Enhanced Use of The Work Breakdown Structure by Application of Unique Activity Coding As A Universal Reference Throughout A Project's Lifecycle.

DISSERTATION TITLE
Enhanced use of the Work Breakdown Structure by application of unique activity

coding as a universal reference throughout a project’s lifecycle.
By
Richard Theofilus Moolman
DISSERTATION
Submitted to
The University of Liverpool
in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT
2012
DISSERTATION ENTITLED
coding as a universal reference throughout a project’s lifecycle.
By
We hereby certify that this Dissertation submitted by Richard Theofilus Moolman conforms
to acceptable standards, and as such is fully adequate in scope and quality. It is therefore
approved as the fulfilment of the Dissertation requirements for the degree of Master of
Project Management.
Approved:
Dissertation Advisor Date
The University of Liverpool
2012
2
CERTIFICATION STATEMENT
I hereby certify that this paper constitutes my own product, that where the language of thesis
set forth, quotation marks so indicate, and that appropriate credit is given where I have used
the language, ideas, expressions or writings of another.
3
ABSTRACT

coding as a universal reference throughout a project’s life-cycle
By
Complex projects often involve professionals from wide-spread differentiating professions,

which may lead to confusion during communication and identification of a particular project
activity. This is especially true when teams are working virtual, spread across the globe. This
confusion can lead to misrepresentation of the interaction of that activity with the greater
project activities e.g. procurement and the risk breakdown structure. It appears that this type
of confusion can be virtually eliminated by coupling a code to the description of an activity
and if the code is then used as the common reference point instead of the activity’s
description, misunderstandings can be eliminated. A general benefit of a coding system
would be to allow various contractors working on the same activity or group of activities to
clearly define where and how their scheduled activities interface with those of other
contractors.
This research is based on the hypothesis that the use of a simple activity code can assist
project managers to keep better control of the project triple constraints, thereby leading to
improved project success. This poses the question whether the WBS coding is currently being
linked and cross referenced to activities when project managers develop a WBS? Thus are
these codes that are allocated to activities, linked or referenced as an index with the same
code in all project documentation that is subsequently developed that pertains to that specific
activity i.e. contract, risk register, risk breakdown structure, design drawings, meeting
discussions, communication, etc. The WBS coding in practice is examined to determine
whether it is isolated to the WBS only, or does it follow through as a unique code which can
be referenced in all project documentation to matters related to each activity, in a searchable
and cross-referable fashion. This application is considered in terms of practicality and benefit
to the project.
Many recognise the WBS as the foundation, heart or roadmap of project planning,
scheduling, estimating, monitoring and that it is a project element’s common reference point
4
(Rad, 1999; Iranmanesh and Madadi, 2008). The omission of a simple or single task can lead
to an irrevocable result, which leaves little doubt regarding the importance of the WBS being
the basis for project planning, structure and control.
This work assesses current theory and practice relating to the use of work breakdown
structure coding as a reference to tracking and control of project activities. Based on this, a
case study and associated research suggest methods of expanding the WBS referencing in
practice, which may lead to a reduction in risk and improving efficiency during project
planning and execution.
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a great pleasure to thank those who made this dissertation possible. A tremendous
amount was gained from the eight subjects studied, which despite thirty years of project
management experience equipped me with much new knowledge. I am most thankful to my
dissertation advisor, Dr Peter Ostrowski whose encouragement, supervision and support from
the preliminary to the concluding level was immeasurable and without whose assistance this
dissertation would not have been possible. I also would like to make a special reference to
my wife Louise, daughters Genevieve and Sacha, and son Raoul, who gave me moral support
and assistance throughout this project.
6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DISSERTATION TITLE..........................................................................................................1
DISSERTATION ENTITLED..................................................................................................2
CERTIFICATION STATEMENT.............................................................................................3
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................................6
TABLE OF CONTENTS...........................................................................................................7
TABLE OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................12
ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................................................14
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................15
1.1. Objectives of the work...............................................................................................15
1.2. Background of the study............................................................................................15
1.3. Brief outline of key ideas and methods.....................................................................16
1.4. Overview...................................................................................................................17
CHAPTER 2: WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE AND DEPENDENCIES.................18
2.1. Overview of the work breakdown structure..............................................................18
2.2. Current accepted WBS structuring............................................................................18
2.3. Elements affected by the WBS..................................................................................21
2.4. WBS dictionary.........................................................................................................22
2.5. Work packages..........................................................................................................24
2.6. Work breakdown instructions....................................................................................24
2.7. Cost estimates............................................................................................................24
2.8. Contracts....................................................................................................................25
2.9. Contract pricing.........................................................................................................25
7
2.10. Account codes........................................................................................................25
2.11. Budgets..................................................................................................................26
2.12. Organisational breakdown structure (OBS) matrix...............................................26
2.13. Resource breakdown structure matrix...................................................................27
2.14. Applications diagrams and sketches......................................................................27
2.15. Communication matrix..........................................................................................27
2.16. Project schedule.....................................................................................................28
2.17. Risk breakdown structure (RBS)...........................................................................28
2.18. Safety, health, environment, and quality (SHEQ) management............................29
2.19. Assessments...........................................................................................................30
2.20. Project administration and record keeping............................................................30
2.21. Certifications..........................................................................................................32
2.22. Stakeholder register...............................................................................................32
2.23. Micro planning.......................................................................................................32
2.24. The interaction between the elements and the WBS.............................................33
2.25. The allocation of the elements within the PMBOK processes..............................34
2.26. Scope Changes.......................................................................................................36
2.27. Why do projects experience scope changes...........................................................36
2.28. Scope change and project failure...........................................................................37
2.29. Scope change and the WBS numbering system.....................................................37
2.30. Numbering systems................................................................................................38
2.31. Permanent account number....................................................................................38
2.32. Dewey....................................................................................................................39
2.33. Dental numbering system......................................................................................40
2.34. Bank accounts........................................................................................................40
2.35. Number plates........................................................................................................41
2.36. Barcodes.................................................................................................................41
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2.37. Market identifier codes..........................................................................................41
2.38. Postal codes............................................................................................................42
2.39. Complications........................................................................................................42
2.40. Software programmes............................................................................................43
2.41. Is there room for improvement?............................................................................44
Chapter 3: RESEARCH...........................................................................................................47
3.1. Scope of investigation...............................................................................................47
3.2. Research design.........................................................................................................47
3.3. Objective of the research...........................................................................................47
3.4. Pilot study..................................................................................................................48
3.5. Participants and sampling..........................................................................................49
3.6. Validity and reliability of the research......................................................................49
3.7. Ethics and confidentiality..........................................................................................50
3.8. Research questionnaire..............................................................................................50
3.9. Case Study.................................................................................................................50
3.10. Introduction to case study......................................................................................51
3.11. High Level Scope of Case study............................................................................51
3.12. OBS for project......................................................................................................55
3.13. Resource Breakdown Structure.............................................................................55
3.14. Create WBS...........................................................................................................56
3.15. Technical background to case study activity ‘3.3.11.1 Commission test HV

bushing’ 56
3.16. Elements affected by WBS coding relating to activity ‘3.3.11.1 Commission tests’
57
3.16.1. Project Gant Chart Schedule..............................................................................57
3.16.2. WBS dictionary..................................................................................................58
3.16.3. Work packages...................................................................................................59
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3.16.4. Communication and responsibility matrix.........................................................59
3.16.5. SHE management...............................................................................................60
3.16.6. Assessment and certification..............................................................................61
3.16.7. Contract, Pricing and quality..............................................................................62
3.16.1. Micro planning...................................................................................................62
3.16.2. RBS and risk analysis........................................................................................63
3.16.3. Cost estimates and contract pricing....................................................................64
3.16.4. Budgets, accounting and invoicing....................................................................65
3.16.5. Relevance of using WBS coding in this example..............................................65
Chapter 4: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION..........................................................................66
4.1. Method of analysis of the research questionnaire.....................................................66
4.2. Analysis of the results...............................................................................................66
4.3. Qualitative analysis of comments..............................................................................66
4.4. Quantitative analysis of the research questionnaire..................................................67
4.5. Mixed method of analysis.........................................................................................68
4.6. Question response analysis........................................................................................70
4.7. Analysis of case study...............................................................................................73
4.7.1. Hypothesis.............................................................................................................73
4.7.2. Case study analysis................................................................................................73
4.8. The need for cross referencing..................................................................................74
4.9. Communication and referencing...............................................................................75
4.10. The effect of risk....................................................................................................75
4.11. The importance of records.....................................................................................76
Chapter 5: CONCLUSION......................................................................................................77
5.1. Conclusions...............................................................................................................77
5.2. Conclusions on meeting the study objectives............................................................77
5.3. Limitations of the study.............................................................................................78
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5.4. Areas of further research...........................................................................................78
5.5. Reflections of the researcher.....................................................................................78
Reference List..........................................................................................................................79
Appendix..................................................................................................................................85
6.1. Pilot study..................................................................................................................85
6.1.1. Replies:..................................................................................................................85
6.2. Case study 1 Questionnaire.......................................................................................90
6.2.1. Covering letter.......................................................................................................90
6.2.2. Questionnaire example..........................................................................................91
6.2.3. Analysis excel sheet...............................................................................................92
6.3. Case study 2 Implementation....................................................................................93
6.3.1. Technical background to case study activity ‘3.3.11.1 Commission test HV

bushing’ 93
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Arabic numbering and Alpha numerical numbering (Haugan, 2002: p. 52; 62).....19
Figure 2: Grouping by functional departments (Mantrom, D., Collins, K. & Hermes, G.,
1998: p. 3) 20
Figure 3: WBS to cost codes (Dysert, 2004)............................................................................20
Figure 4: Elements affected by the WBS.................................................................................21
Figure 5: WBS Dictionary Exemplar (Anon, 2011)................................................................22
Figure 6: WBS dictionary Exemplar (Anon, 2012).................................................................23
Figure 7: Examples of account codes (UC Santa Cruz, n.d.)...................................................26
Figure 8: RBS linked to WBS (Hillson, 2003a: P.137)...........................................................29
Figure 9: Interaction between the elements that may affect the WBS numbering...................33
Figure 10: PMBOK Process Groups (PMBOK, 2008: P. 43)..................................................34
Figure 11: Elements as per PMBOK Process Groups (PMBOK, 2008)..................................35
Figure 12: WBS developed from Project Charter (Burek, 2011).............................................38
Figure 13: Pan Card fourth digit representation (Anon, 2012) (Anon, 2012a)........................39
Figure 14: Dewey Classification Code Index (OCLC, 2003).................................................40
Figure 15: U.K. Car number plate codes (Registration Transfers, 2012)................................41
Figure 16: World postal codes (Stadscykel, 2011)..................................................................42
Figure 17: Popular Software (Hill, 2012)................................................................................43
Figure 18: WBS using project code and numerical.................................................................43
Figure 19: WBS using project code, numerical and codes......................................................44
Figure 20: The key to the codes used in figures 18 and 19......................................................44
Figure 21: LinkedIn question...................................................................................................48
Figure 22: Mind Map of Project...............................................................................................52
Figure 23: Flow chart of logistical process..............................................................................54
Figure 24: OBS for case study.................................................................................................55
Figure 25: Interfaces and resource breakdown structure for project........................................55
Figure 26: High level WBS......................................................................................................56
Figure 27 : Notes to project Gantt chart...................................................................................57
Figure 28: Extract project Gantt chart......................................................................................58
Figure 29: WBS dictionary extract..........................................................................................58
Figure 30: Work package extract.............................................................................................59
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Figure 31: Extract communication / responsibility matrix......................................................59
Figure 32: Example of using coding in communication..........................................................60
Figure 33: Example of certification and assessment NEC3.....................................................61
Figure 34: Extract from contractual pricing.............................................................................62
Figure 35: Risk breakdown structure extract...........................................................................63
Figure 36: Extract risk assessment...........................................................................................64
Figure 37: Extract Cost Estimation spreadsheet......................................................................65
Figure 38: Extract invoice........................................................................................................65
Figure 39: Numerical allocation...............................................................................................66
Figure 40: Data collected and analysed...................................................................................68
Figure 41: Summary of responses............................................................................................69
Figure 42: Percentage Yes versus percentage No..................................................................70
Figure 43: Questions posed......................................................................................................71
Figure 44: Tabular representation of the result in percentages................................................72
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ABBREVIATIONS
BIM Building Information Modelling
BOM Bill of Materials
BOQ Bill of Quantities
EV Earned Value
HV High Voltage
i.e. That is
i.t.o. In Terms Of
OBS Organisational Breakdown Structure
PD Partial Discharge
PAN Permanent Account Number
PMI Project Management Institute
PRPD Specific phase-related diagrams
PSA Partial Discharge Analysis
RBS Risk Breakdown Structure
SAT Site Acceptance Testing
SHEQ Safety, Health, Environment, Quality
SOW Statement of Work
WBS Work Breakdown Structure
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CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
1.1. Objectives of the work
Complex projects often involve professionals from wide-spread differentiating professions,

which may lead to confusion of the actual identity of a particular project activity and the
interaction of that activity with the greater project activities. It seems that confusion can be
virtually eliminated by coupling a code to the description of an activity, which will assist in
inter alia communication. A general benefit of a coding system would be to allow various
contractors working on the same activity or group of activities to clearly define where and
how their scheduled activities interface with those of other contractors, as a coded activity
would be easily traced in any electronic document using the ‘control – f’ function to find all
references to it. The objective of this study is to prove or disprove this hypothesis.
The aim of this work is to assess current theory and practice relating to the use of work
breakdown structure coding as a reference to tracking and control of project activities. Based
on this, a case study and associated research will suggest methods of expanding the WBS
referencing practice, which will lead to reducing risk and improving efficiency during project
planning and execution.
1.2. Background of the study
The purpose of the work breakdown structure is “to meet project objectives and satisfy
customers” and in order to do so “the project teams need a road map to allow them to”
administrate the project “good, fast and cheap. By breaking down the project requirements
into specific tasks and assigning them to a resource(s) to fulfil them, the WBS paves the way”
to project success (Warner, 1997: p.74-89).
The function of the WBS once sufficiently complete is to enable control and can serve as a
project management tool (Stoehr, 2001) or to enable the project objectives to be decomposed
into smaller more manageable sections (PMBOK, 2008). “One measure of effective program
planning and successful execution is the thoroughness of the steps involved in identifying,
categorizing and allocating contractually stated and derived requirements” and thus meeting
the clients objectives (Springer, 2001: p.67-86)
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It is standard practice for project managers to number or code the activities listed in the Work
Breakdown Structure (WBS) they develop, however this is not always the rule. When
numbering or coding is applied there is no single requirement, however it is popular to use
the 1.1.1.1.1. outline numbering system which is amongst others supported by software such
as Microsoft Project™ and Primavera™. In addition to this, coding may be designed that is
more specific to project needs and is easier to visualize, remember and use as a reference
when dealing with the management of the specific activity to which it has been assigned.
When WBS coding is applied to reference the management of activities throughout the
project life-cycle, by pairing the assigned code with the activity, it becomes considerably
more effective to accurately identify, or perform a search for this activity in any document.
This is particularly true in more complex projects where parties from many professions are
engaged, with this leading to better control of the triple constraints and ultimately better
potential for project success.
In the author’s experience activities are not accurately referenced or cross-referenced during
either project planning or execution. This regularly leads to confusion when similar activities
are described and regulated in project documentation. Particularly in multi-disciplinary
projects these identification errors can lead to poor control, incorrect instructions and in the
worst cases, substantial cost resulting from defects, re-work and loss of time.
1.3. Brief outline of key ideas and methods
In support of the scope above, existing material from academic and other publications will be
researched to review the purpose, application and potential of developing a WBS coding
system. This academic research will be followed by the creation of a case study investigating
the application of a coded reference linked to the WBS activities, and how these code-linked
activities may be applied to project documentation, throughout the project life-cycle.
To refine a research questionnaire which is linked to the case study, it will be applied to a
small pilot group. The revised survey and case study will then be used to gather information
for a study.
Results may generate and support conclusions of how it would be best to apply WBS activity
coding to improve project success. The study is intended to offer a contribution to the
existing body of project management knowledge by offering a practical method for code
referencing activities, thereby adding value throughout the project life-cycle.
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1.4. Overview
This paper is divided into five chapters with references and appendices. The first chapter
deals with the introduction of the subject to be addressed by the dissertation research. It
provides pertinent background information including the aims of the dissertation, specific
research questions, definition of important terms, scope and limitation and a brief background
of the case study.
Chapter two is an extensive review of the literature relevant to the dissertation subject. It
focuses majorly on the elements that are affected by the work breakdown structure and
potential causes of failure. It further investigates some of the numbering systems in use.
Chapter three includes the research design and method. It includes a detailed rational and
description of what was done in data generation techniques. Implementation of the self-
administered questionnaires is discussed here. Trustworthiness of the method such as
validity, reliability and ethics issues was discussed.
Chapter four contains the results and discussion of research findings. It explains how the
findings help to answer the research questions, while the last chapter gives the conclusion of
the whole study and recommendations for further research.
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CHAPTER 2: WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE AND
DEPENDENCIES
1.5. Overview of the work breakdown structure
According to Rad (1999) the work breakdown structure (WBS) is the foundation of project
planning, scheduling, estimating, monitoring and is a project element common reference. It is
likened to a road map for the management of all aspects of a project. Iranmanesh and Madadi
(2008) refer to the “WBS being the heart of a project and omission of a simple task leading to
an irrevocable result”, while Buchtik (2010) says the “WBS exactly defines the what that we
are to deliver versus the aspects of how and when”. This leaves little doubt regarding the
importance of the WBS being the basis for project planning, structure and control. The WBS
is thus one of the most fundamental aspects of any project. Once client needs have been
determined, it is the tool that gives structure to the scope of the project.
“The WBS is a deliverable-orientated hierarchical decomposition of the work to be executed

by the project team to accomplish the project objectives” and “defines the total scope of the
project” (PMBOK, 2008: p. 116). The high level work breakdown structure is further
decomposed to give definition to activities, sub-activities and elements by applying the
amount of detail required for planning and control of the triple constraints i.e. scope, schedule
and cost during the project life-cycle. This fills in more detail and forms the foundation to
create the schedule and activity list. The WBS is thus what must be done and the activity list
is how it will be done (Burek, 2011). This forms the core of the project that focus on the
deliverables as defined in the scope, and implies that any scope changes will affect the WBS,
which in turn will affect the activity list and schedule (Iranmanesh and Madadi, 2008: p.
338). The WBS is utilized at the beginning of the project to define scope, identify cost centres
and is the starting point to developing project plans and Gantt charts (Tenrox, 2012).
1.6. Current accepted WBS structuring
According to the Project Management Institute (PMI) the WBS encompasses four concepts,
namely:
 To define the project scope in terms of deliverables
18
 To provide the project management team with a guide on which to base project status
and progress reports
 A key input into other project management processes
 To facilitate communication between the project manager and the stakeholders to
which the WBS is the framework for communication (PMI, 2006: p.1)
Alphanumerica
Numerical numbering l numbering
WBS WBS
Level Code Element Name Level Code Element Name
Bicycle
1 1 Bicycle WBS 1 1 WBS
2 1.1 Frame set 1.A 1.A Frame set
3 1.1.1 Frame set 1.A 1.A.1 Frame set
3 1.1.2 Handlebar 1.A 1.A.2 Handlebar
3 1.1.3 Fork 1.A 1.A.3 Fork
3 1.1.4 Seat 1.A 1.A.4 Seat
2 1.2 Crank set 1.B 1.B Crank set
3 1.3 Wheels 1.C 1.C Wheels
3 1.3.1 Front wheel 1.C 1.C.1 Front wheel
3 1.3.2 Rear Wheel 1.C 1.C.2 Rear Wheel
2 1.4 Braking system 1.D 1.D Braking system
2 1.5 Shifting System 1.E 1.E Shifting System
2 1.6 Integration 1.F 1.F Integration
3 1.6.1 Concept 1.F 1.F.1 Concept
3 1.6.2 Design 1.F 1.F.2 Design
3 1.6.3 Assembly 1.F 1.F.3 Assembly
4 1.6.4.1 Testing 1.F 1.F.4 Testing
4 1.6.4.2 Component test 1.F 1.F.4.1 Component test
Product
4 1.6.4.3 Product test 1.F 1.F.4.2 test
Customer Customer
4 1.6.4.4 test 1.F 1.F.4.3 test
2 1.7 Project Management 1.G 1.G Project Management
Figure 1: Arabic numbering and Alpha numerical numbering (Haugan, 2002: p. 52; 62)
As “project managers spend the majority of their time communicating” (PMBOK, 2008: p.
243), the ease of the WBS structure to facilitate communication is thus paramount. Much
have been written about how to compile a WBS e.g. that the WBS must comply with the
100% rule, all elements are described in terms of nouns and that no activity may overlap
(Haugan, 2002: p. 17 & 38). However, although Haugan appears to favour a numbering
system consisting of Arabic numbers separated by periods, he does refer to a different
19
alphanumerical system consisting of a combination of Roman numerical, letters and Arabic
numbers (2002). Haugan believes that the latter system does not lend itself to expansion to
the degree that a purely numerical code does, however as organisations can define the coding
of the WBS, various systems are permissible to enable coordination across projects and cost
control levels (Haugan, 2002: p. 62).
Figures 1 contains the examples of a WBS for the construction of a bicycle using two
different numbering systems as proposed by Haugan (2002).
Different industries demand different numbering systems and places different demands on the
system, e.g. in a study performed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, for the
United States Department of Energy the recommendations for projects were that the system
must provide the ability to search and cross reference (Mantrom, D., Collins, K. & Hermes,
G., 1998: p. 16; 17). A further recommendation was the ability to group by functional
department as illustrated in figure 2.
Figure 2: Grouping by functional departments (Mantrom, D., Collins, K. & Hermes, G., 1998: p. 3)
AACE International may favour the WBS numbering based on the cost coding (Dysert,
2004). Figure 3 is an example of this method and a work package may thus be numbered as
0101B10013, which may be very confusing to the user.
Area Unit Function Discipline Detail Resource

01-Onsites 01 - Crude unit A-Project Administration 1-Earthwork 001-Formwork 1-labour
02- Hydrocracker B-Engineering /Design 2-Concrete 002-Rebar 2-Material
03-Vacuum unit C-Construction 3-Structural Steel 003-Pour 3-Subcontract
4-Piping 004-Embeds
5-Equipment 005-Finish
02-Offsites 01-Utilities
02-Storage
03-Pipeway
Figure 3: WBS to cost codes (Dysert, 2004)
1.7. Elements affected by the WBS

20
Various elements are affected and influenced by the WBS and the table below as illustrated
in figure 4 includes some of these elements.
Element Description
1. WBS Dictionary Detailed description and specifications of what needs to
be done
2. Work Packages What must be done to reach the scope objectives
3. Work breakdown instructions Work Instructions & work packages specifications and
quality checks.
4. Cost Estimates Before tendering and during the project to maintain

financial control
5. Contracts Legally binding documents
6. Contract pricing Legal financial costing
7. Account codes As per company or other accepted method
8. Budgets What the contractor's costs are before profit
9. OBS Matrix Delineated depiction of the project organization for the
purposes of creating an arrangement to establish a
relationship between and among the various project
related work packages and the project’s pre-defined
performing organizational units (Project Management
Knowledge, 2010).
10. RBS Matrix Resources required and level of skills required
11. Applications Diagrams and sketches Designs which may include, electrical, civil, air
conditioners, infrastructure, etc
12. Communication Matrix Who communicates with whom, about what, and at what
time.
13. Project Schedule Activity execution & sequence
14. Risk Analysis breakdown structure The RBS is a "mind map" of the risks and their possible
causes.
15. SHEQ management Health, Safety, Environmental and Quality is affected by

how the WBS is composed or changed.
16. Assessments Payments and relevant milestones. Invoicing and Interim

payments
17. Project administration and record keeping Filing according to the WBS & PMPOK process groups
18. Certifications Certification of documents – structure and numbering
system with Reference number and date and reference to
the WBS coding structure to achieve cross referencing.
19. Stakeholders Register Cross-linking stakeholders to WBS and work packages
Performed shortly before execution of activity to include
20. Micro-planning all detail required by resources to complete the work.
Figure 4: Elements affected by the WBS
Changes to the scope affects the WBS, which in turn impacts on the WBS dictionary, activity
list, work packages, schedule, budget, control accounts, resources, procurements, earned
21
value data, etc. These changes that may have far reaching effects on the project, and the
process should therefore be controlled via the integrated change management control system
(Anon, 2011; PMBOK, 2008; Project Management Knowledge, 2010).
1.8. WBS dictionary
The WBS dictionary includes a brief scope or statement of work (SOW) for each work
package, it is the source to identify which organisation or team is responsible for the specific
work package, what the technical specifications and quality standards are that must be
adhered to, and what the milestone are (PMBOK, 3 rd Ed; Project Management Knowledge,
2010). The WBS dictionary is a brief summary of the how and what and is a supporting
document to the WBS supplying additional information (Sanghera, 2010).
Figures one illustrates different ways of composing and decomposing the WBS, and by
implication the WBS dictionary, but both systems illustrates the inefficiency of the current
acceptable numbering system comprising of the number one for level 1 of the WBS, 1.1 for
level 2 of the WBS and 1.1.1 for level 3, etc. per each deliverable (PMBOK, 2008: p. 119).
PMBOK suggests rolling wave planning for the decomposition of the WBS, but as the
planning progresses and more information become available the constraints of this method on
the current numbering system become more apparent (2008). Most project management
software programmes will use this numbering system in a consecutive manner and changes
on e.g. level 2 of the WBS will change the numbering on level 3 through to the lowest level
used. This “automatic” change may not allow for an accurate referencing system.
WBS Description Budget Contract OBS Control SOW

Code line number Account
Manager
Figure 5: WBS Dictionary Exemplar (Anon, 2011)
NASA makes use of a predetermined numbering system, but this system appears to allow for
some form of duplication, especially if change is introduced (NASA, n.d.: p. 3-6)
WBS #: 1.1.1 Task: Create Plan
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Est. Level of Effort: 40 hrs Owner: Project Manager
Resources Needed: Subject Matter Experts Work MS Project Plan

Products:
Description of Task: Development of a detailed project plan that lists all key resources, tasks,
milestones, dependencies, and durations.
Input: Approved Project Charter
SMEs
Dependencies: Approval of Budget
Risk: Changes to IT Apps plans and deliverables
IT Apps implementation releases, which conflict with implementation
WBS #: 1.1.2 Work Item: Make Budget
Est. Level of Effort: 16 hrs Owner: Project Manager
Resources Needed: CFO, CIO, Executive Work ITPR

Sponsor Products:
Description of Task: Development and documentation of the project budget based on plan and
resources.
Input: Approved Project Charter
SMEs
Dependencies: Approval of Project Charter
Risk: Changes to IT Apps plans and deliverables
IT Apps implementation releases which conflict with implementation
Figure 6: WBS dictionary Exemplar (Anon, 2012)
1.9. Work packages

23
Work packages are sub-projects within the larger project and must not be confused with mini-
projects that are standalone projects. A work package can be defined as a “unit of work or job
that is clearly distinguishable from other such work packages, has scheduled start and
completion date with interim milestones as applicable, has a relatively short time span
subdivided to facilitate measurement of work performed, has an assigned budget, and is
integrated with the schedules of related work packages” (Web Finance, Inc., 2012).
Work Packages are thus the deliverables, e.g. database tables, roof, foundations, etc. within a
project and can be seen as a subset of the project that can be assigned to a specific contractor
or team to execute.
1.10. Work breakdown instructions
Work breakdown instructions may be given for specific work packages and can include full
descriptions, work assembly methods, quality control issues and tests; photos, designs, etc.
In companies where there is a great repetition of the same work package on different
projects, it is possible to reuse the information and compile checklist that require the
contractor to tick the boxes. As this simplifies processes and saves time and reduces quality
issues due to the learning curve phenomenon, this type of duplication is most desirable,
saves time, and enables more accurate cost estimating as time and motion studies can be
conducted to upload into the company database for future reference.
1.11. Cost estimates
AACE International defines a cost estimate as “the prediction of probable costs of a project
(or work package) of a given and documented scope, to be completed at a defined location
and a point of time in the future” (Dysert, 2004).
These cost estimates are reflected in the WBS dictionary, which in turn is directly linked to
the WBS. Depending on the level of estimate the estimate may be based on the bill of
materials (BOM) or bill of quantities (BOQ).
1.12. Contracts
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“Contracts are legally binding documents where one party agrees to complete certain work
for a predetermined remuneration and forms part of the conduct procurement process”
(PMBOK, 2008). The contract includes the scope of the project, quality and/or technical
specifications, which forms part of the WBS dictionary. As a legal document, regardless of
whether the contract is lump sum, target price, unit price or cost plus incentive, this document
forms the backbone of the project. Any change orders will automatically impact on the
contract.
1.13. Contract pricing
Contract pricing may be conducted in two phases, i.e. a high level costing prior to tender to
determine the budget for the project and feasibility of the investment, and the “actual”
contract pricing done by the contractor during the bidding process. This pricing may or may
not include an allocation for risk, as this will depend on whether the contract make provision
for risk sharing and risk allocation. The winning bidder is then contractually bound by his
costing to perform the work stated within the contract, as a contract is “an agreement with
specific terms between two or more persons or entities in which there is a promise to do
something in return for a valuable benefit known as consideration” (Farlex, Inc., 2012). This
pricing via the route of work packages, are reflected in the WBS dictionary for easy
referencing.
1.14. Account codes
Account codes are codes that are used to control the budget to the various cost centres and
work packages. One must distinguish between financial control, which is “the process in
which general accounting practices are followed to document all receipts and expenditure and
includes taxation, capitalisation and regulations, while cost control relies on the 80/20
principle of Pareto’s law stating that 80% of the project outcome is determined by 20% of the
cost elements” (Dysert, 2004). The mechanism of the account codes are often predetermined
by the client and thus included in the WBS dictionary. Figure 7 illustrated examples of
account codes.
112160 Advance Pre-Payment is made in Advance for Goods or Services via a Pro-
Payments Forma Invoice prior to receiving goods or services
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001230 Advertising - Advertising in connection with staff and faculty recruitment. For
Recruitment example, placing a classified advertisement in a newspaper or
purchasing on-line advertising at a job seeker's website
001220 Advertising Non-promotional advertising which is federally chargeable

(Federal according to the terms of the award. Includes media costs of
Contract advertising for (1) personnel recruitment, (2) procurement of
& Grant Only) goods or services, (3) disposal of scrap or surplus materials, or
(4) purposes necessary to meet the terms of a sponsored
agreement
Figure 7: Examples of account codes (UC Santa Cruz, n.d.)
1.15. Budgets
“A budget is the planned cost for resources, divided into unit cost and quantities required”,
e.g. planned cost for labour is the work hours required, multiplied by the wage rate that
includes benefits and taxes (Dysert, 2004). As this may form the basis of cost control as
determined in the contract and this becomes the PM’s main tool in controlling costs during
the run of the project and is described in the WBS dictionary per work package.
1.16. Organisational breakdown structure (OBS) matrix
The “OBS is a hierarchical model describing the established organizational framework

for project planning, resource management, time and expense tracking, cost allocation,
revenue/profit reporting, and work management” (Tenrox, 2012). PMBOK (2008) defines the
OBS as a “hierarchically organised depiction of the project organisation arranged so as to
relate the work packages to the performing organisational units”.
The OBS is an organisational as opposed to a task based depiction of the project as a whole to
show who the responsible persons for each work package are and to whom each package is
assigned. The OBS and the WBS are thus closely connected and enables measurement of the
project and workforce performance at a high level (Tenrox, 2012).
1.17. Resource breakdown structure matrix
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The resource breakdown structure is a “hierarchical structure of resources divided by
resource category and type, which assist in the process of resource levelling when populating
schedules” (PMBOK, 2008). The resource breakdown structure is closely linked to the WBS,
as the WBS describes the desired outcome of the work to be done and the resource
breakdown structure gives the information of who is available to reach that outcome. The
resource breakdown structure is coupled with the resource calendar as to depict what skills
are available when, and will affect the scheduling process. Changes in the scope will affect
the WBS, which in turn will impact on the resource breakdown structure that may have a
severe impact on the schedule depending on the resource availability.
1.18. Applications diagrams and sketches
All designs and sketches pertaining to any element of the project are included in this
application. The problem arises during updates, modifications or scope changes when the
current issue as referred to in the WBS dictionary may not be updated and included in the
latest version and communication. This may be seen as a management and communication
problem, but unless integrated change control is practiced this scenario is very likely and
often does happen in practice.
Designers often reuse drawings to save time and to learn from past lessons leant, but the
process of searching is usually slow and problematic (Fonseca, 2003). “Unfortunately, the
widespread use of CAD systems, while making it easier to create and edit drawings,
exacerbates this problem, insofar as the number of projects and drawings grows enormously,
without providing adequate retrieval mechanisms to support retrieving these documents”
(Fonseca, 2003).
1.19. Communication matrix
The communication matrix is part of the communication management plan that identifies the
stakeholders, plans the communication, and determines how information will be distributed
in order to meet the needs and expectations of the various stakeholders. This structure makes
provision for the reporting structure, progress measurements and forecasts (PMBOK, 2008).
The link between the WBS and the communication matrix is the WBS dictionary that defines
per work package who needs to know what at a given time.
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1.20. Project schedule
AACE International defines the project schedule as “the plan for completion of a project
based on a logical arrangement of activities, resources, imposed dates and funding budgets”
(2004: p. A.11). The project schedule forms part of the project time management process
group and “Includes the processes required to manage timely completion of the project”
(PMBOK, 2008). The processes required to achieve this includes:
 Define activities
 Sequence activities
 Estimate activity resources
 Estimate activity duration
 Develop schedule
 Control schedule
(PMBOK, 2008)
The schedule is linked to the WBS via the WBS dictionary in terms of milestones and
completion dates and although the WBS is not a schedule, the schedule is based on the WBS
to include 100% of the work that must be done in order to meet the project objectives.
1.21. Risk breakdown structure (RBS)
The RBS can be defined as “a source-oriented grouping of project risks that organises and
defines the total risk exposure of the project, where each descending level represents an
increasingly detailed definition of sources of risk to the project” (Rafele, Hillson and
Grimaldi, 2005).
The purpose of linking the WBS to the actual perceived risk, as illustrated in figure 8, is to
analyse and make the information visually available for instant assessment. This process does
not necessarily replace the risk register as that serves a different purpose in as far as that any
new risks can be added at any given time. The RBS on the other hand highlights the risk at a
given point within the project. Hillson draws the direct connection between the RBS and the
ability of the PM to effectively manage the project risks (2003b). “Hierarchical frameworks
have been developed to provide structure in these two areas: the Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS) for project tasks and activities, and the Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS) for sources
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of risk. Both WBS and RBS are powerful tools for understanding and managing the scope
and risk of the project respectively” (Rafele, Hillson and Grimaldi, 2005).
Figure 8: RBS linked to WBS (Hillson, 2003a: P.137)
1.22. Safety, health, environment, and quality (SHEQ) management
Most projects are subject to SHEQ, and these elements and the risk associated with these
elements are best dealt with while the WBS is being compiled. In the European Union (EU)
there are stringent regulations that govern these aspects, while the quality management can be
derived from the contract and the scope of work, e.g. United Kingdom acts and regulations
which inter alia include The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, the Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (COSHH), Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and
Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 (Riddor), etc.
These elements are further detailed in the WBS dictionary, as well as a separate risk
assessment in terms of Safety Health and Environment (SHE) and may be contained in the
company policy document that will comply with the various Acts and Regulations for both
the EU and the United Kingdom (UK). Most construction projects are also subject to the
Construction (Design and Management) Regulations of 2007 (CDM) “which places legal
duties on virtually all people involved in the project” (HSE, 2012).
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1.23. Assessments
Assessing is the process of comparing the scope of work as per the scope document and as
contained within the WBS to actual work performed. The basis of this assessment can be
earned value (EV).
1.24. Project administration and record keeping
“A party to a dispute, particularly if there is arbitration, will learn three lessons [often too
late]: the importance of records, the importance of records and the importance of records”
(Abrahamson, 1979).
Records are an essential requirement of most national and European funding programmes,
project records are the basis of capturing lessons learnt, forms the basis of the argument when
there is a dispute, and provides information. “Most delay and disruption disputes are based on
their primary records, which are the day to day records of what actually happened on site”
(Hunt, S., 2009). In Ascon v McAlpine the case was won on the strength of Ascon’s records
that enabled the team to compile a timeline of events (Ascon-v-McAlpine, 1999; Ndekugri,
2007). Disputes often end in litigation or arbitration and it is best to learn from the failure of
others as what not to do while take the advice of the legal teams that have to do the litigation.
Hunt (2009) suggests that the following records are required:
Labour and plant allocation sheets
Showing the labour and plant allocated to specific tasks on a daily basis (including
labour allocated to additional or disrupted works).
Daily Diary/Reports
To include details of site progress, unusual site conditions, delay events, additional
resources etc.
Requests for Information
These should be made using a pre-agreed format and not merely by way of
correspondence.
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Confirmation of Verbal Instructions Whenever an instruction is issued by the employer (or
his agent) verbally, it should be confirmed by the Contractor in writing and a
separate file for CVI maintained.
Drawing Register
An up-to-date register for all drawings (and subsequent revisions) is essential.
Minutes of Meeting
Minutes should be kept for all meetings internal/external and should in particular
note progress of the works, any obstacles to progress and agreed action plans.
Approvals and Inspections
Including for materials, work methods, and designs and the inspection of works and
materials.
Photographs
In almost all delay and disruption cases I have been involved in, photographs have
provided an invaluable record of progress. Photographs should be dated and
labelled. It is also useful to have photographs taken from the same places(s) during
the course of the works to allow for comparison.
(Hunt, S., 2009)
Information must be readily available, so that it can be shared between the stakeholders and
project team / contractors when required. Sharing is especially important when the contract
dictates it e.g. New Engineering Contract (NEC) 3 which states in clause 10.1 that there will
be “mutual trust and cooperation” between the parties (NEC3, 2005: p. 3).
In the event where teams are separated and spread over wide geographical areas, records and
communication is paramount. The records will need regular updating and requires an audit
trail to enable the PM to account for inter alia expenditure and time.
The filing system must therefore be logical and easy to use especially by new team members
e.g. when the air conditioner contractors join the project at a later stage and need access and
information to their specific work package and elements that may affect their work package.
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1.25. Certifications
During the course of contract administration the PM is required to issue certain interim
certificates as well as closure certificates. The purpose of these certifications are to verify that
the work was done at an acceptable level in terms of quality, and conforms to the design
specifications, which in turn will merit payment to the contractor, or alternatively that there
were defects that have to be corrected. The NEC3 requires that payment certificates must be
issued that clarifying the basis of the calculations of the payment. Other certificates include,
but are not limited to the completion, defects, early warning, and compensation certificates
(Gould, 2008).
The proactive nature of the NEC3 places an absolute requirement on the PM especially in a
target cost option contract to issue early warnings pro-actively as this affects the financial
bottom line of the parties, in particular the contractor (Gould, 2008; NEC3, 2005).
For these certificates to be issued and to prove that they have been issued in a timely manner,
a structure and numbering system is required that can be linked back to the various WBS
packages to verify that each stage was successfully completed.
1.26. Stakeholder register
The ability to link and cross reference the stakeholder register to the WBS and work packages
gives the PM the ability to instantly assess who can affect the outcome of a particular area
within the scope of a project. This ability assists in building the communication and project
management plans.
“A Stakeholder Register is a project management document, which contains the information

regarding all stakeholders. It identifies and lists the people, groups and the organizations
impacted by the project. In this register you can find every detail about the stakeholders
including their names, titles, role, interests, power, requirements, expectations and influence
to affect any project objective and many more things…” (Usmani, 2012).
1.27. Micro planning
Micro planning is performed a few days in advance of the execution of an activity usually
when the parties who are to participate in a complex activity have a meeting to discuss and
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record the detail of how various entities will integrate during the execution of the activity.
Detail is added by further decomposition of activities listed in the WBS and the schedule
could be magnified to indicate hourly or even precise milestone times. Project documentation
related to the activity is reviewed and all risks are re-assessed.
1.28. The interaction between the elements and the WBS
Figure 9 is a simple illustration of the complexity and interaction of the various elements. As
can be seen if one element changes it does have a domino effect on the other existing
elements.
Figure 9: Interaction between the elements that may affect the WBS numbering
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1.29. The allocation of the elements within the PMBOK processes
Figure 10: PMBOK Process Groups (PMBOK, 2008: P. 43)
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Figure 11: Elements as per PMBOK Process Groups (PMBOK, 2008)
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1.30. Scope Changes
Any customer-directed alteration that requires a modification in a project's cost or schedule

can be termed as a scope change. The common types of scope changes are “engineering,
quantity, support, and schedule change” (Web Finance, Inc, 2012).
Scope change differs from scope creep in so far as that scope creep relates to uncontrolled
change or expansion to the scope baseline and is often referred to as gold plating, which must
be guarded against as these changes may not be what the client needs or wants and most
importantly are not part of the scope of work. Client directed scope changes are permissible
once the proposed change had gone through the process of change control as specified in
PMBOK (2008).
1.31. Why do projects experience scope changes
Most projects experience some form of scope change, as during the planning phase of the
project all the factors and elements are not know or available from the onset. An example of
this can be changes in the legislation and that the scope must be altered to accommodate such
legislative changes. This is particularly true for projects that span over many years. Another
valid reason may be that the needs of the client have changed which in turn requires changes
in the design of engineering aspects of the work to fulfil the new requirements. However,
scope creep only happens when the PM does not verify and control the scope accurately or
when the PM lacks the skills to communicate the scope to the team to allow all the team
members to know what is expected from them.
Risk ownership and health and safety can affect the scope and result in change. An example
would be where the risk to the contractor is simply too great to do a certain work package,
and the client will remove that package from the existing scope as redesign may be required
to make the work safer or a specialist contractor will be better suited to perform the work
within that particular work package.
It may also be said that “time constraints and a lack of planning resulting in an unrealistic
scope statement and budget combined with an inaccurate/unrealistic schedule can leads to the
biggest scope changes” (Kerzner, 2009).
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1.32. Scope change and project failure
The general accepted norm of measuring a successful project is based on the triple constraint,
i.e. on time, budget and delivering the scope specifications. However, in a survey conducted
by PMI the participants identified the following factors in addition to the triple constraint that
contributed to project success, i.e. stakeholder and customer satisfaction; meeting business
case objectives; customer/end-user adoption; quality of delivery; meeting governance
criteria; and benefits realization (Duggal, 2010).
A client instigated change during a project will be added to the scope and the WBS will be
updated accordingly as the “what is needed” may change and may not affect the successful
outcome of the project. If the scope changes go through the formal process of Perform
Integrated Change Control then there is no reason per se why scope change should affect the
outcome of the project in a negative manner (PMBOK, 2008: p. 97-99).
Scope creep on the other hand is not contained in the scope statement or WBS and this will
place greater demand on the available resources that may lead to a project that runs over
budget or schedule. An example of scope creep may be to supply a door on a building project
that is above the quality required or specified; or installing additional features in a software
programme that the client did not ask for or needs. Scope creep may be one of the biggest
single causes of project failure, which can be caused by “problems in project operations that
are often related to ignorance, obsolete data and actions based on false intentions” (Hameria,
2002).
1.33. Scope change and the WBS numbering system
As the WBS is a high level project map that documents and reflects the scope, scope changes
will impact on the WBS. If the example in figure 12 is considered and the swimming pool
scope, changes from a 3m x 3m pool to a 3m x 6m pool it will not affect the numbering, but
this change will affect the cost. However, if a new element is introduced, e.g. changing rooms
at the pool, the lower level numbering will be affected as an additional element 1.5 will be
introduced.
Should this scope change and numbering be transferred to the schedule a new element will be
introduced with the same numbering as the WBS.
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Figure 12: WBS developed from Project Charter (Burek, 2011)
1.34. Numbering systems
The choice between numerical and alphanumeric may be a personal one, however research
may prove that the latter is easier to recognise. “The purpose for the numbering is to provide
a consistent approach to identifying and managing the WBS across like systems regardless of
vendor or service. The numbering system is numeric; however, several unique issues arise
across appendices which require the numbering system to be modified to accommodate the
anomalies” (Department of Defence USA, 2011: p.25 - 26).
The ability to recognise and memorise maybe enhanced by the addition of letters as shown in
a study conducted by Hamilton et al, as “..... the participants were more accurate for letter
probe trials when the array was a letter among digits than when it was all letters” and the
study goes further to say that this phenomenon can be ascribed to ”a dissociation in the
mechanisms underlying the processing of the two stimulus categories” (Hamilton, Mirkin and
Polk, 2006).
1.35. Permanent account number
Permanent account number (PAN) is a 10 digit alpha numeric numbering system in use in
India that consists of 5 letter characters followed by 4 numbers and then completed with a
letter that functions as a check digit. The fourth character represents a specific meaning, as
38
depicted in figure 17, while the fifth character represents first character of the PAN holder’s
last name/surname.
C — Company
P — Person
H — HUF(Hindu Undivided Family)
F — Firm
A — Association of Persons (AOP)
T — AOP (Trust)
B — Body of Individuals (BOI)
L — Local Authority
J — Artificial Juridical Person
G — Government
Figure 13: Pan Card fourth digit representation (Anon, 2012) (Anon, 2012a)
This system could be converted to suit the needs of a project and is infinitely expandable.
1.36. Dewey
The Dewey numbering system was formulated by Melvil Dewey (1851–1931) an American
librarian and is an internationally applied decimal system of library classification which uses
a three-figure code from 000 to 999 to represent the major branches of knowledge, while
allowing finer classification to be made by the addition of further figures after a decimal
point (Oxford Dictionaries, 2012).
Class 000 – Computer science, information & general works
Class 100 – Philosophy & psychology
Class 200 – Religion
Class 300 – Social sciences
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Class 400 – Language
Class 500 – Science
Class 600 – Technology
Class 700 – Arts & recreation
Class 800 – Literature
Class 900 – History & geography
Figure 14: Dewey Classification Code Index (OCLC, 2003)
“Since the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) system was created more than 135 years
ago, it is likely to assume that the Dewey name is in the public domain. However, it never has
been, and since 1988, OCLC Online Computer Library Centre has held the trademark on the
Dewey name” (OCLC, 2012). The Dewey classification code is a registered trademark of the
Online Computer Library Centre, Inc. (OCLC), and although, as is indicated in the pilot
study, that it is in use for project management, this cannot be done without a valid licence.
1.37. Dental numbering system
The dental numbering system is reliant on three different systems, where an alphanumeric
system is used for the ‘Primary Universal Numbering System’ and the ‘Primary Palmer
Notation Numbering System’, while the ‘Primary Federation Dentaire Internationale
Numbering System’ is reliant on a numeric system (Justi Educational Department, 2012).
1.38. Bank accounts
Banks make primary use of a numbering system consisting of numerical, as can be seen from
most sort codes and account numbers. However, when the bank account number is converted
to an international number, an alphanumeric system is in place, e.g. an account with a sort
code of 40-04-01 and an account number of 00895588, will for example convert to
GB68MIDL40040000895588 for a British HSBC account. Thus to prevent confusion on an
international scale an alphanumeric system is used.
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1.39. Number plates
Most countries have an alpha numeric system in place, with the U.K. being no exception.
However these are not just random numbers as certain numbers denote certain years.
Year March September
2002 02 52
2003 03 53
2004 04 54
2005 05 55
2006 06 56
2007 07 57
2008 08 58
2009 09 59
2010 10 60
2011 11 61
2012 12 62
Figure 15: U.K. Car number plate codes (Registration Transfers, 2012)
Thus a car with the registration number of BK52-VVD implies that the car was registered in
September 2002, while the alphabetical letters are randomly chosen.
1.40. Barcodes
A Barcode is a series of vertical bars of variable width that are scanned by a laser; printed on
consumer product packages to identify the item to a computer that provides the price and
registers inventory information (Free Dictionary, 2012). Barcodes consist of thirteen
numerical digits that include a check digit.
1.41. Market identifier codes
Various stock exchanges make use of an alphabetical numbering system and this is controlled
by ISO 10383, e.g. the code LU denotes the CC number and the code XLUX denotes the
MIC number which is the Luxembourg stock exchange (ISO 10383, 2012).
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1.42. Postal codes
The Unites States of America makes use of numeric codes, while the United Kingdom uses
an alphanumeric system. Figure twenty illustrates the world preference to numeric
numbering.
Figure 16: World postal codes (Stadscykel, 2011)
1.43. Complications
It is clear that both numeric and alphanumeric systems enjoy wide usage, and it may be
postulated that the particular system in use depends on personal preferences. However, the
work of Hamilton et al (2006) indicates that the human brain does have a preference for
alphanumeric numbering, while however the combination of numbers and letter may allow
for some confusion.
During the use of alphanumeric numbering or coding a certain amount of confusion can exist
as the numbers 1 and 0 can be confused with the letters I, O and Q. For this reason these
letters are often omitted when using this system. The tiny embossed letters that is used to
label pins on an electrical connector drops the letters I, O, Q, S and Z to ease eye strain and to
prevent confusion with the numbers 1, 0, 5, and 2. This subset is named the DEC Alphabet
after the company that first used it (Answers, n.d.).
In the case where alphanumeric are frequently handwritten, in addition to I, Q and O, V and
Z should be avoided as it may be confused with U and the number 2.
Thus by omitting these letters the risk of confusion is reduced, thereby enabling the system to
be used successfully. Any coding system should have a very clear and well documented
legend that will allow the team to understand and comprehend it.
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1.44. Software programmes
In a small poll conducted on LinkedIn, as can be seen in Figure 17, indicates that Microsoft
Project™ (MS Project) is the most popular program in use with 42 out of the 52 respondents
preferring it. Microsoft Project™ is suitable to capture a WBS code and expand to a schedule
as can be seem in figures 18 and 19. If the assumption is made that this figure is
representative of the industry, then the various numbering systems possible within MS
Project™ may be considered.
Figure 17: Popular Software (Hill, 2012)
Figure 18: WBS using project code and numerical
Figure 18 and 19 contains the same information as captured in figure 12 but captured in MS
Project™ in preparation for the activity list and schedule, and this time coding is used to
differentiate the three different work packages. As can be seen in figure 18 the automatic
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numbering system captured the subprojects starting at the number 2 and it thus appears to
have four subprojects instead of three, which is misleading.
Figure 19: WBS using project code, numerical and codes
Code Description
HR House Remodelling
P Pool
K Kitchen
L Landscape
Figure 20: The key to the codes used in figures 18 and 19
1.45. Is there room for improvement?
“A key concern with traditional project control systems is their reliance on manual data
collection, which has been shown to be costly, ineffective and too infrequent to allow for
prompt control action” and “often involve human judgement, high costs, and is too infrequent
to provide managers with timely and accurate control data” (Ibrahim, 2009). Reliance on a
filing system that may be very sensible to one may be totally inaccessible to another.
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All the ‘tools’ contained in the process groups of PMBOK are there to assist the PM and to
ensure better control, but if these tools are not used to their full potential, then they can hardly
be termed as a ‘tool’ and then they may act more as a deterrent to success (PMBOK, 2008).
An example of this is an incomplete WBS that does not include 100% of the scope as the
project manager may then be oblivious to the fact that the scope, quality, cost or stakeholders
are not being managed correctly. Another consideration is when a new project manager takes
over an incomplete WBS that is assumed to be complete. The project is doomed from the
onset.
Effective use of the WBS in conjunction with the other process group within PMBOK,
especially by linking the groups to have an almost automated system, may save time,
frustration and money. This may lead to a better team spirit and co-operation and ensure the
successful outcome of the project.
Building Information Modelling (BIM) is the application of where the project is modelled in
3-D to test the workability and effectiveness of the application during the design phase
thereby ensuring better quality and preventing rework during the actual construction phase.
This is particularly helpful to allow stakeholders to change designs during the planning phase
of the project while changes are cheaper and can prevent scope changes at a later stage
thereby saving money. During the construction of a technically complex project the ability to
iron out problems in advance reduces the risk, saves time and resources and allows for better
communication. In this scenario there may have been many virtual scope changes, but it is up
to the PM to communicate the final version to the team and stakeholders. This is where
confusion can creep in which may lead to failure if there is not a solid method of referencing
in place.
The problem may be compounded where information sharing systems are used without the
correct referencing system in place. A contractor may think that he is working from the latest
design or information system, particularly if many changes happened in quick succession,
when in actual fact the design was superseded with another version.
This is precisely the scenario that the PM would like to avoid. If however, the changes were
linked to the WBS element with the use of a specific code, then the contractor would have
found all the design changes on the shared information system, with the relevant dates that
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the changes took place. Should the change request still be awaiting the approval of the
change control board, then that information would also be available on the system and the
contractor would be fully versed as to what is happening at a given stage of the project.
A high-quality project management system uses a methodical WBS as the vehicle for
directing and controlling the project. This technique involves the decomposition of the
project into its components or sections to achieve manageable work packages, and then
assign costs and schedules to those sections and monitors their progress. The ultimate goal is
to accomplish the final objectives of the project. Therefore, a work breakdown structure
should not only provide an information structure or atlas of the project, it should also form
the basis of the project management plan which includes risk, communication, cost and
schedule management. In order to achieve this goal it is essential that the various elements
can be cross-referenced to ensure control.
Although the concept of the WBS is widely discussed and documented, the literature remains
vague as to the benefit and the practical implications of combining and applying the WBS to
all project facets to not only achieve better control, but also save on resources, time and
money. The possibility does exist where the WBS could fail, and this is often due to
incomplete detail and thus not adhering to the 100% rule, or that the WBS was ‘cast in stone’
where the WBS is inflexible. Other reasons for failure may be that the WBS was compiled by
one single person without the input of the team, or that the WBS was compiled and placed on
file, but never referred to again.
In order for the WBS to function as a management tool the WBS must be complete to include
100% of the work or scope, but if say 115% is detailed then there is scope creep and the WBS
is doomed to fail. Cross-linking the WBS with the WBS Dictionary is essential to include all
the information required to manage the WBS, and ‘force’ scope changes to go through the
formal process of integrated change control. A further requirement of the WBS’s success is
‘buy-in’ from the project team, as team work is what ensures the ultimate success of a
project.
46
Chapter 3: RESEARCH
1.46. Scope of investigation
The scope of this investigation is limited to a pilot study to determine the general views of
project managers, from which the replies were used to formulate the questions for a non-
probability research questionnaire that was sent to those dealing with projects (Riley, 2008) .
As this is a limited study the purpose of this study is not to be conclusive.
The questionnaire is followed by a case study to determine the viability of the hypothesis.
1.47. Research design
“The research design is the detailed outline or the blueprint for the whole dissertation and
research” (White, 2000: p.25). The research design can be equated to the project scope of
what needs to be done and how it will be accomplished and in doing so determine which
method will be best suited to this particular project. Due to the nature of the research it was
decided to use a modified deductive approach, i.e. a modified quantitative method that
combines qualitative and quantitative of mixed method to measure or observe attitudes or
behaviours of participants in a study (Creswell, n.d.).
1.48. Objective of the research
There appears to be certain voids or silences in the written matter regarding the use of the
WBS coding as a blueprint for the entire project, which lead to certain questions. The main
objective of this investigation to determine whether
 The usage of WBS coding is widely used

 The WBS coding is carried through the entire project and all the relevant activities
 What will be the best method to implement these coding systems
 What will the benefits to the industry be if used correctly
The main perceived benefit to the industry is the ability to accommodate rapid change and
thereby save time, resources and money.
47
1.49. Pilot study
An initial pilot study was conducted to determine the viability of the research and to
determine which questions will best suit the purpose of this specific research. The pilot study
had a direct influence on the research questions, as the outcome of this study enticed
discussion of the subject matter and the elements of communication and risk management
were highlighted to be included in the final questionnaire.
A question was posted on the discussion board of the “Global Project Management on
LinkedIn, to determine the usage and general view of project managers on a global scale of
coding and cross linking the WBS to the various elements within the project. The discussion
question submitted was:
Figure 21: LinkedIn question
A comment made by a participant in the pilot study sums up the extent and importance of the
ability to cross reference: “To me the numbering system is important beyond the dictionary.
For example, in a risk register or issue register, I would set them up so they linked to a WBS
work package number. The numbering system would help show the correlation and how the
WBS sets the stage for planning the project. Similarly another example is in stakeholder
management - the work package is useful in identifying stakeholders and then in classifying
them into groups; therefore with the stakeholder register, it too should show the
accompanying WBS number. It also is helpful with a decision log and together these
examples, plus those of others in this discussion, show how it can serve as the basis for an
Integrated Project Management Information System”. However, it appears to be the
exception rather that the norm in practice as she goes on to say that “ it is used appropriately
48
by those such as everyone in this discussion who know how to do it and why it is so
important” indicating that only the initiated uses the system to its full potential.
There appears to be a preference for a numerical system, however it is accepted that an alpha-
numeric code can be used as well. One respondent preferred the Dewey code system.
However, it is not clear if this coding can be used without paying a licence fee as “On
September 10, the Ohio-based Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC) filed
a lawsuit against the Library Hotel in New York City, claiming trademark-related violations
by the hotel. OCLC v. The Library Hotel, No.__ (S.D. Ohio filed Sept. 10, 2003)” (Skalbeck,
2003). The case was eventually settled out of court for an undisclosed sum.
The pilot study not only indicates the importance of the ability to cross-reference but also the
need to have a documented code. This highlighted the importance of simple coding system
and the role that the WBS coding plays within communication management. It appears that
some may be confused between the numbering of the WBS, which is standard practice and
the use of a project specific coding that links all the elements within the project. This
confusion allowed the research questionnaire to be further modified to help to clarify the
discrepancies.
1.50. Participants and sampling
As non-probability sampling were done using existing project managers, located in Europe,
America, Africa and the United Kingdom a fair representation was achieved. All twenty five
participants are either project managers of are actively involved in projects.
1.51. Validity and reliability of the research
According to Creswell (n.d.) there are three different research methods, i.e. Qualitative,
Quantitative, and mixed methods approaches each with their various advantages and
disadvantages. “Three considerations play into this decision: the research problem the
personal experiences of the researcher, the audience for whom the report will be written”
(Creswell, n.d.). Qualitative research according to White is based on the collection of facts
and observable phenomena (2000: p.46). Quantitative research “provides a more objective
base to guide professional practice,” however, it is impossible to remove bias from
respondent’s opinions (White, 2000: p46).
49
The author recognises the possibility of bias and designed the questionnaire to minimise this
occurrence. Data was collected via self administered online questionnaires that were sent via
email, as well as meeting with a few respondents to ask them a series of selected questions to
elicit their response in a more structured manner.
“Survey questions may be closed-ended or open-ended. Questions with closed ended (fixed)
response categories are more easily quantified” (Office, Rev 5/95). For the purpose of this
research closed ended questions were used, however “such questions yield limited data, and
responses can be misleading because of the lack of elaboration” and to overcome this
obstacle the respondents were asked to include comments, which many did (Office, Rev
5/95).
In the choice of using a questionnaire the advantages and disadvantages were considered. The
greatest advantages are the versatility, elimination of bias of the interview technique and the
wide distribution of the questionnaire. The greatest disadvantages are the slow turnaround
time, slow responses and the generation of conclusions. The study did not differentiate
between male and female respondents.
1.52. Ethics and confidentiality
To allow the voluntary participants to be open and answer the questions freely, their
confidentiality and anonymity as assured. No identities or any identifiable means were used
that can allow specific relies to be traced back to the relevant participant. The author
included his contact details within the survey should any participant require clarification, and
stated that the survey was strictly for academic purposes.
1.53. Research questionnaire
The questions were determined by the limitation of the written matter researched, and further
investigation through the use of a pilot study raised additional questions. As the pilot study
acted as a preamble to the research questionnaire, there was a direct link between the pilot
study and the questionnaire to allow the final questionnaire to be further refined prior to
submitting the questionnaire for review.
1.54. Case Study
50
The case study is based on an actual project and will relate to the issues around the purchase
of four replacement transformers for a hydroelectric power station, as a turnkey project
covering inception to commissioning. The project scope is for the design, manufacture,
transport, installation and commissioning of 4 single phase 135MVA transformers to be
delivered and installed at a remote power station in Africa. This while the primary contracted
manufacturer is located in Europe and sub-contractors are based in a number of countries
world-wide. The case study will determine the feasibility of linking the WBS coding to the
various elements, as discussed in elements that affect the WBS depicted in figure 4. Based on
an example related case study the benefits of using coding to exercise control over activities
and thereby reducing risk during the project life-cycle is investigated. The purpose of the case
study is to investigate the practicality of using WBS coding throughout the project to
facilitate better control and monitoring of the project.
1.55. Introduction to case study
For the purpose of this case study a specific sub- sub activity is identified which falls within
the process group of monitoring and control. To accomplish this, the case study will expand
on the documentary detail of an extremely narrow specific activity related to commissioning
tests of the transformer High Voltage (HV) bushings and monitoring systems, performed
during the site acceptance testing (SAT) phase of each transformer once it has been installed.
The study will show the interactive complexity between the various stakeholders and
equipment in the execution of this task, which is absolutely critical to the life-cycle
performance of the transformer, and therefore directly aligned with the successful outcome of
the project.
This activity has been selected as an example of how the application of WBS coding can
reduce project risk while being aligned with, and in support of the dissertation hypothesis.
Paragraphs from simulated project documentation will be placed in boxes, as examples of

how the application of coding can be applied to many documents that describe and regulate
aspects related to the activity, and in so doing be of benefit. An attempt will be made to
indicate how coding can reduce risk related to the complexity of performing an activity where
most of the project stakeholders play an important role.
1.56. High Level Scope of Case study
51
This case study will consider a narrow aspect of an order for the design, manufacture and
installation of four transformers as set out in the client Technical Requirement Specification
and proposed scope contained in the invitation to tender documents of the client. As this
contract is a turnkey order, the contractor has the most risk, but also the most control over the
entire process (Hayes, 1985). This complex project has many process phases, as depicted
below. It starts with a Request for Quotation (RFQ) and a list of requirements for a bespoke
design and ends with the commissioning of four transformers approximately three years later.
Figure 22: Mind Map of Project
Once the offer has been made and the client has awarded the tender to the primary contractor,
a large number of options have to be unravelled and considered to produce a plan before
design or production can commence. At the core of this is the constant analysis of risk and
the effect this will have on profit.
The design team has particular constraints regarding transformer size, as the new
transformers must fit through the current openings and into existing transformer bays. This is
particularly challenging as transformer capacity must be upgraded from 94 to 135MVA.
52
Additional constraints are particularly related to the transport and installation phase of the
project:
 Remote power station location and underground installation

 Four months required to assemble install and commission transformers.
 Health hazards e.g. Malaria, Yellow fever, high humidity and temperatures
 Rainy season starting from November to March and lack of western style roads
 Lack of logistical backup and supplies
 Distance to travel by road from port to site with extra-heavy loads (>2400km)
 Road permits for four countries and different provinces with autonomous local authorities
 Lack of acceptable site accommodation for team
 Site installation technical team from Holland to rotate monthly
 Site Project Management supplied by a South African Sub-contractor
 Work permits and statutory membership of professional bodies
 Installation team integration with, and skills transfer to local client staff
 Import and export permits for construction equipment and tools.
 A client with sophisticated needs but limited knowledge and experience
 All installations to be via a switchable spare while power station essentially remains in
production to produce 60% of Zambia’s electricity demand.
 Sophisticated monitoring and analysis systems to be installed by sub-contractors from
Australia and the USA.
 Site acceptance testing to be performed by an independent sub-contractor from South
Africa.
The constraints above and the logistics flow chart in figure 23 for transporting the
transformers that have a mass of one-hundred and five metric tons each, attempt to set the
scene for the complexity which gives rise for the need of applying WBS coding. In addition
to the transformers there are containers containing components and equipment to company
the transformers on the road trip.
Risk is increased by the number of entities jointly participating in the transport and
installation phase of the project as depicted in the logistical process.
53
54
Figure 23: Flow chart of logistical process
1.57. OBS for project
Figure 24: OBS for case study
1.58. Resource Breakdown Structure
55
Figure 25: Interfaces and resource breakdown structure for project
1.59. Create WBS
At this stage the scope is defined and the client requirements and constraints are documented.
In areas where the scope is still unclear progressive elaboration will be used.
56
Figure 26: High level WBS
1.60. Technical background to case study activity ‘3.3.11.1
Commission test HV bushing’
The high voltage (HV) bushing tests that relate to the activity ‘3.3.11.1 Commission test HV
bushing’, comprise a number of separate tests which ensure the operational condition of the
bushing, the partial discharge (PD) monitoring and dissolved gas monitoring equipment.
Tests are performed and certification is processed with the client at the end of each individual
transformer installation. On each occasion, which is roughly a month apart, at least two
members representing each of the above will form the joint testing team consisting of eleven
members including the site project manager. The various parties that participate in this
activity are as follows:
It is not expected that the same individuals will be deployed on every occasion and therefore
the site project manager is the only means to transfer of previous operational experience.
Additional technical details are available in appendix 6.3.1.
1.61. Elements affected by WBS coding relating to activity ‘3.3.11.1
Commission tests’
The boxed document extracts that follow are an illustration of the elements which could
benefit from WBS coding to identify them and facilitate searching and cross-referencing.
57
Below each box the parties to whom this information would be important are listed and the
relevant circumstances and implications are referred to.
1.61.1. Project Gant Chart Schedule
Figure 27 : Notes to project Gantt chart
Figure 28: Extract project Gantt chart
1.61.2. WBS dictionary
58
Figure 29: WBS dictionary extract
1.61.3. Work packages
59
Figure 30: Work package extract
1.61.4. Communication and responsibility matrix

Primary Contractor Smit (Ditigo
Independent Test subcontractor

DGA Equipment Subcontractor
Projects) Site Project Manager
Code explanation: Sub contractor PD Equipment

R – Responsible
Primary Contractor Smit
Client Project Manager
A – (1) Assist / (2) Accept / (3) Approve / (4) Authorise

C – Concur
Project Manager
DGA Contractor
PD Equipment
I – Informed
[ ] – Mandatory
( ) – Optional / As required/requested
1 2 5 6 7 8 9 10
Project management / co-ordination / supervision /
communication R A A
Technical specifications, tests & results / review /
acceptance; Authorisation to energise A [I]
3.3.11.2 Site acceptance test R A [I]
HV Bushing test 3.3.11.1 Transformer 1 PD Monitoring
test R A [I] A A
3.3.11.1.2 DGA Equipment Test R A I A A A
Figure 31: Extract communication / responsibility matrix
60
Figure 32: Example of using coding in communication
1.61.5. SHE management
Extract from the SHE Plan
6. COMMISSIONING AND TESTING (3.3.11/ 3.6.11/ 3.9.11 and 3.12.11)
During all commissioning and testing of equipment safety harnesses shall be worn in
accordance with ZOSH301-2 rev3.
Before the commencement of any commissioning and testing work to be performed on live
equipment, the following steps shall be complied with and the safety officer shall certify that:
 All staff have received training in accordance with ZOSH211-1 rev0
 That an activity specific (e.g. 3.3.11.1.1 “PD Monitoring Equipment Test) risk
assessment has been completed
61
 That a pre-job briefing has been held with all participating staff in attendance
signing the attendance register.
Participating parties: Primary Contractor, Client, PD Equipment Sub-contractor, DGA

Equipment Sub-sub-Contractor, Independent Test Sub-contractor.
Circumstances and implications: WBS coding is applied to the SHE Plan so that there is no
doubt about the safety requirements that must be complied with before and ruring the
execution of activity 3.3.11.1
1.61.6. Assessment and certification
The example below illustrates the use of coding on certifications. The coding is highlighted
with red stars.
Figure 33: Example of certification and assessment NEC3
62
1.61.7. Contract, Pricing and quality
Figure 34: Extract from contractual pricing
1.61.1. Micro planning
Micro planning is performed at a meeting of participating parties and is held a

few days before the execution of complex activities, particularly where many
entities are involved. The project WBS and schedule will be further
decomposed to reflect critical dependencies and milestones on an hourly (or
63
even less if required) scale. This sub-schedule will be attached to minutes of
the meeting which will refer to the detail and responsibilities related to the
decomposed coding and the implications thereof for each participating party.
1.61.2. RBS and risk analysis
Figure 35: Risk breakdown structure extract
RISK ASSESSMENT - KAFUE GORGE POWER STATION - SMIT

TRANSFORMERS
Risk Potential risk Impact Mitigation Final risk

No. WBS code value
R1.1 Bushing damaged Cost, Schedule client 3
3.3.11.1/ during transport Time spares inventory to
3.6.11.1/ or installation - arrive before
3.9.11.1/ test value installation and pre-
3.12.11.1 rejected. test.
R1.2 PD and DGA Cost, Schedule client 4
3.3.11.1/ equipment Time spares inventory to
3.6.11.1/ malfunction or arrive before
3.9.11.1/ partial installation and pre-
3.12.11.1 malfunction test.
R1.3 Client control Cost, Ensure client 2
3.3.11.1/
64
room interface Time understands /
3.6.11.1/ equipment accepts that this will
3.9.11.1/ malfunction lead to a
3.12.11.1 compensation event.
R2.1 Increase in foreign Cost Stipulate sub- 1
3.3.11.1/
technician flight contractors book
3.6.11.1/
costs due to open tickets in
3.9.11.1/
schedule change advance
3.12.11.1
R2.22 Non-availability of Cost Make bookings in 3
3.3.11.1/
accommodation at advance subject to
3.6.11.1/
KGRTC 14 days’ notice of
3.9.11.1/
change
3.12.11.1
R3.1 Personnel fall Injury, Stipulate use of 2
3.3.11.1/
from height during death safety harness in
3.6.11.1/
testing accordance with
3.9.11.1/
ZOSH301-2 rev3
3.12.11.1
R3.2 Electric shock Injury, Staff training, pre-job 2
3.3.11.1/
during death briefing and RA,
3.6.11.1/
performance of compliance with
3.9.11.1/
live tests ZOSH211-1 rev0
3.12.11.1
Participating parties: Primary Contractor, Client, PD Equipment Sub-contractor, DGA Equipment Sub-sub-Contractor,
Independent Test Sub-contractor.
Circumstances and implications: WBS coding is applied to the Risk Analysis to ensure that all parties are aware of relevant
risks and are able to add risks to the risk register as required, or perform further risk decomposition of their own.
Figure 36: Extract risk assessment
1.61.3. Cost estimates and contract pricing

Accommodation
Number people
Cost Resources
Percentage
Equipment
3.3.11.1.1 WBS code
Transport
Company
Activity
Total
Price
Test PD Dynamic 2 $800 $400 $920 $140 $4 673 20% $5 607.60

monitorin Ratings
g
equipment
Test DGA Serveron 2 $800 $370 $1 103 $140
3.3.11.1.3 3.3.11.1.2
equipment
Tan Delta HiTech 1 $500 $191 $212 $70 $973 20% $1 167.60
test
Participating parties: The Client, Primary Contractor
65
Circumstances and implications: WBS coding is applied to the cost estimate, which in turn forms the basis of the offer to the
client.
Figure 37: Extract Cost Estimation spread sheet
1.61.4. Budgets, accounting and invoicing
Figure 38: Extract invoice
1.61.5. Relevance of using WBS coding in this example.
The relevance of WBS coding in this example was to illustrate that the WBS coding can be
applied successfully to the various element pertaining to that work package. The examples
are self-explanatory in nature and the ease of cross-referencing can be seen from the
illustrations. The advantages are that all elements are clearer and that the possibility for
confusion is limited and contained.
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Chapter 4: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
1.62. Method of analysis of the research questionnaire
For the purpose of the self-administered research questionnaire a sample of 25 respondents

were taken from a wide geological area that included Africa, Asia, America and Europe,
specifically targeting experienced project managers or the equivalent thereof. In analysing the
data collected it was decided to allocate a numerical value to the replies to ease the
calculations as illustrated in figure titled Numerical allocation.
yes 3
Often 3
Sometimes 2
No 1
Never 1
Figure 39: Numerical allocation
1.63. Analysis of the results
The questions are analysed individually based on the 25 responses, and as some respondents
responded with comments a thematic qualitative analysis will be done to analyse the contents.
1.64. Qualitative analysis of comments
Seven respondents replied with various comments. Question 7 appear to have been a difficult
question for two respondents as they stated that they would have preferred a third column
including sometimes. These comments are valid and it may be that sometimes may have
encouraged a more reliable result. However, this hypothesis can only be verified if exactly
the same sample group is questioned with a revised questionnaire.
The issue of coding created a few responses of which one respondent commented that “the
numbering or coding in large projects is mostly driven by the fact that a customer sends us an
inquiry with listed items, so we use the same codes in our quotation. Example: “According
your inquire point 4.1.1. etc.” When possible we use the same coding in our project
description. When this is not possible we create a new list. Be aware this is only used in large
projects which will give advantage in communication. Example: “Have you finished the
67
activity in point 5.2.3?” This excludes misunderstandings. Or a report from an engineer
who’s working on a project: “We are missing the gaskets for activity 7.3.4”, which
eliminated doubt of what is missing. “I think on normal standard service activities it also
would be good thing to have a standard Project Plan based on a fixed coding structure”.
Some admitted not to always using coding and preferred a short description, however
acknowledging the problems that they experienced on larger project due to the lack of
coding.
The biggest constraint for not using coding given by the respondents was the lack of time.
This argument is interesting as the time invested in the beginning may save a tremendous
amount of time later in the project, when the PM will have the least time available. The
connection between coding, risk and communication came out strongly in the comments, as
well as how and when to develop the WBS coding system. The recommendation was to
develop the system prior to the development of the schedule to prevent the omission of any
activities or objectives.
A respondent felt that coding might introduce another aspect to the project that might lead to
confusion, while another commented on the format of the coding requesting for it to be kept
simple, which is in line with the results from the pilot study. The onerous cost code coding
system is an example of a complicated code e.g. 0101B10013 as illustrated in figure 3.
1.65. Quantitative analysis of the research questionnaire
The purpose of the research is to ascertain whether or not project managers use coding in
their projects and should a universal, user friendly code be available will they use it and result
in saving time and money, thus is coding relevant. The need for this research rose due to the
seeming lack of guidance in the existing literature researched or there may be a possible gap
between the literature and practice.
Age, gender, experience and education were not considered as a factor. However these
factors may be considered in future research as they may influence the outcome. A sample
size of 25 was determined as representative for a small research project considering the
timeframe, budget, and complexity. However, as this research questionnaire did not include
variables exceeding two, the mixed method of analysis will best suit this analysis best.
68
1.66. Mixed method of analysis
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7a Q7b Q7c Q7d Q7e Q7f Q7g Q7h Q7i Q8 Q9
Respondents 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 1 3 3 3
1 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 1 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 1 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
3 1 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 1 3 1 3 3 3 1 1 3 1 3 3 3 3
3 1 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 1 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 3 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 3
3 3 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 1 3 1 1 3 3 3 3
3 3 1 1 3 2 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 1 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 1 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 3 3
3 3 1 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 1 3
3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 1 3 3
3 1 3 3 3 2 1 1 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3
Total 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
yes 21 11 21 18 22 8 19 19 22 17 22 17 17 22 23 22 25
Sometimes 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
No 4 14 4 7 3 7 6 6 3 8 3 8 8 3 2 3 0
% YES 84.0 44.0 84.0 72.0 88.0 32.0 76.0 76.0 88.0 68.0 88.0 68.0 68.0 88.0 92.0 88.0 100.0
% No 16.0 56.0 16.0 28.0 12.0 28.0 24.0 24.0 12.0 32.0 12.0 32.0 32.0 12.0 8.0 12.0 0.0
Figure 40: Data collected and analysed
The data collected highlights the response to question 2, which was
“When developing project schedules do you base the structure on the five process groups
described by PMI (scoping, planning, launching, monitoring and control, closure)*use their
words.”
This question was specifically phrased to highlight PMI processes, but not mentioning the
correct terminology to ascertain if the processes of initiating, planning, monitoring and
controlling, executing and closure was known and used when project managers compiled a
WBS (PMBOK, 2008). One respondent that commented that he does not “always use their
words”, but he does divide the project into phases.
The outcome of this questionnaire can be interpreted in two ways i.e. the processes are not
used or that there is a lack of support for PMI processes, however as the questionnaire was
sent to many respondents holding the credentials of PMP that replied “yes” to this question
this may imply that the processes are not used by 56% of the respondents, which is partially
supported by the fact that 16% of the respondents do no compile a WBS. This is an
interesting scenario that will merit further investigation. As this study did not differentiate
69
between industries, and industry specific practices may also play a role that future studies
may consider. The WBS is “the heart of a project and omission of a simple task leading to an
irrevocable result” (Iranmanesh and Madadi, 2008). 16 % of the respondents admitted to not
compiling a WBS, then the only conclusion is these project managers may be doomed to
failure and suffer from a lack of education and/or experience. If is recommended that these
divisions are included in future studies (Buchtik, 2010; Rad, 1999).
30
25
20
15 No
Sometimes
yes
10
0
a c e f g i
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q7 b Q7 Q7 d Q7 Q7 Q7 Q7 h Q7 Q8 Q9
Figure 41: Summary of responses
The figure above illustrates the “yes” responses in blue versus the “no” responses in green,
while the “sometimes” responses are illustrated in red. Question 9 was omitted from this
graph and will be discussed separately. These results indicate that the majority of project
managers support coding and/or use coding in their projects. These results may indicates the
need to develop a viable coding system that is easy to use and ideally universally used to
allow project managers to hop from one project to another without the difficulties currently
experienced.
This hypothesis is further supported by the discussions in the pilot study and the comments
made by the respondents in the questionnaire, that there is a definite need for coding in bigger
or more complex projects. The time constraints mentioned by some respondents can be
overcome by proper planning, but the fact that many project managers are overburdened,
must be considered. It may be argued that time spent in the beginning of a project is not
relevant, as any time spent during the planning phase will most likely save time during the
execution phase of the project and will ease the process of monitoring and controlling of the
70
project. It is further postulated that there may be a problem with the methodology followed
by some project managers as they do not utilise all the tools available to them to manage
projects in the accepted PMBOK manner.
Q9
Q8
Q7i
Q7h
Q7g
Q7f
Q7e
Q7d
Q7c % YES
Q7b % No
Q7a
Q6
Q5
Q4
Q3
Q2
Q1
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0
Figure 42: Percentage Yes versus percentage No
The figure above illustrates the percentage of “yes” responses to the percentage of “no”
responses. The validity of one answer on question 9 merits discussion. All the respondents
replied “yes” to the question: “Would you consider using activity coding in future” with the
exception of one respondent. However, this respondent did comment that they do use coding
on complex projects and that it does ease the process of communication and management of
risk. This leads one to question the accuracy of this reply as there may have been a mistake
in the completion of the questionnaire. For this reason this reply will not be considered valid
and will be ignored. Thus it will be considered that 100% of the respondents replied
positively to this question.
1.67. Question response analysis
Three questions need further investigation, as the yes/no ration are lower than in most other
cases, which are Q7 d, f, and g. Some respondents did not see the benefit of using an activity
code to identify contractual clauses and requirements related specifically to that activity,
manage risk and track change. These issues are debatable as the management of risk is an
integral part of project management. “Hierarchical frameworks have been developed to
provide structure in these two areas: the WBS and RBS “ (Hillson, 2003b) and once the
71
project manager has compiled the RBS and risk is then tied to the activity, should the two
then not carry the same coding? (Hillson, 2003b; Rafele, Hillson and Grimaldi, 2005) The
same can be said for tracking change and contract management. It can be argued that by
using the same coding throughout the project scope creep can be minimised as the coding
may keep the project objectives and actual scope top of mind, and prevent the “gold plating”
that often occurs within projects (Hameria, 2002).
1 When developing a work breakdown schedule or project activity list, do you ever use coding or numbering to identify
an activity (e.g. 1.1.4 )
2 When developing project schedules do you base the structure on the five process groups described by PMI (scoping,
planning, launching, monitoring and control, closure)*use their words.
3 Do you decompose the activity list you create to sub-activities and sub-sub activities etc.
4 If you were to use numbering or coding (e.g. 4.1.2 ) to identify sub-activities etc., would you use this code to accurately
identify the actions related to this activity. (e.g. the contractual requirements for the supply of materials under “4.1.2
Deliver Bricks” in your schedule)
5 Would there be benefit in being able to search for actions or references to an activity in large documents such as a
contract by simply using the “Ctrl + F” function
6 How often have you seen coding or numbering being used to identify project activities and then seen the same code
used to identify or trace the related actions? (e.g. using the code to identify contractual requirements ) linked to this
activity.
7 Do you think there could be cost / time benefit or a reduction in potential project risk, if activity coding were to be used
as a WBS, to identify and track the actions associated to activities in the areas listed below:
a. Using activity codes for activity identification in estimating and contract pricing documents.
b. Using an activity code to identify costs related to activities in the accounts of the project.
c. Using and activity code to index works information (or work package information)related to that activity.
d. Using an activity code to identify contractual clauses and requirements related specifically to that activity.
e. Using an activity code to accurately identify an activity and its associated actions when communicating.
f. Using activity coding to identify and manage risks related the execution of activities.
g. Using activity coding to manage change of activities and track / reference related change documentation.
h. Using activity coding to assist new project team members to find their way in complex and large volumes of
documentation when joining a partially completed project.
i. Using activity coding in large and complex projects where there are many disciplines to contend with
8 In your opinion, could the regular use of activity coding to identify associated actions, produce benefits and reduce
project risk?
9 Would you consider using activity coding in future?
Figure 43: Questions posed
Duggal refers to customer satisfaction and meeting the business case objectives, which can
only be achieved through conscientious and diligent management of the project (2010).
“Problems in project operations that are often related to ignorance, obsolete data and actions
based on false intentions” (Hameria, 2002). Coding is a tool that may assist in bringing all the
72
loose bits together under one umbrella and thus place and keep the project on a solid
foundation and prevent obsolete data from being distributed.
Question % Yes % Sometimes % No

Q1 84 12
Q2 44 56
Q3 84 16
Q4 72 28
Q5 88 12
Q6 32 40 28
Q7A 76 24
Q7B 76 24
Q7C 88 12
Q7D 68 32
Q7E 88 12
Q7F 68 32
Q7G 68 32
Q7H 88 12
Q7I 92 8
Q8 88 12
Q9 100 0
Figure 44: Tabular representation of the result in percentages
PMBOK explicitly stresses the all change must go through the formal process of integrated
change control (2010). The purpose of this is not only to update all the relevant documents,
but to enforce formal approval of any change prior to the implementation thereof and thereby
minimise the risk of gold plating. The use of coding in the WBS linked to activities and by
implication changes to those activities further strengthens this bond and highlights the
awareness of change. With any change there is risk and by linking the RBS with the WBS
and down the line to the activities these elements are not only liked but contained within the
code, which enables the project manager to use the “control f” function to access all relevant
documentation and update all the issues in a cost and time effective manner. Contractors have
the ability to track changes and know in advance what is expected, which will minimise
rework and claims due to late instructions.
73
One of the greatest advantage of coding and thereby cross referencing is the fact that if the
project runs on a shared database, the project is “live” and this enables all the stakeholders to
access the information relevant to them as and when they require it in real time. Without
coding it is often too onerous a task to look for the information, which means as stated by
PMBOK that the project manager spends the majority of his time communicating and
replying to the requests of the stakeholders (2010). Coding may assist in freeing up some of
the project manager’s time, which can be spent on more pressing matters of management.
1.68. Analysis of case study
1.68.1. Hypothesis
That the use of a simple activity code can assist project managers to keep better control of
project triple constraints, thereby leading to improved project success.
The question posed was is the WBS coding when applied in MS Project™ - e.g. "3.1.2.1
Construct retaining wall" currently being linked and cross referenced to activities when
project managers develop a WBS. Thus are these codes which are paired with activities,
linked or referenced as an index in the project documentation that is subsequently developed
i.e. contract, risk register, design drawings, meeting discussions, code of accounts, budget,
etc. What this case study is attempting to ascertain is whether the WBS coding in practice is
isolated to the WBS only, or can it follow through as a unique code which is referenced in
other project documentation to matters relating to each activity in a searchable and cross-
referable fashion.
1.68.2. Case study analysis
The case study investigated the possibilities of cross referencing and linking the various
project elements with the same WBS code to facilitate the easy search and to prevent
“problems in project operations that are often related to ignorance, obsolete data and actions
based on false intentions” (Hameria, 2002).
As the aspects of cross referencing via the medium of coding was tested in a practical manner
to illustrate the feasibility thereof. It can be said that cross referencing is possible. This is
further sustained by a bespoke few project managers that do use the system. Although they
74
may not include contractual clauses, this aspect is relevant and possible. As the case study
involved teams from many countries and the logistical supply on site was very difficult, the
ability to communicate effectively and accurately was tested and determined to be efficient.
This case study further showed that cross referencing is feasible and practicable and does
assist in better governance of the project and thereby improve management of the
stakeholders, risk, cost, etc.
1.69. The need for cross referencing
If the same coding is used throughout a project, then the search function on the computer will
locate all references to the specific task, thus enabling time saving and greater accuracy while
saving the project team the frustration of searching for documents or relevant information
(Fonseca, 2003). This is especially important as the PM cannot be on site 24/7, and the
labour law of most countries specifies the amount of hours any person may work in a given
period. This constraint places a burden on the shift PM who may not be au fait with all the
integrities of the project as a whole and not have been privy to all discussions from the onset.
Only through a proper referencing system will the secondary PM be able to function
effectively and accurately (Springer, 2001).
The exact method of numbering and cross referencing may be contained in the greater project
management plan. Use of the WBS coding as a source to a shared database will enable
contractors and subcontractors to access their work packages effectively while this function
can be controlled via passwords or other applicable security settings. Which numbering
system is a matter of personal preference with the only set criteria that the system must be
kept simple and be user-friendly.
Loosing project managers or team members midway through a project places strain on the
remaining resources and places a greater burden on the new additions to the team. This
creates a void that can lead to time being wasted, instructions not being understood or fully
implemented, or it can even lead to quality issues, rework or even gold plating. However, if a
standardised code is applied, not only within the company, but also the industry, the
replacements will manage to find the relevant documents that pertain to the applicable work
package without too much effort, thereby enabling them to work efficiently while saving time
and money and enable them to deliver a better product.
75
The WBS coding being able to reference and cross-reference to all aspects of project i.e.
contract, WBS, WBS dictionary, change management, budget, and etc. can then fully
function as the master plan to the project (Buchtik, 2010).
1.70. Communication and referencing
The ability or lack of ability to reference may seriously impede the capability to communicate
especially when teams are virtual (PMBOK, 2008). This aspect was raised during discussions
with respondents while doing the pilot study and one respondent made the following
recommendation:
“Always do the WBS separately and not in MS Project™ or whatever software tool or you
tend to omit something in the project, and use numbering in the WBS. Then take the work
package number to MS Project™ and continue to number the activities, link the WBS work
package number to the number in the risk register; use it comparably to other logs and
registers i.e. communications, risks, stakeholders, issues.”
As project managers spend 90% of their time communicating, the ability to communicate
effectively is essential to the stakeholder and communications management plans and
ultimately the project success. Of all the elements affected by the WBS communication may
the single most important element, as contracts, accounts, budgets, pricing, work packages,
etc are all communicated to the various stakeholders, and for the communication to be
effective and time efficient a method of referral is required. The vehicle for this may be the
WBS coding as carried throughout the project.
1.71. The effect of risk
The management of risk may call for daily or weekly revisions, and as milestones are passed
certain risks become no longer relevant. In practice this may be complicated; especially if a
mechanism to link risk to activity is not present. The use of risk registers and RBS are
common place, but too often these registers are not actively used.
A particular example where the correct usage of the RBS and risk register can save the
company money is where insurance was taken to cover the possibility of a certain event, but
once a certain milestone has passed this risk is no longer an issue. If the company continue to
76
pay for an unnecessary risk, then the company will be spending potential profit money
(Hillson, 2003b).
1.72. The importance of records
Records are the backbone to defend any litigation or arbitration, but as the time of legal
professionals are expensive, proper filing systems with retrievable records can save time,
money and frustration (Hunt, S., 2009; Ascon-v-McAlpine, 1999). The same can be said for
a system where “lessons learnt” is filed in a usable and retrievable format. The use of a single
code type for the same task can allow multiple cross referencing possibilities. This ability
will not only assist the project, but also estimating team whilst doing their estimates.
Records are important to the contract manager who is responsible for the execution of the
contract, especially if the contract is a NEC3 type of contract. In the case of a dispute the
contract manager must have the ability to draw the right record at the right time (Hunt, S.,
2009; Springer, 2001). Coding may assist the contract manager as he can source all relevant
electronic documents using the “control f” function.
77
Chapter 5: CONCLUSION
1.73. Conclusions
The literature examined did not explicitly advocate that a coding system be used, however
various authors did link the various project elements (Hillson, 2003b; Jung and Woo, 2004;
Rafele, Hillson and Grimaldi, 2005). This paper postulates that if the elements are linked then
it will be a logical conclusion to use the same numbering system for those interlinked
activities.
1.74. Conclusions on meeting the study objectives
The aim of this work was to assess current theory and practice relating to the use of WBS
coding as a reference for tracking and controlling of project activities. This paper investigated
the possibilities of using a coding system that is linked to the WBS and throughout the
various processes linked to a specific activity. This process allows the WBS, which is
universally recognised as the roadmap of the project, to function optimally (Warner, 1997;
Iranmanesh and Madadi, 2008; Rad, 1999).
“The thoroughness of the steps involved in identifying, categorizing and allocating

contractually stated and derived requirements” determines the outcome of the project
(Springer, 2001: p.67-86). It is postulated that it is precisely this thoroughness as expressed
by Springer (2001) that is personified by the system of coding.
The investigation started with a pilot study in which the importance of risk and
communication became apparent. With these factors in mind a self-administered
questionnaire was designed and conducted via email to selected respondents from the class of
project managers. Responses were analysed using thematic analysis, as well as employing the
techniques of mixed analysis. The response was in favour of coding and many project
managers admitted to using it, however this was only true if the project was either very large
or complicated. Thus although 100% of the project managers would like to use the system
and can see the benefit in it for them and the project, should they do use the system to its full
potential, it is not the norm in practice.
78
1.75. Limitations of the study
The study was performed on a limited scale using a small sample group. This topic will
benefit from further studies conducted on a larger and more extensive scale, for which the
resources of this study did not allow for. As this study was conducted by a single researcher
and attempts were made to remain neutral, the possibility of bias cannot be ruled out. The
possibility exists that some of the respondents were not whole truthful in their replies, as it
may be argued that the respondent was not a good project manager it he did not follow the
theoretical course of accepted project administration. Even though the respondents were
assured of full confidentiality, personal guilt may have played a role in their replies. For this
reason it is possible that some respondents may have replied yes to a question, to which the
reply should have been no.
As the respondents were volunteers and mainly project managers active in the profession,
responses are slow and often difficult to extract. This may due to the fact that project
managers are too busy, or that they might perceive that by answering a questionnaire their
professional ability is placed under scrutiny.
Due to the limited nature of this study the work cannot be seen as conclusive.
1.76. Areas of further research
As this subject can benefit the industry vastly, future researchers may concentrate on linking
specific areas within this study to the WBS, e.g. communication, change management, risk,
cost management, etc. These are the areas that either are the most time consuming or
potentially the most costly to the project if not administered correctly.
1.77. Reflections of the researcher
The study would have benefited from a more elaborate questionnaire that included three to
five replies e.g. “Yes; Sometimes; No” or alternatively “All the time; most of the time; often;
Not very often; Never”. In this manner more accurate statistical information may have been
gathered.
79
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Appendix
1.78. Pilot study
What role does the WBS referencing numbering system play in Project Management as
explained below.
Is WBS coding (When applied in MPP - e.g. "3.1.2.1 Construct retaining wall") currently
being linked and cross referenced to activities when project managers develop a WBS? Thus
are these codes which are paired with activities, linked or referenced as an index in any
project documentation that is subsequently developed i.e. contract, risk register, design
drawings, meeting discussions, code of accounts, budget, etc. What I am trying to ascertain is
whether the WBS coding in practice is isolated to the WBS only, or does it follow through as
a unique code which is referenced in other project documentation to matters related to each
activity. This code should be searchable and cross-referable.
1.78.1. Replies:
21 comments
Follow Kik
Kik Piney • As I see it, the number serves as a key into a broad database (called WBS dictionary) holding all of the information
considered to be relevant about the corresponding component (e.g. SOW, predecessors, successors, etc.)
22 days ago• Like
Follow Fernando "Chicho"

Fernando "Chicho" Ocariz • I really look forward seeing answers to this topic!!
I always thought of the wbs like a "project Atlas" So we should be able to "plot" everything in it, and find where it is in our little
world (I really support the WBS dictionary concept , but I have more of a visual/graphical mindset, so I think of it as an atlas rather
than a dictionary). So I really try to use the code as the MAIN reference. Everything (including at the top of the list
Communications) has to be trace-able to the WBS or you should not be doing it, right? Hence, I think this coding should permeate
all our doings.
If you are working with a unique Project Management commercial software, the codename of each WBS element seems not that
important because the system will (or should) do all the cross-referencing for you, so you may prefer to have more intuitive coding
using initials or parts of the title of the WBS element , but if your team is working with several systems (schedules program, budget
and cost software, risk management application conformance database, procurement applications, CHANGE) which usually
happens as most software programs are not top-performing across all areas, you need a good system to codify, and ensure that
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cascading down and rolling up of all what you want to track (responsibilities, risks, issues, non-conformities, treatment actions,
deliverables, costs, changes), is still possible.
I think that using smart alphanumeric codes (numbers can only cope for 9 sub elements in practical terms, or you will have to use a
very long codename, or start having different lengths, or have to use special characters... all these will make your codenames
difficult to use in an environment with different software.
21 days ago• Like
Follow Kik
Kik Piney • Chicho, you say "numbers can only cope for 9 sub elements in practical terms". Good!
For the WBS to be manageable, no component should have more than 7 subcomponents; if you feel a need for more, create an extra
level and cluster some of these multiple subcomponents.
21 days ago• Like

Fernando "Chicho" Ocariz • as general guideline, to be skipped when needed, I agree.
But I am not so sure in practical terms. I do not like too many "boxes" that crowd and obscure the display, but I do not like them
neither in horizontal nor in vertical arrangement, and adding additional "junction" elements void of actual meaning does not seem to
solve this conundrum
21 days ago• Like
Theo Moolman • I agree with Kik & Fernando that the WBS and dictionary is the project map. But feel that this project map can
save time if the current referencing system is better used and modified to include all the management areas of the project. Take the
example of virtual teams where there are many identical elements, and the client wants to change one only. This opens the door for
confusion. Having a better and more user friendly referencing system can tie this element to the costing, contract, schedule, change
requests, risk register, etc. and will greatly reduce the possibility of confusion and the work load of the PM. What are your views?
20 days ago
LouiseUnfollow
Louise Moolman • Kik you say that the numbers serve as a cross-reference to the WBS dictionary, do you ever take the numbering
beyond that? E.g. numbering to work packages and arranging your filing according to the numbering which will then also match the
WBS & dictionary and numbering your designs to the same format for easy access? Fernando, I agree with you as well. I personally
like things visual too. I mind map the project, then create the WBS accordingly. However, it is precisely the cross-referencing that
could pose a problem if each work packages across the whole project cannot be linked in filing, searches and access if the database
is shared with the contractors/subcontractors to access their relevant work package. I feel that this is even more important if there
are scope changes and if the team is virtual. What are you views and recommendations?
5 days ago• Like
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Follow Kik
Kik Piney • Louise, your question leads into the wider topic of Configuration Management and I agree that is one of the keys to
controlling the work and the outcome of a project. In fact, that naming and numbering component of configuration management
should be developed before the WBS is baselined so that the WBS can integrated compatibly into this scheme.
4 days ago• Like

Fernando "Chicho" Ocariz • Dear Moolman’, I wholeheartedly agree. That is the right answer, and I think the right direction. and
I agree to have as much detail in the WBS -down to the wp- as possible.
Now, "executives tend to hover over the tree and do not like too much detail" ; OK, give them only L1 or L2 information (i.e. give
them only a map with countries and borders; when you get down to works, you need a more detailed map, with states, provinces,
capital and major cities, rivers and mountains).
Regarding management of change (which in E&C is the more common naming of the "configuration change" IT people usually
use): if I do not have a clear WBS, it is simply not possible. and a good WBS means (as well) an unique id# for each "box". id-ing
of CI should be coherent to the WBS numbering - I think
Kirk, I am afraid I cannot see any numbering be made before of the one he WBS, because it is used while&for scope identification,
so I do not understand how to make the numbering of CI independently, and before. Maybe that can be made in other sectors, but in
mine I do not see it.
4 days ago• Like
Follow Kik
Kik Piney • Chico, I meant that the format and structure must be specified - obviously not (as you point out) the actual numbers.
4 days ago• Like

Fernando "Chicho" Ocariz • Then,I think we all sign the same anthem
(although the stubborn reality has a traceable tendency to prove me wrong, and I can seldom get the WBS developed during the
planning stage as much as I usually have later to expand it within the same project stage)
4 days ago• Like
Follow Dr. Ginger

Dr. Ginger Levin, PMP, PgMP, OPM3 Certified • To me the numbering system is important beyond the dictionary. For example,
in a risk register or issue register, I would set them up so they linked to a WBS work package number. The numbering system would
help show the correlation and how the WBS sets the stage for planning the project. Similarly another example is in stakeholder
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management - the work package is useful in identifying stakeholders and then in classifying them into groups; therefore with the
stakeholder register, it too should show the accompanying WBS number. It also is helpful with a decision log and together these
examples, plus those of others in this discussion, show how it can serve as the basis for an Integrated Project Management
Information System.
2 days ago• Unlike
Theo Moolman • I find the greatest challenge when one has not been part of the project from the onset and suddenly have to take
over. This is when if the numbering system has been applied correctly it can be of great assistance to search for the relevant
documents that pertain to a particular work package, and this is particularly useful in a multi-disciplinary project. What are your
favourite numbering system? Numerical or alpha-numerical?
1 day ago
Follow Dr. Ginger

Dr. Ginger Levin, PMP, PgMP, OPM3 Certified • Use numerical - to me it is far easier! Both approaches though are fine.
1 day ago• Like
Follow Ricardo I.
Ricardo I. Guido Lavalle • Well, a Dewey code is nice to have; it makes referencing simpler.
I remember I once needed to review a 3-binders, 1000-page project. They hadn't put a single code, thus when I needed to reference
an objection, I had to reference the binder, page, paragraph and sometimes line number.
Like buttons and zippers: you can sew your trousers before leaving each morning, but a button and a zipper will make your
mornings happier.
1 day ago• Like

Fernando "Chicho" Ocariz • numerical is fine if you, as kirk suggested, are going to restrict the maximum number of sub-
elements per element. Otherwise, you will have to have the 01,02... which later on you will always forget to use, and annoy , at
least, the more engineering-minded people in your team.
I agree with Ginger about referencing everything to the WBS. If it is not in the WBS, we should not be doing it. I suspect it is not so
widely accepted in real life, though.
1 day ago• Like
Follow Dr. Ginger

Dr. Ginger Levin, PMP, PgMP, OPM3 Certified • Having been working for over 40 years, it is used appropriately by those such
as everyone in this discussion who know how to do it and why it is so important.
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1 day ago• Like
Theo Moolman • I understand Ricardo's dilemma! It is impossible and if there is a claim it is even more difficult to reference
accurately if there is no base to work from. You land up copying all the relevant pages, which is not always great either as this takes
things out of the timeline and context. Proper referencing and 1st line records is like a good filing system, without which you can
never find anything and that is when things slip and that leads to project failure and if it does go to litigation probably a lot of
money down the drain! From a cost control point of view it will make life so much easier and accurate. Why can the industry not
have a standardized format that is universally used? This will save the PM's a lot of time and agony.
1 day ago
Follow Ricardo I.
Ricardo I. Guido Lavalle • Yes Theo, no rocket science.
No deep epistemological issues involved, like whether 1.2.12.1 is not just a number, but a severe risk or a scope item.
We use what is useful and simple to use, and Dewey code does work.
1 day ago• Like
Theo Moolman • I was under the impression that the Dewey code belongs to OCLC Online Computer Library Centre, Inc.and that
one has to pay a license fee to use it. There have been a few law suits over the years e.g. Library Hotel, so apparently the system is
not in the public domain!
1 day ago
Follow Ricardo I.
Ricardo I. Guido Lavalle • What? So my previous post can make me to be sued for xx zillion dollars? The Western World depends
of it!
1 day ago• Unlike
Theo Moolman • Apparently! I believe that the licence fee is $500 per annum. (A bit silly, but this maybe the case)
1 day ago
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(Global Project Management Group, 2012)
1.79. Case study 1 Questionnaire
1.79.1. Covering letter
I wonder if I could ask you to spend five minutes in assisting me with the
completion of the attached questionnaire. The results will make a
much appreciated contribution to findings which will be contained in a
dissertation I am working on and all responses will be considered as private
and confidential. The participation herein is completely voluntarily and you
can abandon the effort at anytime. Should you need any clarification, please
do not hesitate to contact me at rtmoolman@gmail.com. Any additional
comments will be greatly appreciated.
In broad terms I am attempting to determine, if during the planning of a

project, when first compiling the work breakdown structure (WBS) and
schedule for use in for example Microsoft Project if you do use:
 numbering or coding (e.g.1,2,4,1) to give better structure to activities and
 if this coding would make activities more traceable throughout the life-cycle of a
project, if used as a means to reference to matters pertaining to activities in all project
documentation. The idea being that when you open any electronic project document
you could use the "control find" function to search for the applicable code in the
document to cross reference e.g. communication, designs, activities, contractors /
subcontractor activities, etc.
91
The questionnaire is attached below as a one pager and replies can be in the
form of highlighting or deleting the incorrect reply. I appreciate your speedy
assistance.
1.79.2. Questionnaire example

QUESTIONS
1. When developing a work breakdown schedule or project activity list, YES NO

do you ever use coding or numbering to identify an activity (e.g?
1.1.4 )
3. When developing project schedules do you base the structure on the YES NO
five process groups described by PMI (scoping, planning, launching,
monitoring and control, closure)*use their words.
4. Do you decompose the activity list you create to sub-activities and YES NO
sub-sub activities etc.
5. If you were to use numbering or coding (e.g. 4.1.2 ) to identify sub- YES NO
activities etc., would you use this code to accurately identify the
actions related to this activity. (e.g. the contractual requirements for
the supply of materials under “4.1.2 Deliver Bricks” in your
schedule)
6. Would there be benefit in being able to search for actions or YES NO

references to an activity in large documents such as a contract by
simply using the “Ctrl + F” function
6. How often have you seen coding or numbering being used to identify Never Sometimes Often
project activities and then seen the same code used to identify or trace
the related actions? (e.g. using the code to identify contractual
requirements ) linked to this activity.
7. Do you think there could be cost / time benefit or a reduction in Please tick in the option boxes below
potential project risk, if activity coding were to be used as a WBS, to
identify and track the actions associated to activities in the areas
listed below:
a. Using activity codes for activity identification in estimating and YES NO

contract pricing documents.
b. Using an activity code to identify costs related to activities in the YES NO

accounts of the project.
c. Using and activity code to index works information (or work YES NO
92
package information)related to that activity.
d. Using an activity code to identify contractual clauses and YES NO

requirements related specifically to that activity.
e. Using an activity code to accurately identify an activity and its YES NO

associated actions when communicating.
f. Using activity coding to identify and manage risks related the YES NO
execution of activities.
g. Using activity coding to manage change of activities and track / YES NO

reference related change documentation.
h. Using activity coding to assist new project team members to find YES NO
their way in complex and large volumes of documentation when
joining a partially completed project.
i. Using activity coding in large and complex projects where there YES NO
are many disciplines to contend
8. In your opinion, could the regular use of activity coding to identify YES NO
associated actions, produce benefits and reduce project risk?
9. Would you consider using activity coding in future? YES NO
1.79.3. Analysis excel sheet
The spreadsheet below is an excel sheet that contains all the data from the questionnaire.
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7a Q7b
Responden 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3
1 1 3 3 3 1 1 1
3 1 3 3 1 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 3 3 3 1 1 1
93
1.80. Case study 2 Implementation
1.80.1. Technical background to case study activity ‘3.3.11.1
Commission test HV bushing’
The HV bushing is an insulating liner bolted through a turret hole in the insulating oil filled
transformer metal tank, allowing a conductor to pass along its centre and connect to the
transformer winding on one end and to the national energy transmission grid on the other.
The purpose of the bushing is to keep the conductor insulated from the transformer tank it is
passing through. The glazed porcelain bushings are often prone to failure due to partial
discharge (PD) degradation in the insulation and therefore sophisticated monitoring
equipment is fitted.
Partial Discharge (PD) phenomena are defined as localized dielectric breakdowns of a small
portion of a solid electrical insulation system under high voltage (HV) stress. PD causes the
insulation to deteriorate progressively and can lead to electrical breakdown. Therefore, the
integrity of the insulation of HV equipment is monitored and confirmed using Partial
Discharge Analysis (PDA) during its manufacturing, its commissioning, and during its life
time. Apart from leading to corrosion on solid insulating materials PD can also decompose
and pollute the insulating oil, so that the insulation properties of the oil can no longer be
guaranteed. Partial Discharge Measurement is used to determine the ageing condition of
transformers and so conclude its remaining lifetime. Here, specific phase-related diagrams
(PRPD) or fingerprints can assist in identifying fault types and in localizing the PD source.
In this instance the single pole transformers are able to be switched in with one spare single
phase tank into any phase of three, three phase banks. The bushing monitoring system
operates on a three phase system, measuring the leakage currents from a set of three
condenser bushings to detect changes in power factor and capacitance on one or more
individual bushings. The PD monitoring system uses the same bushing sensors for PD
signals and adds an additional sensor for noise cancellation. It is important to note that the
PD monitoring system can operate separately to the bushing monitor, but, the bushing tap
sensor is common to both functions. In this case the systems provided are identical in three
units, with the fourth differing as the bushing and PD monitoring (DTM) is supplied for the
Phase B unit.
94
In addition to this dissolved gas monitoring equipment is fitted to constantly analyse among
others any indication of the decomposition or pollution of the transformer insulating oil by
for instance a failing bushing.
A Tan-delta test is performed by an independent sub-contracted party during the pre-

commissioning phase to determine and ensure a sufficient starting value of the insulation
capacity of the HV bushing.
95

Enhanced Use of The Work Breakdown Structure by Application of Unique Activity Coding As A Universal Reference Throughout A Project's Lifecycle.

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DISSERTATION TITLE

Enhanced use of the Work Breakdown Structure by application of unique activity

Richard Theofilus Moolman

The University of Liverpool

in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Richard Theofilus Moolman

Dissertation Advisor Date

The University of Liverpool

Richard Theofilus Moolman

Enhanced use of the Work Breakdown Structure by application of unique activity

Richard Theofilus Moolman

Complex projects often involve professionals from wide-spread differentiating professions,

1.1. Objectives of the work...............................................................................................15

1.2. Background of the study............................................................................................15

1.3. Brief outline of key ideas and methods.....................................................................16

CHAPTER 2: WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE AND DEPENDENCIES.................18

2.1. Overview of the work breakdown structure..............................................................18

2.2. Current accepted WBS structuring............................................................................18

2.3. Elements affected by the WBS..................................................................................21

2.4. WBS dictionary.........................................................................................................22

2.5. Work packages..........................................................................................................24

2.6. Work breakdown instructions....................................................................................24

2.7. Cost estimates............................................................................................................24

2.9. Contract pricing.........................................................................................................25

2.12. Organisational breakdown structure (OBS) matrix...............................................26

2.13. Resource breakdown structure matrix...................................................................27

2.14. Applications diagrams and sketches......................................................................27

2.15. Communication matrix..........................................................................................27

2.16. Project schedule.....................................................................................................28

2.17. Risk breakdown structure (RBS)...........................................................................28

2.18. Safety, health, environment, and quality (SHEQ) management............................29

2.20. Project administration and record keeping............................................................30

2.22. Stakeholder register...............................................................................................32

2.23. Micro planning.......................................................................................................32

2.24. The interaction between the elements and the WBS.............................................33

2.25. The allocation of the elements within the PMBOK processes..............................34

2.26. Scope Changes.......................................................................................................36

2.27. Why do projects experience scope changes...........................................................36

2.28. Scope change and project failure...........................................................................37

2.29. Scope change and the WBS numbering system.....................................................37

2.30. Numbering systems................................................................................................38

2.31. Permanent account number....................................................................................38

2.33. Dental numbering system......................................................................................40

2.34. Bank accounts........................................................................................................40

2.35. Number plates........................................................................................................41

2.38. Postal codes............................................................................................................42

2.40. Software programmes............................................................................................43

2.41. Is there room for improvement?............................................................................44

3.1. Scope of investigation...............................................................................................47

3.2. Research design.........................................................................................................47

3.3. Objective of the research...........................................................................................47

3.4. Pilot study..................................................................................................................48

3.5. Participants and sampling..........................................................................................49

3.6. Validity and reliability of the research......................................................................49

3.7. Ethics and confidentiality..........................................................................................50

3.8. Research questionnaire..............................................................................................50

3.9. Case Study.................................................................................................................50

3.10. Introduction to case study......................................................................................51

3.11. High Level Scope of Case study............................................................................51

3.12. OBS for project......................................................................................................55

3.13. Resource Breakdown Structure.............................................................................55