity of the magnetic
and electric fields magnitudes.

644
 Misunderstanding 4. Quote from one article: "The speed of an
object in the ether can exceed the speed of light. But this result does
not follow from the mathematical model, since the accepted model
does not describe relativistic effects."
Explanation.
Misrepresentation. A logical mistake is done: the absence of a
description of relativistic effects in this or that model does not entail
the impossibility to describe in it exceeding the speed of light.

Misunderstanding 5. The theory of the ether presented in the book

does not reproduce quantum mechanics, therefore it is not complete.
Explanation.
Reproduction of quantum mechanics (QM) is in principle not
suitable for methodology of mathematical modeling, since the main
concept of QM – the wave function, according to the statement of QM
itself, has no physical interpretation. Mathematical modeling begins
with a description of the phenomenon by some quantitative character-
istics, which have a physical interpretation. Moreover, in mathemati-
cal modeling it is accepted to proceed from quantitative relations
which are directly observed in the experiment, for example, from the
law of momentum conservation, while in QM the fulfillment of the
Schrödinger equation and its modifications does not follow directly
from the experiments, since the wave function, for which this equa-
tion is written, is not measured in experiments.

Misunderstanding 6. Remark from the audience at one of presen-

tations by the authors of the book: "Kasterin has already done every-
thing before."
Explanation.
The remark is groundless. N.P. Kasterin did not obtain Maxwell's
equations as a mathematical consequence of Newton's second law for
the medium.

645
 The author of the remark is probably familiar with the opinion of
N.E. Zhukovsky, who highly appreciated N.P. Kasterin's research on
the analysis of Maxwell's equations, but did not carefully study N.P.
Kasterin's works, for example: "N.P. Kasterin. Generalization of the
basic equations of aerodynamics and electrodynamics. Report at a
special meeting at the Academy of Sciences on December 9, 1936. –
Moscow: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR,
1937". Other references to the works of N. P. Kasterin and their anal-
ysis can be found in [old.ihst.ru/projects/sohist/papers/and97ph.htm].
N.P. Kasterin obtained important results for his time, but consid-
ered only some particular cases.
He did not start from Newton's second law, but from the descrip-
tion of the medium with the help of some Lagrange function, which
he called the "kinetic potential". This approach is less general than the
one proposed in the book, since not all continuous medium motions
can be described by the Lagrange or Hamiltonian functions.
Besides, N.P. Kasterin considered only the vortex motions of the
medium, since he introduced a coordinate system related with the axis
of the vortex.
Let us briefly list the main results presented by N.P. Kasterin in
this report.
A generalization of the Euler equations is proposed. However, the
expression used for the kinetic potential is not given. It is only said that
it is "compiled on the basis of experimentally established and recog-
nized by all the basic properties of the aerodynamic and electric fields".
Using the kinetic potential N.P. Kasterin comes to the generalized
Maxwell equations, similar in appearance to the generalized equations
of aerodynamics for the vortex field. On this basis, he gives an inter-
pretation of Maxwell's equations as a description of the vortex motion
in some medium. However, the representation of magnetic and electric
fields through the parameters of this medium is not introduced.
A further generalization of Maxwell's equations takes place "by
adopting completely all vortex field equations".

646
 Electrodynamics is considered as the motion of vortex tubes.
Quantization is associated with discreteness of the tubes.
In conclusion, a vortex treatment of the electron, positron, proton,
neutron, antiproton, neutrino, and photon is given.

Misunderstanding 7. A frequently asked question: "How does

the density of the ether in a macroscopic object relate to the mass of
this object?"
Explanation.
Note that the electromagnetic units of measurement are more nat-
ural for the density of the ether (227). In these units, there is no ques-
tion about the relation of the ether density to the mass.
Mechanical units of the ether density (228) are introduced in con-
nection with the possibility of measuring the force mechanical impact
of the ether flow density, see, for example, sec 20.4, rather than on
the basis of introducing the concept of a macroscopic object mass.
The concept of the gravitational mass of an object (not neces-
sarily macroscopic) is introduced in our theory as a coefficient in the
formula for the effect of the pressure gradient of the gravitational
ether flow on the ether flow associated with this object, see secs. 16.2
and 17.2. That is, the property of an object to have mass occurs when
two ether flows interact.
Thus, in this approach, one cannot consider the gravitational
mass of a macroscopic object as the mass of the ether in it, since the
mass of the ether in the object, generally speaking, is not related to
the interacting ether flows.

Misunderstanding 8. Quote from one presentation: "The ques-

tion of the speed of gravity propagation has not been finally resolved."
Explanation.
In the Bychkov – Zaitsev etheric model of gravity (BZEMG),
there is no "problem of the speed of gravity propagation", since there
is no such phenomenon. In the BZEMG, the force of gravity occurs

647
only locally in the region of interaction of the ether gravitational flow
with the vortex flows of the structural elements of the object located
in this flow. When the force arises only locally in the area of interac-
tion (intersection) of flows, such as in the case of Zhukovsky's lifting
force on a wing, the question of a force propagation from the area of
its existence does not arise, since outside this area one of the force
generating flows does not exist anymore. It is useful to read carefully
again [26, p. 104] about the lifting force of the aircraft wing and see
slide 19 of the presentation at the RUDN on 28.05.2020. In BZEMG,
there is no gravitational force away from the object. If we draw an
analogy with the Zhukovsky lifting force on a wing, then it is no
longer "outside the wing" (at a distance of the order of the wing size).

Misunderstanding 9. Quote from one publication: "The accepted

definition for the electric field strength 𝐄𝐄 ≡ 𝐮𝐮 ⋅ 𝛁𝛁 (𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮) contradicts
Maxwell's emf equation [Author's note. – see "L.S. Polak. Maxwell and
the development of physics in the XIX–XX centuries.", p. 95, 68]:

1 1 𝜕𝜕𝐀𝐀
𝐄𝐄 = 𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁 − − 𝛁𝛁𝜑𝜑.
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

where 𝐕𝐕 is the velocity of the contour or reference frame, 𝐀𝐀 is the

vector potential, and 𝜑𝜑 is the electric potential, which calls into ques-
tion the mathematical model in terms of describing electrodynamics."
Explanation.
This quote contains logical errors, and the entire book is actually
crossed out on the basis of these errors. The formulas for 𝐄𝐄 under dis-
cussion contain physical quantities with different meaning, so these
formulas cannot be compared directly. Besides, the distinction be-
tween the concepts of identity and equality is ignored. The third log-
ical error is that the author of the quotation does not understand that
Maxwell's emf equation is a special case and an approximation of the
ether motion momentum conservation law (24):

648
 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐮𝐮 𝐅𝐅 − 𝛁𝛁𝑝𝑝
+ 𝐄𝐄 = .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0

Indeed, given in this equation 𝐀𝐀 ≡ 𝑐𝑐𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮 (p. 51), in the case of the
Zhukovsky external force density 𝐅𝐅 = (𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 /𝑐𝑐 )𝐕𝐕 × 𝐁𝐁, see (121), for
a weakly time-varying potential electric field, when 𝜑𝜑 ≈ 𝑝𝑝/𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚,0 , see
(74), we come to Maxwell's emf equation.
We emphasize that the Maxwell's emf equation is not included in
the generally accepted system of Maxwell's equations, which is con-
sidered to be confirmed in experiments. This is apparently due to the
problem of verifying this equation in experiment because of the need
to measure the vector potential 𝐀𝐀 (measuring 𝐀𝐀 would mean measur-
ing the ether flow density 𝜌𝜌𝐮𝐮). The theoretical justification for the
correctness of not including this equation in Maxwell's system of
equations is given by the ether analysis performed above: Maxwell's
emf equation is a special case and approximation of the ether momen-
tum conservation law, so it makes no sense to add it to a more general
consequences of this law.

Misunderstanding 10. Quote from one presentation: "No other

matter exists except for microscopic particles of the ether, the newto-
nians."
Explanation.
Misleading. This is not stated anywhere in the book or in the au-
thors' presentations. The authors simply began to estimate the kinetic
parameters of the ether from the easiest case: a model of a bulk me-
dium (sand-like) similar to a monatomic gas, see the beginning of sec.
21 of the book. In mathematical modeling, there can be different ki-
netic models of the ether.

649
 Misunderstanding 11. Quote from one publication: "The total
incomprehensibility and inexplicability of the mechanism of the vor-
tex boundary layer retention ... The complete absence of a mechanism
for the formation of such a boundary layer is an insurmountable (or
not yet insurmountable) obstacle for all such advanced etheric models
of the field."
Explanation.
A complete description of the issues of creation, stability and in-
teraction of vortices, conservation laws in vortex dynamics, is
"scrubbed out" from physics and even from almost all works on con-
tinuous mechanics, because, it immediately leads to a clear under-
standing of phenomena, causing problems in quantum mechanics and
relativity theory, for example, to understanding the Lorentz force as
an interaction of vortices. See also the discussion of slide 16 in the
presentation at the RUDN on 28.05.2020. That is why many research-
ers have problems with understanding the Bychkov – Zaitsev ether
theory. One can start an in-depth study of vortex dynamics with secs.
10 and 11 of the book and the references indicated there.

Misunderstanding 12. Quote about the ether density from one

presentation: "Absolutely absurd, mythical-mystical dimension:
s g1/2 cm−3/2 ... which does not involve any practical experimental
verification and comparison of values."
Explanation.
Ignoring dozens of experiments quantitatively analyzed in the
book with involving precisely the magnitude of the ether density in
both electromagnetic and mechanical units. For adequate perception
of the "ether density" concept, one should pay attention to the com-
ment to slide 10 of the presentation at the RUDN on 28.05.2020 and
carefully read paragraphs 20.7, 20.8 and related sections of the book,
including p. 28, as well as recall the dimensions of electric and mag-
netic units in CGS.

650
 Misunderstanding 13. Quote from one presentation: "The au-
thors clearly confirmed that the driving factor/mechanism of gravita-
tion, according to their view, is ... the gradient (difference) of the ether
pressure (densities) along the line connecting centers of two gravita-
tionally interacting bodies ... consideration of the real geometric
scheme of gravitational interaction of large celestial bodies of the So-
lar system shows the inadequacy and inapplicability of the continuous
model due to the impossibility to maintain the ether pressure gradient
in real geometric scales of gravitational problems."
Explanation.
Misrepresentation of the essence of the BZEMG and ignoring the
actually observed large-scale vortices in nature. BZEMG considers the
scale appropriate to the size of the object that is being gravitated. When
commenting slide 16 of the presentation at the RUDN on 28.05.2020,
it was said that the object is permeable to the gravitational flow of the
ether and, in principle, it is necessary to consider the interaction of the
ether gravitational flow with the ether flows caused by atoms inside
the object. But the full etheric theory of the microcosm has not yet
been developed in this approach, so we have to limit ourselves to a
model with a macroscopic boundary layer created with the participa-
tion of object structural elements. Besides, slide 15 of the same presen-
tation says that, perhaps, when calculating gravity, it is necessary to
take into account the force caused by the law of vortex momentum
conservation (as in the wing lifting force, in addition to the pressure
difference), but this can be done after describing the microcosm.
To make it clearer – the size of the wing is small compared to the
distance from the glider to the ground, but the lifting force occurs in
the air flow having the scale of such distance. Another example is
pressure gradient that exists for a long time in large-scale atmospheric
vortices.

651
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