Whole-Life Carbon and Buildings

Concrete solutions for reducing embodied and operational CO2

2 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS

Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................... 3

Concrete Production – the investment

in embodied CO2 ....................................................................................................... 4

Lean Design – beyond the

structural use of concrete................................................................................ 6

RESEARCH: embodied CO2 of framed buildings ............. 10

Occupation – using thermal mass to lower

operational emissions....................................................................................... 12

Reuse – maximising whole-life

CO2 performance..................................................................................................... 15

End of Life – uptake of CO2 by

concrete carbonation ....................................................................................... 18

Appendix 1 ..................................................................................................................... 21

Summary .......................................................................................................................... 21

References ....................................................................................................................... 22
Above: The polished concrete floor at The White Cube, London avoids
the need for, and the CO2 associated with, additional finishes.

Front cover: The robustly-built Stockwell Street building at Greenwich

University uses thermal mass to reduce operational CO2.
© VIEW

Introduction
Whole-life performance is a term that has traditionally referred to the
total cost of building ownership, but has more recently grown to include
broader sustainability issues, particularly embodied CO2. The result is that
environmental considerations are increasingly vying with capital cost as a
key design driver, leading to more holistic outcomes, in which whole-life
thinking has helped inform the choices made. However, in respect of
masonry and concrete-frame buildings, low capital cost and good whole-
life performance are by no means mutually exclusive – a realisation that
has long been accepted in the public sector, but is also becoming more
apparent in the commercial sector where low-energy, sustainable design
is now more often seen as a good way to future-proof property assets [1].
Concrete-frame construction will of course provide a durable structure,
which is a fundamental aspect of whole-life performance. But less
understood is its compelling whole-life CO2 performance, resulting from
several attributes largely unique to concrete buildings. These are the
focus of this guide, which sets out the ways in which these attributes can
be used to minimise CO2 emissions, both directly and through broader
indirect design opportunities that the use of concrete often enables.
More specifically, the guide covers:
¢¢ Concrete specification – keeping the embodied CO2 of concrete
to a minimum
¢¢ Lean building design – using concrete for multiple roles,
enabling other materials to be designed out
¢¢ Operational energy - using concrete’s thermal mass to lower
operational emissions
Figure 1: Overview of opportunities to reduce lifecycle CO2 in concrete and masonry buildings.
Concrete buildings absorb atmospheric CO2
over their life cycle due to a natural process
called carbonation. See page 18.
WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 3
¢¢ Reuse – reducing the embodied impact of new build through the
ability to reuse concrete buildings
¢¢ End of life – the absorption of CO2 into concrete through the
natural process of carbonation.
The guide draws upon information from a broad range of sources
and provides a largely qualitative overview of these whole-life topics.
Going forward, it will soon be possible to validate the compelling CO2
performance of concrete buildings in a more quantitative way, using
Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) and the more sophisticated
whole-life design tools that are being developed.
Finally, it is worth making the point that the ownership costs of concrete
buildings and their cradle-to-grave CO2 footprint are very much
interrelated; financial savings achieved through durability, low maintenance
and thermal performance closely parallel the CO2 savings linked with these
attributes.
CONCRETE AND MASONRY BUILDINGS CAN
HAVE THE LOWEST WHOLE LIFE CO2 COMPARED
WITH ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS.
4 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS

Concrete Production –
the investment in embodied CO2
The whole-life performance virtues of concrete outlined in this guide can entirely offset the CO2 emissions
associated with its production, transportation and placement. In this sense, its initial CO2 footprint can be viewed
as an investment in embodied CO2 that can pay back over time. This has been helped by ongoing improvements in
the manufacture of concrete, including a 13% reduction in carbon intensity since 2008 [2].

Cement slag from the steel industry, often referred to as GGBS (ground granulated
blast-furnace slag) and fly ash from the power industry. Table 1 provides the
Concrete is made from cement, water, sand and stone or gravel. The embodied CO2 of different types of cement and cementitious materials.
approximate volume of materials used is shown in Figure 2, which
represents typical in-situ concrete. The process of extracting sand and Table 1: Cradle to gate embodied CO2 of UK cement and cementitious
gravel, crushing stone, combining the materials in a concrete plant and materials [3, 4]
transporting concrete to the construction site is responsible for a relatively
Cement / Cementitious material kgCO2 /tonne
small amount of concrete’s embodied CO2. The majority comes from the
cement, which makes up about 10% of concrete by volume, but accounts Portland cement (CEM 1) 913
for around 75-90% of its embodied impact.
Fly ash (from coal burning) 4

GGBS 67
Figure 2: Approximate composition of concrete (by volume)
Limestone fines 75

Air: 1.5% Portland limestone cement 880-750

(6-20% limestone)
Cement: 10%
Portland fly ash cement 870-610
(6-35% fly ash)
Water: 18.5%
Portland slag cement 740-620
(21-35% GGBS)

Blast-furnace cement 610-230

(36-80% GGBS)
Fine aggregate (sand): 25%
Siliceous fly ash cement 590-420
(36-55% fly ash)

There are practical limits on how much of these by-products can be

substituted, but their ability to reduce overall embodied CO2 is significant
Course aggregate (stone/gravel): 45% (see Figure 3). Use of fly ash, GGBS and other types of cementitious material
is now standard practice in the UK concrete industry, which has set a 2020
target of increasing its usage to 35% of the total cementitious content
[2]. Designers can often reduce the embodied CO2 of a project through
specifying the category of cement to be used. For more information and
guidance on the practical implications refer to Specifying Sustainable
Concrete, available from The Concrete Centre.
The cement most commonly used is called Portland cement, which is
manufactured by heating naturally occurring minerals (primarily limestone
or calcium carbonate) in a kiln to over 1,500°C, which converts the raw
materials into cement clinker. About 900kg of CO2 is emitted directly into
the atmosphere for each tonne of cement produced [3]. Around 40% of this
is from the fuel used, with the remaining 60% resulting from the thermal
decomposition of the minerals when heated.

Portland cement (also known as CEM 1) is often blended with other

by-products that have cementitious properties, reducing the clinker
content and embodied CO2. The most commonly used by-products are
 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 5

Figure 3: Embodied CO2 of cement with varying levels of fly ash/GGBS [5] Table 2: Cradle to gate embodied CO2 of concrete [4]
Concrete Concrete ECO2 (kgCO2 /m3)
1000 type
(slump
Embodied CO2 of cement (kg/tonne)

CEM I 30% fly ash 50% GGBS

Fly ash class)
concrete concrete concrete
800
Blinding,
mass fill, strip
GEN 1 (S2) 177 128 101
600 footings, mass
foundations
GGBS Reinforced RC25/30
316 263 197
400 foundations (S2)**
Ground floors RC28/35
316 261 186
200 (S2)*
Structural:
in-situ,
0 RC32/40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
superstructure, 369 313 231
(S2)**
walls,
fly ash / GGBS content (%) basements
Higher strength RC40/50
432 351 269
concrete (S2)**
* includes 30 kg/m3 steel reinforcement
Aggregates ** includes 100 kg/m3 steel reinforcement

Aggregates are the major component of concrete, but account for very
little embodied CO2 as they are mostly naturally occurring, and thereby
require minimal processing. They are also locally sourced, reducing the
need for transportation. The average embodied CO2 for UK aggregates is
4kgCO2/tonne [4]. The use of recycled aggregates may reduce this figure
slightly, but only if it is reused on site or transported 15km or less by road
[6]. An average of around 5% of the aggregate used in concrete is recycled
or secondary aggregate – that is, a by-product from another industry [7].
The precast sector uses the highest proportion of recycled aggregate,
at 22% [8].
Table 2 provides more specific values relating to different types of concrete
and applications. It shows the significant reduction in embodied CO2 that is
achieved through the use of fly ash and GGBS (also see Figure 3). Alongside
this, a number of good-practice design measures can be adopted to ensure
concrete is specified with the lowest possible CO2 impact. These include
the following:
¢¢ Do not over-specify strength
¢¢ Consider the possibility of strength conformity at 56 days rather than
the conventional 28 days
¢¢ Specify responsibly sourced concrete and reinforcement

Transport ¢¢ Do not specify aggregate sizes below 10mm unless necessary

The raw materials used to make concrete are all locally sourced, resulting in
an average journey of about 54km – for example, from quarry to ready-
mixed or precast plant. The onward delivery of concrete covers an average
distance of 43km. The majority of concrete and concrete products travel
by road, with an increasing amount moved by rail. The comparatively
short distance covered in the overall supply chain results in transport CO2
emissions of around 8.8kgCO2/tonne [2]. Ready-mixed concrete has the
shortest delivery distance, covering an average of just 10.5km to site [7].
Formwork
The embodied carbon associated with formwork varies with the materials
used and whether it is modular or bespoke and the number of times it
can be reused. However, the overall impact is negligible, ranging from
approximately 0.018-0.19% of the embodied CO2 of concrete [9].
Concrete
Based on a standardised mix that reflects the use of ready-mixed and
precast concrete, and constituent materials, in the UK, the cradle to gate
embodied CO2 can be taken as 76.3kgCO2/tonne, increasing to 84.2kgCO2/
tonne if reinforcement is included. In terms of volume, these figures equate
to 175.2 and 193.3kgCO2/m3 respectively [2].
¢¢ Permit the use of recycled or secondary aggregates but do not over-specify
¢¢ Admixtures can be used to enhance sustainability credentials and
reduce the embodied CO2 of concrete, as well as modifying its physical
properties.
For more detailed information and best-practice guidance on minimising
the environmental impact of concrete, see Specifying Sustainable Concrete
(www.concretecentre.com).
Data published for 2014 shows that the overall carbon intensity of concrete
has dropped 13% since 2008. The concrete industry also uses alternative
fuels as an energy source to reduce CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. This
data, along with other environmental performance indicators, is included
in an annual sustainability report published by the UK concrete sector [2].
The report also shows that around 90% of concrete produced in the UK is
responsibly sourced – that is, its production is certified to BES 6001. This
provides a standard for responsible sourcing that is based on a holistic
approach to the sustainable assessment of materials. Around 83% of the
reinforcement supplied by fabricators is also certified to BES 6001.
One of the requirements of BES 6001 is that the material producer has
a greenhouse gas reduction policy and measures that comply with ISO
16064-1, which deals with carbon footprint reporting. The concrete
industry has set a target of a 30% reduction in CO2 from production by
2020, compared with the 1990 baseline. For the latest information on the
environmental performance of the UK concrete industry (ready-mixed
and precast) see Concrete Industry Sustainability Performance Report
(www.sustainbleconcrete.org.uk), and for the UK precast industry
specifically, see Sustainability Matters (www.britishprecast.org).
6 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS

Lean Design – beyond the structural

use of concrete
Concrete’s primary role is of course structural, but it is increasingly being called on to fulfil additional functions using
a ‘lean design’ approach that reduces material usage and helps to optimise the in-use performance of buildings.

Designing out suspended ceilings to improve internal comfort and the effectiveness of natural ventilation –
an approach adopted at the White Collar Factory office development in
CO2 and material savings Old Street, London (see case study, below). The increase in floor-to-ceiling
height also enables single-sided ventilation to be effective at a floor depth
Internal finishes account for around 12-14% of the total embodied
7-10% greater than would otherwise be possible [15].
emissions associated with office buildings [10, 11] of which suspended
ceilings are a significant component. It therefore follows that the ability
to design them out in favour of an exposed structural soffit will bring a
worthwhile reduction, which can be up to 10kgCO2/m2, including site
wastage that occurs during installation [12]. In terms of the physical
quantity of materials used, up to six tonnes can be taken out of the design
for every 1,000m2 of floor space [12]. Future savings may also be realised
by avoiding the need to eventually replace the suspended ceilings, which
have a lifespan of around 24 years [13]. Other lifecycle impacts arising from
cleaning and maintenance are largely avoided with exposed concrete
soffits, although painted finishes may need to be reapplied periodically.

Concrete soffits can also provide operational CO2 savings by virtue of the
thermal mass they contain, which reduces peak cooling loads and helps to
deliver a more passive approach to maintaining comfort. For radiant cooling
to be effective, occupants must be able to physically see the concrete soffit
above them, which suspended ceilings largely prevent. The use of thermal
mass is covered on page 12 of this guide, which focuses on operational CO2.

Savings in floor-to-ceiling height

Suspended ceilings in office environments are typically located about
500mm below the floor slab in order to conceal mechanical and electrical
services. Designing out suspended ceilings frees up this space, but may
require relocation of the services. Where mechanical ventilation is needed,
an increase in the height of the raised floor from 150mm to 300-500mm is
usually needed so the void can be used for air distribution [14]. However,
this still results in a net saving of around 250mm, which would allow an
additional floor in a 14-storey building with no overall increase in height.
Alternatively, it could be used to increase the floor-to-soffit height, helping
Designing out a suspended ceiling in
favour of a concrete soffit provides:
¢¢ Embodied CO2 savings of up to 10kgCO2/m2 in ceiling materials
¢¢ Up to six tonnes of materials saved per 1,000m2
¢¢ Saving in storey height of around 250mm
¢¢ Up to 5% less floor area needed for plant
¢¢ Significant savings in ceiling maintenance and replacement
¢¢ Significant savings in operational energy (see page 12)
¢¢ Around 50kgCO2/m2 saving in building services from designing
out air-conditioning.
¢¢ Good aesthetics
White Collar Factory
Courtesy of Derwent London.
Architect: Allford Hall Monaghan Morris (AHMM)
Structural Engineer: AKTII
M&E Engineer: Arup
Client: Derwent London
Due for completion in the second half of 2016, the White Collar
Factory is a new 22,000m2 landmark office building just north of the
City of London. Architect AHMM has produced an innovative and
sustainable workplace clustered around a public courtyard, with
an additional five low-rise buildings and three restaurants, forming
a new urban campus. The building features surface heating and
cooling using embedded water pipes integrated within a generous
3.5m-high concrete soffit, which works with the ceiling’s thermal
mass to provide a comfortable working environment. Additional
thermal mass is provided by exposed perimeter blade columns
integrated within the facade, which help to declutter the space.
Openable windows will deliver natural ventilation when the outside
temperature is between 14°C and 25°C, which is about 50% of the
time, with mechanical ventilation operating for the remainder.
 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 7

Visual concrete soffits

THE BENEFIT FROM DESIGNING-OUT FINISHES
Embodied CO2 implications CAN BE VERY BROAD, RANGING FROM
The level of thermal mass provided by the soffit is largely unaffected by the ENHANCED AESTHETICS TO IMPROVED
quality of finish and type of concrete used, although these can influence ENERGY EFFICIENCY, REDUCED EMBODIED CO2
the embodied CO2 to some extent. For in-situ floor slabs, a visual finish AND MAINTENANCE NEEDS.
generally requires concrete with a slightly higher cementitious content
and some additional reinforcement to control cracking, which although
perfectly normal can be visually undesirable. To aid daylighting and
enhance the aesthetic appeal, a pale finish is typically specified, usually
leading to the use of concrete with a high GGBS content. In addition to
lightening the soffit, this lowers the embodied CO2, helping to offset any
increase that might otherwise have occurred (see Concrete Production for
more information). Information on this topic can be found in The Concrete
Centre publication entitled Visual Concrete.

Precast concrete provides an alternative approach, with lattice girder slabs

proving a popular option. This system comprises a thin, factory-produced
soffit that acts as permanent formwork to an ordinary in-situ concrete
topping. The bulk of the floor slab is made from the in-situ concrete, which
usually has a lower level of embodied CO2 than the high-quality precast
concrete soffit. For projects where a more utilitarian finish is acceptable,
precast hollowcore slabs offer a lower cost option, which can be painted
white to achieve a light finish. The option to paint the soffit is applicable to
all types of concrete, whether precast or in-situ, old or new, and, depending Exposed hollowcore soffits with a painted finish at Vanguard House,
on client/project requirements, can deliver a satisfactory finish. Cheshire (Architect: Fletcher Architects).

Concrete soffits. Exposed in-situ concrete soffits at 5 Pancras Square, London (Architect: Bennetts Associates). © VIEW.
8 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS

Designing out/reducing air- Designing out floor finishes

conditioning plant CO2 savings
Embodied CO2 and space savings Since a concrete subfloor is already a standard requirement in most projects,
it can make good sense to use this as the finished surface, avoiding the need
The thermal mass provided by exposed soffits can significantly reduce for additional coverings such as tiles, lino and carpet. This will significantly
peak cooling loads, allowing the need for air-conditioning to be reduced or reduce materials needed, and makes CO2 savings of around 20kg/m2
avoided, and enabling a useful reduction in the associated mechanical and achievable [18], with reduced landfill at end-of-life. Site wastage rates can also
electrical services. A more passive approach to cooling such as this can result be high, reaching about 20% for carpet [19]. A wide range of highly durable
in a saving of around 2% in the floor area needed for plant; this increases to polished concrete finishes are possible, with little ongoing maintenance
around 5% if mechanical ventilation can also be designed out [15]. required. Polished concrete floors also offer the flexibility of being able to
receive an additional flooring layer if future needs change and, like concrete
Research published by CIBSE [16] suggests that building services typically
soffits, lend themselves well to surface heating/cooling systems.
account for around 100kgCO2/m2 in an air-conditioned office, falling
to around 50kgCO2/m2 or less where air-conditioning is not used (see
Figure 4). So, the embodied CO2 savings from exposing the soffit can be
quite significant in the context of overall building design. Unfortunately,
if building services are not fully included in a lifecycle or whole-life
performance analysis, the potential net benefit cannot be demonstrated.
To make informed comparisons, comparable EPD data is required not only
for the products/systems specified, but also for any alternatives considered
during the design process. In the UK this now exists for the building fabric,
in the shape of BRE’s Impact tool, but nothing is currently available for the
building services [17].

Figure 4: Embodied CO2 of building services in air-conditioned and non-airconditioned offices [16]

M&E HAS HIGH CAN HAVE HALF OF THE

 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 9

Polished concrete floors

can provide: Bored pile

¢¢ Savings of 20kgCO2 /m2 are achievable

¢¢ Low maintenance requirement
¢¢ Can last indefinitely when properly sealed and maintained
¢¢ The good thermal conductivity of the concrete ensures
underfloor heating operates at high efficiency
¢¢ Exposed thermal mass can improve thermal performance and
summertime comfort
¢¢ VOCs associated with synthetic carpets are avoided.

Concrete energy pile foundations

Heat
Energy piles use the ground as a source of renewable energy and, unlike exchanger
other geothermal systems, make use of ordinary foundations, avoiding tube
the additional cost of a dedicated ground installation and the necessity to Reinforcing cage
locate this outside the building’s footprint. The system provides a means
of moving heat to and from the ground via loops of polyurethane pipe
embedded in the concrete piles. The pipework is filled with a water glycol
mixture and linked to a heat pump, which draws heat from the ground in
winter and puts it back in summer when cooling is required. The system can
reduce the amount of fuel required for heating and cooling a building by
approximately two-thirds [20]. CONCRETE ENERGY PILES ARE A
The concept of energy piles is not new. The approach was pioneered in HIGHLY COST-EFFECTIVE SOLUTION,
Austria in the 1980s and adopted by several northern European countries AND MAKE THE USE OF GROUND
[21]. In a typical scheme, all or part of the foundation is equipped with
SOURCE HEAT PUMPS POSSIBLE IN
a geothermal loop, delivering between 25 and 50W/m – a figure not
dissimilar to borehole heat exchangers, however, energy piles are typically a TIGHT URBAN LOCATIONS.
much cheaper option for three key reasons [22]:

1. They do not affect the size of the foundations, since projects are not
designed around geothermal requirements. Instead, the assumed
heating/cooling output is based on that building’s structural design
requirements.

2. The plastic piping is attached to the steel reinforcing cage, adding

very little to project costs. In some cases, a small amount of additional
steelwork may be needed to extend the cage to the full depth of the pile.

3. There is very little impact on the construction programme, providing

adequate coordination is undertaken early in the project.

The use of energy piles has grown steadily in recent years. In 2012 there
were around 5,000 energy piles installed in the UK, resulting in an annual
CO2 saving of approximately 6,600 tonnes [22]. Recent projects include a
number of Crossrail stations, the Bulgari Hotel at Knightsbridge and One
New Change in the City of London (see case study).
Future uptake is set to increase, particularly if the technology can be adapted
for use in the domestic sector, which is an application that Nottingham
University has been researching. Work has also been undertaken at
Southampton University, which has been evaluating the thermal performance
of energy piles. A key result highlighted by this work is the importance of the
concrete within the pile for short-term thermal storage [23].
© Alamy
One New Change, City of London
Completed in 2010, One New Change is a £500m office and retail
development, comprising 20,000m2 of retail space and 31,000m2 of
office space in the City of London. The building has a 2MW heating
and cooling installation that makes use of energy piles linked to a
heat pump system. This is providing measured annual CO2 savings
of 300 tonnes and £65,000 in energy costs [22].
10 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS

RESEARCH:

Embodied CO2 of framed buildings

Research by Arup has found that concrete has the edge on steel when it comes to minimising the embodied
carbon dioxide of structural frames.

Research has shown that most construction methods have similar

embodied carbon dioxide (eCO2) and that the variation is small compared
with the variability in calculation method and the reductions possible
through concrete material specification. Having chosen a design solution,
the structural engineer can play an important role in reducing eCO2 by as
much as 100kgCO2/m2 for a typically sized building. This equates to the
personal eCO2 of a lifetime of goods and services for a UK citizen.
The research, carried out by Arup and commissioned by The Concrete
Centre, focused on the structures of three building types – commercial,
hospital and school buildings – and compared the eCO2 impacts of
different materials and structural frame solutions. Schemes were developed
for flat slab, in-situ and precast, post-tensioned flat slab, composite, steel
and precast, and Slimdek. Arup also examined how the choice of structural
frame can affect the impact of construction, cladding, substructure and
fit-out. M&E services are excluded.
All the buildings were medium rise and were reasonably regular in layout.
In all, 20 structural solutions were evaluated across the three building types
in order to determine typical values for “cradle-to-site” eCO2.
Focus on the frame
The sensitivity of the results to variations in impact data for different
materials was taken into account and differences in method were
separated from material specification choices. This was to show
which decisions will actually change the impact of the element under
construction. Removal of many of those variables and unknowns not
related to structural design provided a powerful set of results that could
be used to investigate the detailed design and specification decisions of
structural frames and so reduce the eCO2.
The research did not consider operational or end-of-life impacts and in
considering these eCO2 results the operational energy savings potential of
concrete solutions should be borne in mind.
It was important that the focus was on the eCO2 of the structural frame
only. The question was, what was the impact of the frame and the
contribution of the structural engineer on the overall eCO2 of a building?
Therefore, the additional long-term operational CO2 emissions were not
factored in. The emphasis was on the eCO2 of a building’s structural frame
and how that can be reduced through specification and design.

THE STRUCTURAL ENGINEER CAN PLAY AN IMPORTANT Operational and end-of-life impacts can be added to the cradle-to-site
approach of the research in order to obtain a whole life cycle comparison.
ROLE IN REDUCING A TYPICALLY SIZED BUILDING’S
EMBODIED CO2 BY AS MUCH AS 100KG OF CO2/M2

Figure A1: Frame options of study

SHORT-SPAN OPTIONS LONG-SPAN OPTIONS

BUILDINGS A AND B BUILDING B ONLY
OPTION 1 OPTION 2 OPTION 3 OPTION 7
FLAT SLAB COMPOSITE PT FLAT SLAB PT BAND BEAMS

Reinforced in-situ concrete flat slab Steel beams and metal decking, Post-tensioned in-situ concrete flat Post-tensioned in-situ concrete
and columns acting compositely with in-situ slab and reinforced in-situ concrete flat slab and band beams with
concrete floor slabs. Steel columns columns reinforced in-situ concrete columns

OPTION 4 OPTION 5 OPTION 6 OPTION 8 - LONG-SPAN

STEEL AND HOLLOWCORE IN-SITU AND HOLLOWCORE SLIMDEK COMPOSITE

Steel beams acting compositely Reinforced in-situ concrete beams Slimdek system comprising Long-span cellular steel beams
with precast concrete hollowcore and columns with precast concrete asymmetric beams and metal decking, and metal decking, both acting
floor slabs. Steel columns hollowcore floor slabs acting compositely with in-situ compositely with in-situ concrete
concrete floor slabs. Steel columns floor slab. Steel columns
 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 11

Results for variation in specification offer the opportunity to mobilise the benefits of thermal mass through
exposed concrete floor soffits, an aspect not considered in this study.
and method The research proves that the material specification has the potential to
The research found little variation between the cradle-to-site eCO2 of many reduce the embodied CO2 of a building. The potential savings of over
of the structural solutions. However, the minimum-depth steel solution, 1,000 tonnes of embodied CO2 are real and demand examination by
Slimdek, consistently had the highest eCO2, adding some 2,000 tonnes of structural engineers.
CO2 to the lowest eCO2 scheme. Minimum-depth concrete solutions, such
as post-tensioned concrete, provided low eCO2 impact due to the efficient
use of materials. Also, surprisingly little variation was found in substructure DESIGN AND MATERIAL SPECIFICATION HAS THE
impact. POTENTIAL TO SAVE OVER 1,000 TONNES OF CO2
The first important conclusion is that most of the different design methods IN A BUILDING
have similar eCO2. The material specification can effect a real difference: for
example with a typical-sized office building there is the potential to save at
least 1,000 tonnes of CO2 through specification and design.
Flat slab vs slimdek
Second, the research found that the knock-on effects of changing the
structural scheme are relatively small as the changes in facade, foundation, For the office example, the lowest impact scheme is the flat slab option:
finishes and construction impacts were only 2-5% of the range in the Total eCO2 kgCO2/m2
superstructure impacts. However, the knock-on effects on operational Lowest bound spec 2,000 120
energy can be significant. Typical spec 2,900 180
Upper bound spec 4,000 240
The specification of concrete was determined to be the main factor in
achieving a low eCO2 solution. The impact of steel cannot be influenced
through specification whereas for concrete, it can. For example, the The highest impact scheme is Slimdek. The same investigation was
specification of a post-tensioned flat slab can save 15% of eCO2 and the done for this scheme:
specification of an RC flat slab can save 35%. This can be achieved by the
Total eCO2 kgCO2/m2
use of blended cements containing other cementitious materials, such as
Lowest bound spec 3,900 240
fly ash or GGBS. However, use of other cementitious materials can affect the
Typical spec 4,500 275
construction programme and this must be considered.
Upper bound spec 5,200 320
Furthermore, although not part of this study, the lowest impact frames
examined, such as the RC flat slab, hybrid in-situ and precast concrete, also

Figure A2: Structural eCO2 of all build types

High spec/high method

450 High spec/typ method

Low spec/typ method

400
Low spec/low method
350

300
Structural eCO2 (kg/m2)

250

200

150

100

50

0
Flat slab

Composite

Post-tensioned flat slab

Steel and precast

In-situ and precast

Minimum depth steel

Long span post-tensioned

Long span composite

12 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS

Occupation – using thermal mass to

lower operational emissions
Thermal mass is considered by many as offering an alternative method for cooling, though its use goes back many
thousands of years. It is one of the most significant ways that concrete can be used to enhance the whole-life CO2
performance of buildings, lowering emissions from air-conditioning and enabling smaller plant to be installed or,
in some cases, to be designed out entirely. With 40% of commercial floor space expected to be air-conditioned by
2020, compared with 10% at the end of 1994, the potential to reduce emissions in this sector is critical [24].

Using concrete’s thermal mass
By absorbing and storing excess heat during the day, concrete provides
inertia against temperature fluctuations, reducing the need for mechanical
cooling. Heat retained by the concrete can be removed overnight by
ventilating the building with cool night air. The process is often likened
to a “thermal flywheel”, whereby much of the cooling load is shifted from
daytime to night-time when it is more easily dealt with by passive means.
In practical terms, the concrete typically takes the form of an exposed soffit,
which provides a large surface area for heat transfer and the ability to store
a significant amount of heat within the floor slab. Buildings in which this
technique forms part of a low-energy cooling strategy typically produce
far lower CO2 emissions than an alternative air-conditioned approach (see
Figure 5).
Figure 5: Benchmark CO2 emissions from office buildings [25]
Concrete floors can also provide some convective cooling – that is, to
air that comes into contact with the concrete. This is more significant
where the floor slab also forms part of a mechanical ventilation system
– for example, with underfloor ventilation or the TermoDeck system. This
provides a beneficial uplift in cooling output. These and other systems
featuring exposed soffits are described in Concrete Floor Solutions for Passive
and Active Cooling, available from The Concrete Centre.
THE THERMAL MASS IN EVERY SQUARE METRE
OF EXPOSED CONCRETE SOFFIT CAN SAVE
HUNDREDS OF KILOGRAMS OF CO2 OVER THE
LIFE OF A BUILDING.

Operational CO2 savings from

Typical air-conditioned office
concrete soffits
The level of CO2 savings that can be realised through avoiding or
Good practice minimising the need for mechanical cooling are project-specific, requiring
air-conditioned office thermal modelling to get an accurate figure. It is, however, relatively
straightforward to produce an estimate based on the generic embodied
and operational CO2 characteristics of an exposed soffit and that of a
High thermal mass typical air-conditioning system. The results from this calculation, along with
office with passive other avoided embodied impacts from designing-out finishes, are shown in
and/or active cooling Figure 6, with a more detailed breakdown provided in Appendix 1. Figure
6 shows the significant cumulative savings that can be realised over the
building lifecycle when concrete is used to satisfy multiple design needs.

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

Kg CO2 /m2/year

Most of the heat absorbed into the soffit is by radiation from adjacent
surfaces at a higher temperature, which includes the building occupants,
who continue to benefit from this radiant cooling effect throughout the
day. The high level of thermal mass provided by the concrete ensures that
although a lot of heat may be absorbed, the soffit temperature remains
comparatively low.
 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 13

East Ham Civic Centre

Architect: Rick Mather Architects
Structural Engineer: engineers HRW

Surface heating and cooling is a key feature at East

Ham’s new £12.5m Civic Centre designed by Rick
Mather Architects. The building uses 350mm-
thick thermally active concrete slabs, containing
pipework linked to 20 geothermal boreholes and
a heat pump system. This approach, combined
with an open-plan floor plate, helps to deliver an
uncluttered internal space, with visual connections
to the campus and high street outside. Servicing is
largely addressed through the installation of raised
access floors, which also improve flexibility. The floor
void is used for supplying mechanical ventilation
throughout the occupied space, while stale air
is extracted via the building’s atrium, delivering
a discrete solution. Lighting is provided by units
suspended from the soffit, with the electrical
cabling routed in conduits located in the neutral
© Alamy zone of the slab.

Figure 6: Cumulative CO2 savings for each square metre of avoided finishes.

1000

900

800

700
CO2 savings (kgCO2/m2)

600

500 Key
Avoided air-conditioning
400 (in use CO2 emissions)

300 Avoided air-conditioning

plant (embodied CO2)
200 Avoided suspended ceiling

100 Avoided floor finish (carpet)

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Building operation (years)

14 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS

Combined passive and active

cooling with soffits
The simple whole-life performance example described in this section at a temperature, close to that of the occupied space, which ensures a high
relies solely on ventilation to cool the slab at night and recharge it for the level of energy efficiency. This is made possible by the very large surface
following day (see option 3 in Figure 7). Alongside this approach, a range area provided by the soffit and the ability of its thermal mass to moderate
of other options exist, some that work in unison with mechanical cooling, the cooling demand across the day. This allows the use of efficient sources
which can be used when demand exceeds what can be provided solely of heating and cooling, such as ground water and ground coupled heat
by the floor’s thermal mass. In this way, free cooling is obtained whenever pumps.
possible, maximising energy efficiency and improving control of the
internal environment. Another benefit of systems that combine passive This and other options are highlighted in Figure 7, with more in-depth
and active cooling is that peak heat gains are attenuated by the thermal information provided in Concrete Floor Solutions for Passive and Active
mass, helping to smooth out the cooling demand across the day, which Cooling, which can be downloaded from www.concretecentre.com.
in turn enables a comparatively modest installation of cooling plant. The
embodied and operational CO2 savings attributable to exposed soffits
in systems of this type can be difficult to quantify accurately due to the
interaction between the passive and active cooling. A good example is
the use of water-cooled soffits, (Figure 7, option 5), which has proved
particularly popular in recent years. This approach comprises plastic pipes
located about 60mm above the soffit, where they are fixed to the steel
reinforcment prior to the concrete pour. During the summer months (or
whenever cooling is needed), chilled water is pumped through the pipes

Figure 7: Key cooling options for floors with exposed soffits

Option 1: Plain, flat slab Option 2: Profiled/flat slab with underfloor Option 3: Hollowcore slab with mechanical
mechanical ventilation ventilation supplied via the cores

The simplest option, providing a peak cooling
output of around 15-20W/m2. It can be used
as part of an entirely passive system, or in
combination with mechanical cooling and
ventilation.
Using a raised floor to distribute mechanical
ventilation enables heat transfer from both sides
of the slab, increasing the peak cooling output to
around 25-35W/m2. The increased surface area of
a profiled soffit also improves heat transfer.
Typically referred to by its trademark Termodeck,
this system increases heat transfer to and from
the slab by channelling the ventilation supply
through its cores before entering the occupied
space. This results in a peak cooling output of
around 40W/m2.

Option 4: Embedded ducts supplied by Option 5: Embedded pipework carrying chilled Option 6: Chilled beams located below an
mechanical ventilation water exposed soffit

Essentially the same as the hollowcore slab
option, but using proprietary aluminium ducts
embedded in precast or in-situ concrete (with
the trademark Concretcool). Peak cooling is
around 65W/m2, helped by fins inside the ducts
that increase the surface area and heat transfer.
Embedding chilled water pipes allows a peak
cooling output of around 65W/m2 and is an
increasingly popular option that can be used
with most types of precast or in-situ floor slab.
The passive output of the slab is supplemented
by active cooling from the pipework, which
operates at high efficiency thanks to the large
soffit area and load-spreading effect of the
thermal mass.
Chilled beams provide around 100-160Wm2
of cooling and work well with the passive
benefits of an exposed concrete soffit. They can
also provide a convenient means of locating
mechanical and electrical services normally
concealed behind a ceiling void.

Reuse – maximising whole-life CO2
performance
Avoiding the need for new build by reusing a building’s frame and foundations is an increasingly pragmatic way
to cut redevelopment costs and improve whole-life CO2 performance. This approach is often favoured in the social
housing sector [26], with many structurally sound 1960-70s concrete tower blocks undergoing full refurbishments.
The decision not to demolish and rebuild is also proving popular in the commercial environment where the
durability of concrete-frame buildings has seen a significant number undergoing a complete renovation.
Alongside savings in embodied CO2, the reuse of a building can also offer
many other advantages over new build, including:
¢¢ Avoidance of many of the planning constraints imposed on new build
and less time spent in the planning process
¢¢ Less time spent on site
¢¢ Existing buildings are often larger and have more car parking than
permitted by current planning regulations
¢¢ Housing – Refurbishment can avoid the need to rehouse tenants, which
is a costly and disruptive
¢¢ Housing – The current shortfall in new homes suggests that, by 2050,
70% of existing homes will still be in use, meaning reuse of housing has
an important part to play in reducing energy consumption and carbon
emissions [27]. Residential tower blocks form a significant part of this,
with 3,500 in the UK, housing 800,000 people [26]
¢¢ Offices – The comparatively narrow floor plate often found in older
buildings can lend itself to natural ventilation from perimeter windows,
reducing the need for mechanical ventilation and air-conditioning [28].
Embodied CO2 savings
The CO2 savings that can be realised from reuse are of course largely
project-specific, but will essentially equate to those of a new concrete
frame, which represents the key difference between the new build and
reuse options. Based on a range of published studies [29, 30] the initial
embodied figure for the superstructure of an office is generally around 200-
250kgCO2/m2 and is applicable to concrete and steel-frame buildings – that
is, both framing options have a similar CO2 footprint (see embodied CO2 of
framed buildings, page 10). This provides an approximate indication of the
significant embodied CO2 savings that can be achieved through reuse. For
other building types, the figure may vary slightly – for example, hospitals
and schools are likely to be about 5% and 10% higher respectively [30].
WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 15
The practicalities of reuse
There are two key prerequisites for reusing a concrete frame, the first of
which is the continuing structural integrity of the building. Condition
surveys of older concrete-frame buildings often provide a favourable
outcome in terms of their ongoing structural viability and suitability for
reuse, albeit subject to any minor repairs or localised strengthening that
may be required [32]. The second requirement is the ability of the building’s
form to meet current needs in terms of layout, slab-to-slab height, floor
loads, servicing etc. This may be less of an issue in high-rise housing
refurbishments, but is important in commercial projects, particularly where
a change of use is required. These requirements are often broadly satisfied
in concrete-frame buildings despite little consideration being given to
future reuse in the original design. A likely explanation for this is that many
existing buildings broadly conform to what is termed today as a “long life,
loose fit” approach, which combines the use of durable materials with a
format that is reasonably generous in terms of space and is not tailored
too tightly to the building’s function [33]. In the case of offices, a partial
move away from deep-plan, heavily serviced spaces has also favoured
older, shallow-plan, concrete-frame offices that can help facilitate a more
passively controlled environment. It is also the case that concrete-frame
construction can often be cost-effectively repaired and upgraded [34],
which can include the ability to:
¢¢ Add floors or extensions to the building
¢¢ Add lift shafts and risers
¢¢ Increase the load on structural columns and floors
¢¢ Reduce floor loads by removing screed, which also increases the slab-
to-slab height
¢¢ Create openings in slabs
¢¢ Rationalise the mechanical servicing – for example, through the use of
surface heating/cooling or chilled beams
¢¢ Remove suspended ceilings to increase slab-to-slab height and expose
the soffit’s thermal mass.
REUSING THE CONCRETE FRAME CAN SAVE
AROUND 200-250KG CO2 /M2.
16 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS
Enhancing fabric performance
through reuse
The life of concrete-frame buildings can be significantly extended through
reuse, with a period of around 50 years typically expected for residential
tower blocks [35]. In practice, it could be longer, providing the frame
remains structurally sound, which will be greatly assisted by the enhanced
weather protection from a renewed building envelope. This will prevent
damp penetration – a key cause of deterioration to concrete spandrels,
which were often left exposed in the original facade design [26].
In terms of fabric energy efficiency, it is possible to provide the same level
of energy use and carbon emissions as new build [27], which is largely
achieved through installing highly insulated cladding. This wraps the frame,
preventing heat loss from thermal bridging, which can be a significant issue
in older buildings, particularly where slab ends are left exposed. Upgraded
insulation also prevents the problem of interstitial condensation forming
on cold areas of floors and walls, which can lead to mould growth. A further
benefit of highly insulated cladding is that the concrete frame cools less
rapidly when the heating is off, resulting in much less energy being needed
to bring rooms up to temperature when switched on again [32].
There is also the potential to actively use the inherent thermal mass of
the frame as part of a passive cooling strategy in the summer months.
A sympathetic reuse strategy can allow the thermal mass to work in
combination with natural ventilation to help regulate the internal
temperature and lower the risk of overheating. This technique can be
applied to all types of concrete building, making it relevant to social
housing providers and commercial property owners alike. In addition
to reducing running costs and CO2 emissions, it allows a means to build
some climate resilience into a refurbishment project and reduce the need
to retrofit air-conditioning in the future. In commercial buildings this
technique is often used in combination with chilled beams to enhance
the cooling performance. Alternatively, it is possible to fit a micro-capillary
mat cooling system to the underside of the soffit [36]. This is particularly
useful in situations where floor-to-ceiling height needs to be maximised
and/or where the finish of the existing soffit is not visually acceptable. The
mat is bonded to the soffit using a highly conductive plaster and carries
tubes containing cold water from a chiller or other source, which maintains
a soffit temperature of around 20°C – the same as can be expected from a
more conventional surface heating/cooling system using pipes embedded
in the slab.
A REUSED CONCRETE FRAME BUILDING CAN
MEET AND EXCEED ENERGY EFFICIENCY
STANDARDS.
Designing now for future reuse
For owner/occupiers and investment institutions commissioning buildings
for the longer term, it can be financially prudent to consider design
practices that allow for future reuse. These centre on practical measures
that are sympathetic to a “long life, loose fit” approach and may include the
following recommendations:
¢¢ Adopt a geometry that is uniform in plan
¢¢ Provide the largest economical grid size to give optimum column-free
space
¢¢ Ensure the layout is not configured too closely to the initial function of
the building
¢¢ Provide a reasonably generous slab-to-slab height that can
accommodate a raised floor
¢¢ Avoid the use of downstand beams that can reduce flexibility when
replacing mechanical services
¢¢ Employ a double-aspect layout where possible to enhance the
potential for natural lighting and ventilation
¢¢ Provide a soffit with a reasonable finish that could be exposed in the
future
¢¢ Embed plastic surface heating/cooling pipes in the slab for future use
¢¢ Consider future environmental conditions and climate change
adaptation strategy
¢¢ Ensure there is potential for sub-dividing the space to meet varying
occupant needs and letting arrangements, which may require particular
attention being paid to the location of cores.
Chalcot Estate, London [31]
Built in the 1960s, the Chalcot Estate in north London comprises
717 flats in four identical 23-storey towers and a smaller 19-storey
block. Work to refurbish the towers commenced in 2006 as part of
the Borough of Camden’s goal to deliver a 30% cut in CO2 emissions.
Replacing the towers with low-rise housing was not an option
due to the extremely high site density. Although the flats were in
poor condition internally, they were structurally sound, making
refurbishment a cost-effective option. This was also true in terms of
embodied CO2; it was calculated that demolishing just one block
would create 7,000 tonnes of waste and rebuilding it with a similar
tower would involve more than 7,500 tonnes of embodied CO2 in new
materials. Bringing the thermal performance of the fabric up to current
standards involved the fitting of new overcladding in the form of an
aluminium rainscreen system and new argon-filled double-glazing.
The original 25mm internal polystyrene insulation was replaced
with high-performance external insulation, preventing interstitial
condensation and minimising heat lost through thermal bridging. All
of the work was carried out while the tenants remained in occupation.
 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 17

Focus on Reuse:
Elizabeth II Court, Winchester
Architect: Bennetts Associates
Structural Engineer: Gifford
M&E Engineer: Ernest Griffiths

The original 1960s Hampshire County Council’s office building in

Winchester was outdated both in its style and function. Instead of
demolishing the existing concrete-framed building, the structure was
retained and adapted to fit modern needs and today’s stringent energy-
saving requirements. A feasibility study proved that to comprehensively
refurbish the building would cost half as much as a new build.

The working environment of countless corridors and cellular rooms was

replaced by a flexible open-plan office space. Externally, the building’s
outdated appearance has been modernised using local materials and is
now much more in harmony with its historic context.

Retention of the concrete frame saved 50% of the embodied CO2

normally required to construct a building and use of local bricks helped
adaptations could take place. At the heart of the finished project is what
to significantly reduce related CO2 emissions. A large proportion of
architect Bennetts Associates refers to as a 70:70:30 benefit, comprising
demolition materials were recycled through the contractor’s supply chain,
70% reduction in energy consumption, 70% increase in space utilisation
including former precast-concrete cladding panels that were crushed
and 30% reduction in overall HQ office space requirement for the client.
offsite and reused as aggregate in other Hampshire projects.
This combination results in very significant efficiencies and operational
cost reductions that the council will be able to plough back into
The transformation of the building was aided by its original concrete
frontline services.
structure, which provided a solid starting point from where the

Focus on Lean Design:

160 Tooley Street, London
Architect: Allford Hall Monaghan Morris (AHMM)
Structural & Services Engineer: Arup

160 Tooley Street is a mixed-use development of nearly 20,000m2,

constructed for Great Portland Estates. The design represents a
significant departure from the ubiquitous office format of the past,
embodying current thinking on energy efficiency. The development
combines new-build and refurbished areas, and provides six floors of
speculative office space, plus a variety of retail units on the ground floor
and five residential units.

The project team set out to design and construct a premium-quality,

low-energy building with extensive use of off-site manufacturing, few
following trades and minimal site waste. In meeting these aims, the
team adopted a holistic approach that integrated structure, building
services and architecture. The most visible evidence of the “lean
office” approach is the exposed concrete interior, comprising precast
soffits and columns with a high-quality fair-faced finish. Suspended
ceilings were avoided, resulting in most of the services (including a to optimise the building’s passive cooling performance and provides
displacement ventilation system) being located in the floor void. radiant cooling that complements the convective cooling from the
displacement ventilation system. The precast concrete soffit panels
Overhead services comprise lighting and fire alarm system, with the measure 3m x 3m x 50mm and were used as permanent formwork to
primary and secondary distribution trunking located in the recesses a 300mm post-tensioned slab cast directly onto them. This approach
between the soffit. The result is a space with a generous floor-to-ceiling enabled the exposed surface of the soffit to be produced in factory
height. Thermal mass provided by the exposed concrete helps conditions, helping to ensure good control of the overall finish.
18 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS

End of life – uptake of CO2 by

concrete carbonation
For many types of construction material, deconstruction and waste processing at the end of a building’s lifecycle
results in the release of CO2. However, this is not the case with concrete which, due to a naturally occurring
chemical process called carbonation, absorbs CO2 when it is broken up and reused in other applications.

The carbonation process

The manufacture of one tonne of Portland cement generates
approximately 0.9 tonnes of direct CO2 emissions to the atmosphere (see
Concrete Production, on page 4). Some 40% of this is from the fuel used,
and around 60% is from the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate.
Emissions of CO2 associated with calcium carbonate decomposition are
not only distinct in terms of the process that generates them; they are
also partly reversible through carbonation. This is often overlooked when
evaluating the embodied impact of concrete and other cementitious
materials, which absorb CO2 over the building lifecycle and beyond.
The carbonation process is the reaction between calcium oxide (CaO),
an alkaline product of hardened concrete, and CO2, which results in the
formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3):

CaO + CO2 = CaCO3 (limestone)

The mix design of structural concrete purposefully limits carbonation of the

The Pantheon in Rome, constructed from concrete 1,900 years ago,
surface layer, preventing corrosion of any embedded steel reinforcement,
still has the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world.
which might otherwise be affected during the building’s life. There is,
however, a greater degree of carbonation during the end-of-life stage,
when concrete is crushed for reuse as an aggregate. The crushing process
substantially increases the material’s surface area, allowing CO2 to be more CO2 uptake by concrete during the
readily absorbed. Although the deconstruction and demolition process at
the end of a building’s lifecycle can be comparatively brief, the resulting demolition and deconstruction stage
carbonation during this phase is significant and is an important factor
Overall CO2 uptake arising from demolition and waste processing is largely
when evaluating the whole-life CO2 performance of concrete buildings.
determined by the amount of concrete within the structure that is crushed
In addition to direct absorption of atmospheric CO2, the newly-crushed
and the time it spends on site before reuse. While these factors cannot
concrete aggregate also undergoes carbonation as a consequence
be known at the building design stage, data produced by the National
of leaching from exposure to rain – a process that has been shown to
Federation of Demolition Contractors (NFDC) provides a good indication of
significantly increase the rate of carbonation [38, 39]. Further CO2 uptake
current UK building demolition practice, based on waste return data from
occurs beyond the building's lifecycle and the demolition phase, when the
their member companies [41], as highlighted in Figure 8. This shows that
crushed concrete is reused in a range of applications.
following deconstruction and demolition, the hardcore generated typically
In lower-strength concrete such as that used in blocks, and other sits for five weeks on site before being crushed or removed. Following this
cementitious materials, carbonation is more rapid during its service life, as period, the hardcore produced in a live construction project that is crushed
CO2 can permeate the material more easily. In addition to the absorption on site will typically sit for a further month before being removed or reused
of CO2, the carbonation process is also likely to increase the strength of on site. For speculative projects the post-crushing period is typically longer,
these materials, and with no steel reinforcement present, their serviceable at around 12 months. The split between live and speculative projects at the
lifespan has the potential to be measured in hundreds rather than tens present time is judged to be around 50:50 [42], giving an average period of
of years. The Pantheon in Rome, constructed around 1900 years ago [40], around 26 weeks on site.
provides demonstrable evidence of this.

DUE TO A NATURALLY OCCURING PROCESS

CALLED CARBONATION CONCRETE CAN
ABSORB CO2.
 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 19

Figure 8: Average UK end-of-life scenario for demolition hardcore [41]

Using the average UK end-of-life scenario detailed in Figure 8 and a

modest 60-year building life, Figure 9 shows the approximate level of CO2
absorbed by structural concrete during the building lifecycle and during
The carbonation of concrete
the material’s secondary life following recycling. This shows a reduction of can result in:
around 8% in embodied CO2 over the lifecycle of the building, followed by
a more significant decrease during the concrete’s secondary life, when it is
¢¢ Around a 7.5% reduction in embodied CO2 over the building
typically used as recycled aggregate in a variety of applications including
lifecycle.
groundworks, piling mats, landscaping etc. (see “CO2 uptake of concrete
¢¢ An overall reduction of one third in embodied CO2 when the
in soil”, page 20). Ultimately, the carbonation process is likely to reduce the
secondary life of the recycled concrete is also included.
initial cradle-to-gate embodied CO2 of concrete by up to a third [43 , 44].
The CO2 emissions resulting from the crushing process are about 80 times
less than the overall absorption of CO2 from carbonation – that is, including
the secondary life period – and around 18 times less than the carbonation
that occurs over the building lifecycle.

Figure 9: Estimated reduction in the embodied CO2 of structural concrete due to carbonation [43]
20 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS
CO2 uptake of concrete in soil
Carbonation during the in-use phase of a building is largely through the
uptake of CO2 from air, which can be both inside and outside the structure.
However, following the deconstruction and demolition, additional
absorption mechanisms come into play.
Atmospheric CO2 continues to be absorbed via diffusion when concrete
is used in groundworks, albeit at a slower rate than occurs with direct
exposure to air. However, alongside this, CO2 produced by microbes in the
soil can significantly increase carbonation through a recently discovered
process that requires the presence of plants and shrubs – for example, in
landscaping projects and on brownfield sites. Microbial activity in the soil
helps to bridge the gap between organic and inorganic carbon storage.
This can result in 150 tonnes of CO2 absorbed per hectare annually, so 700
hectares can absorb around 1 million tonnes of CO2 from the atmosphere
each year [45]. The way that carbonation works in this instance can be
summarised in the following way:
1. Plants and shrubs take CO2 from the atmosphere and, through the
process of photosynthesis, carbon is released into the soil by the roots.
2. Microbes in the soil absorb secretions from the roots (referred to as
exudates) and metabolise it, creating CO2.
3. This CO2 is in contact with the soil solution, causing some of it to
become carbonate.
4. The carbonate combines with calcium from the concrete to form
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which precipitates out in the form of
limestone, locking the CO2 into the soil.
This process is the subject of research at Newcastle University, which is
investigating methods of increasing inorganic soil carbon storage through
soil engineering [46].
University of Greenwich - the need for mechanical services was reduced through the use of exposed soffits, which also provides space and energy
savings. © VIEW.
Accounting for carbonation
Carbonation has historically been viewed by engineers and designers
in the context of concrete durability, and more specifically, the need to
protect steel reinforcement from its effects – a necessity that is addressed
in structural design standards, which set minimum requirements for
reinforcing cover and concrete mix design. Discussion of carbonation
from a sustainability and whole-life CO2 perspective is a more recent
development. This does not necessarily seek to encourage carbonation,
but does aim to ensure the implications of this naturally occurring process
are acknowledged, and the resulting CO2 uptake is included in whole-life
performance assessments. This is already the case with the BRE Green
Guide ratings, which uses an environmental profiling methodology
that accounts for carbonation. More recently, the development of
Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) allows the process to be fully
accounted for in the lifecycle of concrete products, which includes the
end-of-life phase [47].
As a general point, it is worth noting that unlike many of the environmental
performance considerations associated with the use of construction
materials, the carbonation of concrete is always going to occur, and is not
particularly dependent on any specific whole-life scenario. As shown in this
section, the average reduction in embodied CO2 for structural concrete
is about 7.5% over the lifecycle of a building. Beyond the lifecycle stage,
a much greater reduction ultimately occurs that can reduce the initial
embodied CO2 by around a third.
Alternative construction materials rely on unknown assumptions and
scenarios for end-of-life impacts and emissions associated with landfill or
incineration. In contrast, whatever the whole-life scenario or time period
considered for concrete, the carbonation process will always occur, and this
end-of-life uncertainty avoided. This provides a useful degree of confidence
when undertaking whole-life CO2 calculations for concrete.

Summary
¢¢ Avoided finishes and plant: Exposed concrete allows additional
finishes and plant to be designed out, cutting embodied CO2 and
space requirements.
¢¢ Lower energy use: Concrete's thermal mass can significantly
reduce the energy needed for cooling.
¢¢ Carbonation: Concrete buildings absorb atmospheric CO2 over
their lifecycle.
Appendix 1 Underlying calculations for Figure 6: Approximate CO2 payback from
avoided/reduced reliance on air-conditioning
Embodied CO2 payback – exposed concrete floor slab
Average cooling output of slab = 0.03 kW/m2 (Termodeck system)
Annual cooling output (April-September):
0.03 kW/m2 x 1m2 x 1,056 hours = 32 kWh
Equivalent cooling from air-conditioning produces around 4.2 kgCO2
(see calculation opposite)
Assumed service life
Carpet: 15 years (GreenSpec/Building 2007)
Suspended ceiling: 24 years [13]
Air-conditioning plant: 20 years (CIBSE Guide M, 2008)
WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 21
¢¢ Low maintenance: Concrete's durability ensures a long service life
with a minimal need for maintenance.
¢¢ Reuse of building: The longevity of concrete frame buildings
means they can often be reused, saving significant embodied CO2
compared to new build.
¢¢ Carbonation at end-of-life: When concrete is crushed at the end
of a building's life, atmospheric CO2 is rapidly absorbed due to the
huge increase in the concrete's surface area.
CO2 emissions from air-conditioning
Average coefficient of performance (COP) for air-conditioning system
assumed to be: 4.0
Grid supplied electricity currently emits:
0.522 kgCO2/kWh
So, every 32kWh of cooling produces:
(32/4) x 0.522 = 4.2 kgCO2
Note: The figure of 32kWh represents the annual cooling output from the
exposed concrete soffit (see calculation opposite).
22 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS

References
1. Non-domestic Real Estate Climatic Change Model, Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors, 2012
2. 8th Concrete Industry Sustainability Performance Report, 2014 performance data, Mineral Products Association
3. Embodied CO2e of UK cement, additions and cementitious material, Fact Sheet 18, Mineral Products Association, July 2015
4. Specifying Sustainable Concrete, MPA The Concrete Centre, 2015
5. Based on table 6, Specifying Sustainable Concrete, MPA The Concrete Centre, 2015
6. Concrete and the Green Guide, The Concrete Centre, 2009
7. 5th Concrete Industry Sustainability Performance Report, 2008-2013 performance data, Mineral Products Association
8. Sustainability Matters 2015, MPA British Precast, 2015
9. P. Horsley and C. Ranatunga, Carbon Footprint Comparison of Fast Form versus Timber Shuttering, June 2015 (www.fastformsystems.com)
10. Assessment of CO2 emissions reduction in high-rise concrete office buildings using different material use options, C.K. Chau, W.K. Hui, W.Y. Ng and
G. Powell, Resource, Conservation and Recycling 61 (2012), pp22-34
11. S.C. Kaethner and J.A. Burridge, Embodied CO2 of Structural Frames, The Structural Engineer, Vol 90, May 2012, pp33-40
12. Design Detail Sheet – Exposed ceiling, Waste & Resources Action Programme (Wrap)
13. BCIS, Building Cost Information service, Life expectancy of building components, 2006
14. British Council for Offices, Guide to Specification 2009
15. G. Hawkins, Rules of Thumb, Guidelines for Building Services, (5th edition, 2011), Building Services and Research and Information Association (BSRIA).
The figure quoted is based on requirements for single-sided ventilation.
16. R. Hitchin, Embodied Carbon and Building Services, CIBSE research report 9, 2013
17. A. Cooper, D. Doran, The Facts of Life, CIBSE Journal, February 2015
18. Design Detail Sheet – Polished concrete floor, Waste & Resources Action Programme (Wrap)
19. Cutting embodied carbon in construction projects, Waste & Resources Action Programme (Wrap)
20. Energy Piles: A pioneering approach. www.skanska.co.uk/services/cementation-piling-and-foundations
21. F.G.H. Koene, W.G.J. van Helden and J.C. Romer, Energy piles as effective ground heat exchangers, in Proc. TERRASTOCK 2000, Stuttgart, Germany, 28
August – 1 September, pp227-232
22. T. Amis and F. Loveridge. Therm Foundations, CIBSE Journal, August 2014
23. F. Loveridge and W. Powrie, Performance of piled foundations used as heat exchangers, 18th International Conference for Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering, Paris, France, September 2-5, 2013
24. Air conditioning - maximising comfort, minimising energy consumption, Carbon Trust, March 2012
25. The values plotted for the “typical” and “best practice” offices are based on those published in the 2012 edition of CIBSE Guide F (Energy efficiency in
Buildings). A value for high thermal mass offices is not published in Guide F, so the value used is based on an average of the following buildings:
1. Edinburgh Gate Building, Harlow, 2. Innovate Building, Leeds, 3. Elizabeth Fry Building, Norwich, 4. Ionica Building, Cambridge, 5. Canon Headquarters,
Reigate, 6. Inland Revenue building, Nottingham
26. P. Buxton, Refurbishment is the height of fashion, Building Design Online, Bdonline.co.uk, February 2013
27. K. Crawford, C. Johnson, F. Davies, S. Joo and S. Bell, Demolition or Refurbishment of Social Housing? University College London, October 2014
28. C. Kendrick, A. Martin and W. Booth, Refurbishment of Air-Conditioned Buildings for Natural Ventilation, Technical note TN 8/98. BSRIA, 1998
29. D. Clark and D. Bradley, Embodied carbon of steel versus concrete buildings, Cundall Johnston & Partners LLP, July 2013. The studies reviewed are:
− IStructE research paper – Concrete Centre / Arup, 2012
− Sustainable Concrete Architecture – David Bennett, RIBA Publishing, 2010
− Steel Construction Industry – Eaton & Amato, 1998
− British Constructional Steelwork Association – Target Zero Office study, 2011
− Cundall R&D project, 2013
30. S.C. Kaethner and J.A. Burridge, Embodied CO2 of Structural Frames, The Structural Engineer, Vol 90, May 2012, pp33-40
31. S. Kennett, Altered Towers, Building Magazine, 16 May 2008
32. Greening the Skyline – The challenge and opportunities of tower block retrofit, Green Alliance event at the RIBA, November 2014
33. P. Buchanan, Ten Shades of Green, The Architectural League of New York, (www.tenshadesofgreen.org)
34. C.A Gold and A.J. Martin, Refurbishment of Concrete Buildings: Structural and Services Options, Guidance Notes GN 8/99, British Cement Association
(BCA), Building Services Research and Information Association (BSRIA), 1999
35. ECD Architects, Greening the Skyline – the challenge and opportunities of tower block retrofit, Green Alliance event at the RIBA, November 2014
 WHOLE-LIFE CARBON AND BUILDINGS 23

36. A. Smith, Wimbledon Ace, CIBSE Journal, May 2015 ( a case study of Mansel Court; an office refurbishment project)
37. T Whitehead, London’s concrete quarter, bdonline.co.uk, 21 February 2014
38. T. Kikuchi and Y. Kuroda, Carbon dioxide uptake in demolished and crushed concrete, Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 9, 2011, pp115-124
39. C.J. Engelsen and H. Justnes, CO2 Binding by concrete – summary of the state of the art and an assessment of the total binding of CO2 by carbonation in
the Norwegian concrete stock, 2014, SINTEF Byggforsk
40. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheon, Rome
41. UK waste return data from the NFDC was supplied to The Concrete Centre in April 2014
42. Meeting with NFDC, April 2014
43. Based on calculation methodology detailed in: K. Pommer and C. Pade, Uptake of carbon dioxide in the life cycle inventory of concrete, Danish
Technological Institute, October 2005. Secondary life carbonation based on proportion of CaO assumed to ultimately carbonate as detailed in: C.J.
Engelsen and H. Justnes, CO2 Binding by concrete – summary of the state of the art and an assessment of the total binding of CO2 by carbonation in the
Norwegian concrete stock, 2014, SINTEF Byggforsk
44. Closing the loop: what type of concrete reuse is the most sustainable option?, Technical Report A-2015/1860, European Cement Research Academy,
November 2015
45. Inside Science, BBC Radio 4, 15 January 2014
46. Professor D. Manning, How Does it Work? – Engineering the Soil Carbon Sink, Department of Civil Engineering and Geoscience, Newcastle University
47. Concrete carbonation forms part of a building’s whole-life CO2 performance, in accordance with BS EN 15804: 2012, Sustainability of construction works
– Environmental product declarations – Core rules for the product category of construction products
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