차량 냉방

차량 난방?
차량 제습?
 압축기체의 팽창에 의한 냉동법
- 공기의 액화
- 압축기체를 노즐을 통하여 급격팽창하면 Joule-Thompson effect 을 얻어 저온을 얻게 되고
공기를 액화시킴

 증발열에의한 냉동법
- 증기압축식 냉동법(vapor compression type)
- 흡수식 냉동법 (absorption refrigeration)

 전자냉동법(electronic refrigeration)
- Peltier Effect 이용
- 서로 다른 금속에 직류전류 통하면 고온과 저온의 접점이 각각나타남

 단열소자법 (adiabatic demagnetizaton method)

- 자장내에 상자성염을 놓고 5K 이하로 냉각할 수 있는 헬륨을 둘러싼후 상자성염에 자
장을 가하면 상자성염이 일렬로 배열하며 열을 발산, 이열을 액체 헬륨이 흡수하고
증발하므로 헬륨을 제거하고 상자성염을 단열시킨 후 자장을 제거하면 분자배열이
흐트러지며 에너지를 필요로하므로 상자성염의 온도가 0K 가까이 떨어진다. (상자성
염:황산가드륨)
* 냉동능력 (Refrigerating capacity or cooling capacity)

- 냉동기가 단위시간 동안 증발기에서 흡수할 수 있는 열량 Kcal/h)

- 냉동톤 (Refrigeration ton, RT) : 표준기압에서 0C 의 물 1 톤을 24 시간

동안에 0C 의 얼음으로 만드는 냉동기의 능력 (RT, USRT, BSRT)
1 RT = 3320 kcal/h (meter 제의 냉동톤, 일본에서 주로사용)
1 USRT = 3024 kcal/h or 12000 Btu/h
1 RT= 1.098 USRT

* 1RT = 3.5 kW

• 냉동 효과 (Cooling effect)
- 단위 중량의 냉매가 증발기에서 흡수하는 열량 (kcal/kg)
- 단위 체적의 냉매가 증발기에서 흡수하는 열량
o 압력 : 단위면적당 수직 방향 힘
: 분자 운동 정도를 나타냄(분자간 충돌력)

dFn
P  lim : 연속체의 최소 면적
A0 A

o 절대압력, 게이지압력, 대기압력

Pabs  Pgauge  Patm

o 교재 등의 모든 표는 특별한 언급이 없으면 절대압력

o 압력단위
cf) 1 kgf / cm2 =.8 N

1𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 1 kg × 9.8 m/𝑠 2 =9.8 N

9.8𝑁 𝑁
1𝑘𝑔𝑓 / 𝑐𝑚2 = 9.8 N/𝑐𝑚2 = 1𝑚 = 98 × 103
1𝑐𝑚2 × 4 2 𝑚2
10 𝑐𝑚

= 98 kPa
o 엔탈피 정의 : H  U  PV

o 비엔탈피 : h  u  Pv

o 정의
Q
dS  (J/K), 주로 (kJ/K)가 사용됨
T int,rev
2
𝛿𝑄
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = න 엔트로피 변화
1 𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑣
S
o 단위질량당 엔트로피(Specific entropy) : s=
m
q
ds  (kJ/kg∙K)가 사용됨
T int,rev

o 기하학적 해석(Geometrical interpretation)

Q  TdS
2
Q12,rev   T dS = 선도 곡선의 아래면적
1
1) 카르노 사이클 : 주어진 두 개의 온도사이에서 최대의 효율 얻는 사이클

 카르노 열기관 : 고온의 열원에서 에너지를 공급받아 일부는 일로 전환하고 나머지

는 저온의 열원으로 방출하는 시스템

 카르노 냉동사이클 : (역카르노사이클,Reversed Carnot cycle)

- 저열원의 에너지를 고열원의 열원으로 보내는 열기관과 반대의 효

과를 수행.
- 열역학 2 법칙에서 사이클로 작동하기 위하여 부가적인 일이 압축기
에 요구됨
- 이상적인 사이클 (비교척도)
- 최대효율유지 위한 온도척도
 Heat extraction (Qc)

Work in (W)

작동 유체 : 냉매
Heat absorption (Qe)
 Heat from high-temperature sink

Temperature,K
3 2

Work 3 2
Net work
Turbine Compressor
4 1

4 1

Heat from low-temperature source Entropy,kJ/kg·K

(a) Carnot refrigeration cycle (b) T-s diagram of the Carnot refrigeration cycle

• 1-2 ; Adiabatic compression (단열 압축)

• 모두 가역 과정
• 2-3 ; Isothermal rejection of heat (등온 열방출)
• 카르노 사이클은 손실이 없
• 3-4 ; Adiabatic expansion (단열 팽창) 는 과정
• 4-1 ; Isothermal addition of heat (등온 열흡수)
 No heat transfer

Heat transfer with phase change > Heat transfer with single phase

Phase change Phase change

Single phase Single phase
Heat from high-temperature sink

Temperature,K
3 2

Work 3 2
Net work
Turbine Compressor
4 1

4 1

Heat from low-temperature source Entropy,kJ/kg·K

(a) Carnot refrigeration cycle (b) T-s diagram of the Carnot refrigeration cycle

• 1-2 ; Adiabatic compression (단열 압축)

• 2-3 ; Isothermal rejection of heat (등온 열방출)
• 3-4 ; Adiabatic expansion (단열 팽창)
• 4-1 ; Isothermal addition of heat (등온 열흡수)
1. The Carnot cycle serves as a standard of comparison.
2. The Carnot cycle provides a convenient guide to the temperatures
should be maintained to achieve maximum effectiveness.
 The concept of the performance index of the refrigeration cycle is the same as
efficiency.
Heat from high-temperature sink
Useful Refrigeration
CO P
Net W ork 3 2
Work
Heat Absorbed By Evaporator
냉동기의 성능계수 COP C  Turbine
Compressor Work Input Compressor

Heat Rejected By Condenser 4 1

열펌프의 성능계수 COP H 
Compressor Work Input Heat from low-temperature source

EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio)=Btu/(W-hr) :

Dimensional term of COP

Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER)= Btu/(W-hr) :

Anticipated performance of a refrigerating device over an average season
 Express the COP of the Carnot cycle in terms of the temperatures that exist in the
cycle.
We know the heat transferred in a reversible process can express this way.

q
q   Tds ds 
T int,rev
• Coefficient of performance
𝑄𝑒 + 𝑊 = 𝑄𝑐
3 2
Temperature,K

Net work
4 1 q   Tds
The useful refrigeration and net work

Refrigeration
Useful refrigeration = T1 ( s1  s4 )

Entropy,kJ/kg·K Net work = (T

2  T1 )( s1  s4 )
Figure. Useful refrigeration and net work of the Carnot cycle
useful refrigeration
COP 
net work
Heat from high-temperature sink
T1 ( s1  s4 )
3 2

(T2  T1 )( s2  s4 )
Work
T1
Turbine Compressor 
T2  T1
4 1
Heat from low-temperature source
 Temperature,K
3 2
Net work
T1 4 1
COP 
T2  T1
Refrigeration

Entropy,kJ/kg·K

1. A low value of T2 will make the COP high.

2. A high value of T1 will make the COP high.

The value of T1 has a more pronounced effect on the COP than T2 because a high
value of T1 increases the numerator and decreases the denominator.
Temperature, K

T2
T1
T1 COP 
T2  T1

,
Entropy kJ / kg K

Can we have the infinite COP as T1 is set equal to T2 ?

 Temperature, K
3 2

4 1

,
Entropy kJ / kg K

2 3 In this heat rejection process, refrigerant must transfer its heat to

somewhere.

4 1 In this refrigeration process, refrigerant must add the heat from

the cold room.
온도의 한계성

• 냉동장치의 작동온도범위 존재 (예: -20C냉동실, 30C외기로 열을 방출)

• 냉매의 온도와 작동실 또는 외기온도 사이에 일정 온도차가 존재(비가역성)
• 가능한 한 온도차이를 감소시켜야 최대의 효율을 얻을 수 있지만 전열과정에서
일정한 총열량을 얻기 위해서는 열전달 면적을 증대 시켜야 함 (다음 슬라이드)

T
303.15 K
Temperature, K

253.15 K
T

,
Entropy kJ / kg K

For higher COP, we can keep the ∆𝑇 as small as possible.

• Temperature limitations
Temperature,K

Δt

3 2 303.15 K
atmosphere
on keeping the Δt as small as possible
253.15 K
4 1 cold room q  UA t
Δt
q  heat , W

U  oveall heat  transfer coefficient , W / m  K
2
Entropy,kJ/kg·K

 A  heat  transfer area, m
2
Figure. Temperature requirements imposed
t  temperature change, K
upon a refrigeration cycle 

Reduction of T can be accomplished by increasing

A or U in equation.
• Performance factor
Heat extraction (Qc)


Carnot heat pump cycle
Temperature,K

3 2

Net work

4 1 heat rejected Work (W)

Entropy,kJ/kg·K Heat absorption (Qe)

heat rejected from cycle 𝑄𝑒 + 𝑊 = 𝑄𝑐

Perpormance factor 
work required 𝑸𝒆 ? 𝑸𝒄

T2 (s1  s4 )

T2
(T2  T1 )(s1  s4 ) T2  T1
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑪 =
𝑾 〈 𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑯 =
𝑾

T2 T2 T T 𝑪𝑶𝑷 > 𝟏. 𝟎(100%) ?

   2 1 1
T2  T1 T2  T1 T2  T1  냉방/냉각과 난방 가능
T1
  1  COP  1  실제 구현 방법(실내외기 위치변경 불가) ?
T2  T1
  Using vapor as a refrigerant
Temperature,K

x 2
3 atmosphere
 1-2 ; Isentropic compression
cold room  2-3 ; constant-pressure cooling
1
4 y  3-4 ; Isentropic expansion
 4-1 ; constant-pressure heating
Entropy,kJ/kg·K

Figure. Refrigeration cycle when a gas is the refrigerant

 X : Work ↑, COP ↓
 Y : Work ↑, reduce the refrigeration, COP ↓
 For high efficiency : Phase change process(Condensing or evaporation)
for process of heat extraction or absortion
  Dry compression
• Wet compression
2

Temperature,K
Temperature,K

3
Superheat
horn
3 2
atmosphere 4 1

cold room
4 1
Saturated Entropy,kJ/kg·K
Saturated
liquid vapor
Ravision of the Carnot refrigeration cycle
Entropy,kJ/kg·K by using dry compression

Carnot refrigeration cycle when a condensing

and evaporating fluid is the refrigerant

- Liquid droplet damages valve or cylinder head

- The droplet of liquid may wash the lubricating oil
from the walls of the cylinder, accelerating wear.
- Dry compression is a proper process
 If the refrigerant entering compressor is saturated vapor,
the compression from point 1 to 2 is called dry compression.

Superheat
2
horn
Temperature, K

1
4

,
Entropy kJ / kg K

On the temperature-entropy diagram superheat horn

represent the additional work for dry compression.
 Temperature, K
3 2

4 1

Entropy,kJ / kg K

Another revision is needed in expansion process.

The practical difficulties in expansion engine (1)

1. The possible work that can be derived from the engine is a small fraction of that
which must be supplied to the compressor.

The practical difficulties in expansion engine (2)

2. Practical difficulties such as lubrication intrude when a fluid of two phases drives the engine.
3. The economics of the power recovery have in the past not justified the cost of the expansion engine.
 Throttling happens in expansion device such as an expansion valve.
No changes in potential and kinetic energy and with no heat loss,
; that is, the process is isenthalpic.
The constant-enthalpy throttling process is irreversible,
and during the process the entropy increases.
Temperature, K

2
3

1
4 h3  h4

Entropy , kJ / kg K
The throttling process take place from 3 to 4 in this figure.
[표준증기압축냉동사이클]

Temperature,K
3 2
3

4 1

4
1 Entropy,kJ/kg·K

Figure. The standard vapor-compression cycle

 1-2 : Reversible and adiabatic compression

 2-3 : Reversible rejection of heat at constant pressure
 3-4 : Ireversible expansion at constant enthalpy
 4-1 : reversible addition of heat at constant pressure

증기압축사이클 2
 [T-s 및 P-h 선도]

2
Temperature,K

4 1

Entropy,kJ/kg·K

 1-2 : Reversible and adiabatic compression

 2-3 : Reversible rejection of heat at constant pressure o 각각의 선도에서 등압선과 등온선은?
 3-4 : Ireversible expansion at constant enthalpy
 4-1 : reversible addition of heat at constant pressure

증기압축사이클 3
[P-h 선도에서 중요 상태량 변화]

Critical
Pressure, kPa point

v=constant

t=constant

Saturated-liquid line
Saturated-vapor line

Enthalpy,kJ/kg

Figure. The pressure-enthalpy diagram of a refrigerant

증기압축사이클 4
[R-22 냉매에 대한 실제 P-h 선도]

ETHALPY (kJ/kg)

증기압축사이클 5
 [P-h 선도 사용 이유] o 압축기 : 입력일(소비전력) => 입력
o 증발기 : 냉방용량 => 출력

𝑄ሶ − 𝑊ሶ + ෍ 𝑚(ℎ
ሶ + 𝑒𝑘 + 𝑒𝑝 ) − ෍ 𝑚ሶ ℎ + 𝑒𝑘 + 𝑒𝑝 =0
𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
Pressure, kPa

3 응축기 2
o 압축기 입력일소비전력 계산 (균일유동, 정상상태)
팽창장치
압축기 𝑄ሶ − 𝑊ሶ + 𝑚ሶ 1 (ℎ1 + 𝑒𝑘1 + 𝑒𝑝1 ) − 𝑚ሶ 2 (ℎ2 + 𝑒𝑘2 + 𝑒𝑝2 ) = 0
4 증발기 1
𝑄ሶ − 𝑊ሶ + 𝑚ሶ 1 (ℎ1 + 𝑒𝑘1 + 𝑒𝑝1 ) − 𝑚ሶ 2 (ℎ2 + 𝑒𝑘2 + 𝑒𝑝2 ) = 0

𝑊ሶ
Enthalpy,kJ/kg 𝑊ሶ = 𝑚ሶ (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) [kW] 𝑚ሶ
= (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) [kJ/kg]

o 증발기 냉동용량 계산 (균일유동, 정상상태)

𝑄 ሶ 𝑒 − 𝑊ሶ + 𝑚ሶ 4 (ℎ4 + 𝑒𝑘4 + 𝑒𝑝4 ) − 𝑚ሶ 1 (ℎ1 + 𝑒𝑘1 + 𝑒𝑝1 ) = 0
𝑚ሶ 2
𝑄 ሶ 𝑒 − 𝑊ሶ + 𝑚ሶ 4 (ℎ4 + 𝑒𝑘4 + 𝑒𝑝4 ) − 𝑚ሶ 1 (ℎ1 + 𝑒𝑘1 + 𝑒𝑝1 ) = 0
𝑄𝑒ሶ
𝑄𝑒ሶ = 𝑚ሶ (ℎ1 − ℎ4 ) = (ℎ1 − ℎ4 )
𝑚ሶ
W
o 응축기 방열량 (균일유동, 정상상태)
동일한 방법
𝑄𝑐ሶ
𝑚ሶ 4 𝑚ሶ 1 𝑄𝑐ሶ = 𝑚ሶ (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) = (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) [kJ/kg]
ሶ 𝑚

𝑚ሶ 1
𝑄𝑒ሶ Cf) 𝒉𝟑 = 𝒉𝟒

증기압축사이클 6
[표준증기압축사이클 성적계수]

o 성적계수 (coefficient of performance ; COP)

useful refrigeration
COP 
net work
h1  h4
Coefficient of Performance 
h2  h1
Pressure, kPa

3 응축기 2

팽창장치
압축기

4 증발기 1

Enthalpy,kJ/kg

증기압축사이클 7
[실제 증기압축 사이클]

Pressure, kPa

Subcooling Pressure drop

2
3

Actual cycle

Pressure drop
Standard cycle

4
1

Superheating

Enthalpy,kJ/kg

o 과열도(Superheat, Degree of superheat; SH) o 과냉도(Subcooling, Degree of subcooling; SC)

𝑆𝐻 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡,𝑃1 𝑆𝐶 = 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡,𝑃3 − 𝑇3

증기압축사이클 8
 LLSL-HX

Normal cycle Liquid line – suction line

heat exchange cycle
 3 2
Condenser

Pressure, kPa
1

3 2
Heat exchanger Compressor 4

6
5 6 1
4
5
Evaporator
Expansion valve Enthalpy,kJ/kg

Figure. Refrigeration system with a HX to subcooling the liquid from the condenser and P-h diagram
Figure. A liquid-to-suction heat exchanger before enclosure with outer housing
 1. Increase compressor work

w  h2'  h6
Pressure, kPa

4 3 2’ 2

5 4 6 1
w  h2  h1

Enthalpy, kJ / kg

2. Additional cost of heat exchanger

1. Superheating of the vapor leaving the evaporator
2. Subcooling of the liquid leaving the condenser
3. Increased the refrigeration effect

Q  m h
( h = refrigeration effect )

Pressure, kPa
4 3 2’ 2

5 4 6 1

Enthalpy, kJ / kg
Example

[EX ] R-22, 50kW Refrigerating capacity

Tcond:=35C, Teva=-10C

Process 1- 2 : isentropic
 Find S1 and S2=S1 at P=1354 kPa
h2=435.2 kJ/kg

(a) Refrigerating effect; h1-h4 = 158.5 kJ/kg

  (h1  h4 )
(b) Refrigerant Flow rate: Q L = m
QL 50 kW
m    0.315 kg / s
h1  h4 158 .5 kJ / kg

(c) Power required

W  m (h2  h1 )  0.315(435.2  401.6)  10.6 kW
Example

(d) COP
Cooling Capcity 50
COP    4.72
Work Input 10.6

(e) Volume flow rate at the compressor suction

V  m
 v  0.315 kg / s v f 10C  0.0206 m3 / s

(f) The power per kW of refrigeration

1
 0.212 k W / k W
COP

(g) The compressor discharge temperature

Using the chart: 57C (superheated vapor)