Blowback of Covert Action 1

Blowback of Covert Action

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26 October 2023
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Blowback of Covert Action

The world's history has been shaped by the different international relations that were

established in the past. Nations utilized various tactics to divert history in their favor. One

country that has been central in numerous history books is the US. The use of covert action is

one of the main approaches the US employed to either foster or sever international relations

to suit their interests. Covert action is an act undertaken in secrecy and is subject to plausible

deniability from the nation (Cormac and Aldrich, 2018). The effectiveness of the strategy

depended on the attainment of the intended consequences. However, this was not always the

case in several instances. The contrary situation represents the concept of blowback of covert

action. It describes the attainment of unintended outcomes from covert action (Cormac and

Aldrich, 2018). The US has experienced numerous instances of this kind throughout history.

However, their interactions with Iran remain the most prominent, given that the relations

between the countries still suffer from the actions undertaken in the past. Although the

forceful installation of Reza Shah as the Iranian ruler has been termed the main cause of the

Iranian revolution, it was the increased secularization of Iran and the increasing American

influence that had the greatest influence.

The Iranian Revolution

The Iranian revolution took place in 1979. However, the events of that year were

inspired by several precursor incidences that started with the establishment of the Pahlavi

dynasty. The dynasty started in 1926 when Reza Khan, an ex-prime minister and military

leader, proclaimed himself the shah of Persia (modern-day Iran) (Alavi and Singh, 2022).

Reza Shah did not come from a royal or noble family, but he pledged to restore stability and

dignity to Iran anyway. Owing to his predecessors' policies, Iran was used as a pawn the in

the "great game" by the Russians and Britons. Reza Shah, once in control, aimed to restore
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Persian authority (Hartnett, 2022). He spent money on the armed forces and pushed for

improving the country's educational system and industrial base. He advocated Western-style

modernization and was set on advancing nationalism. Prosperity was plentiful for Reza

Shah's endeavors (Hartnett, 2022). In addition to advancing infrastructure like railways and

factories, he also pushed for reforms in key areas like health care and education. Even though

this laid the groundwork for expanded authority, it also provided the shah more personal

power and a broader Western cultural presence.

At first, Reza Shah had widespread support from the public. However, the ulema, a

group of very powerful religious scholars, lost faith in him as he instituted secular policies

like outlawing the veiling of women (Hartnett, 2022). In Iran, the faithful turned to the clergy

for leadership and direction. Because of this, Iran's religious figures have become a

formidable political force (Alavi and Singh, 2022). The fact that Reza Shah admired Nazi

Germany only made things worse. He reached out to other world powers, particularly Nazi

Germany, to counterbalance British dominance in the 1930s (Hartnett, 2022). Due to his

involvement, Iran was officially recognized as neutral at the outset of World War II, enabling

Germans to stay in the nation. This development caused a situation that had not been

anticipated. The Soviets and British became fearful the Germans would destroy the British oil

infrastructure in Iran, being that they were enemies at the time (Alavi and Singh, 2022). Reza

Shah's proclamation of neutrality led to an invasion and occupation of Iran by the United

Kingdom and the Soviet Union. Shah surrendered his position to his son Mohammed Reza

before going into exile.

Mohammed Reza continued in his father's footsteps until 1979, when the citizens

decided to take matters into their hands. The continued support of the shah by the US led to

increased dictatorship in the country (Alavi and Singh, 2022). The shah focused on enhanced

westernization of the country and sought mainly to satisfy the needs of the US This situation
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did not sit well with the religious leaders in the country. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, an

exiled Muslim cleric, was particularly at the forefront of expressing dissatisfaction with

Reza's rule (Hartnett, 2022). The popularity of Khomeini eventually led to the revolution in

1979. The revolution constituted a mass movement of varying principles, with the opposition

seeking to enforce conservative ideals based on Islam. The opposition deemed the revolution

to be a way of restoring sanity in the country and avoiding oppression by Western countries.

However, the results of the revolution were not entirely desirable. One of the intended

consequences can be related to the way that Reza Shas was instituted as the ruler back in

1953.

Covert Action in Iran

The events leading to the Iranian revolution of 1979 display the perfect example of

covert action. The strategies undertaken by the US utilized the three main approaches to

covert action. These three strategies comprise political action, paramilitary operations, and

propaganda. Political action might include anything from financially supporting political

campaigns in another nation to sponsoring a rally or even plotting a coup (Cormac and

Aldrich, 2018). Propaganda and political action are frequently used in tandem and in backing

each other to accomplish an objective (Cormac, 2019); a prime example of this is the United

States' effective use of political action to provoke a coup in Iran in 1953. To affect political

results in a nation, financial backing is a common kind of political action. Financial backing

is typically channeled via many middlemen before reaching the favored party or person.

These actions are all undertaken with the intention of meeting the desired objective.

The US utilized political action as the main strategy for the covert action instituted in

Iran. The United States had established enormous influence throughout Iran prior to the

Iranian Revolution by boosting Mohammad Reza Shah to dominant power over the more

popular Mohammad Mossadegh. In 1951, Mossadegh seized the Anglo-Iranian Oil

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Company, a major source of revenue for Britain. British politicians were so outraged by

nationalization that they imposed sanctions on Iran, severely damaging the country's

economy (Johnson, 2020). Due to the continuing cold war between the United States and the

Soviet Union, the US feared that Iran might succumb to communism. Hence, it was in the

US's best interests to ensure that Iran maintained neutrality. Preventing the growth of

communism in the country was one way of going about the issue. Mohammed Mossadegh

was becoming a threat to this project as he sought to enhance nationalization (Alavi and

Singh, 2022). The then US president, Dwight Eisenhower, approved of a coup to oust

Mossadegh under coercion from the British and the concern of a communist ascendancy

(Johnson, 2020). The covert action was termed Operation Ajax. As part of the program,

which took place in 1953, the British SIS and the CIA overthrew Mossadegh and took control

of Iran (Johnson, 2020). After his death, they reinstated the shah's authority and installed

Fazlollah Zahedi, an Iranian commander backed by the United States, in Mossadegh's stead.

So, the United Kingdom and the United States set up a government in Iran that they could

manipulate.

Financial backing was the main strategy employed in the political action taken by the

US. The US endeavored to see that all the plans were successful. Thus, they sought to supply

all necessary resources to see them prosper. They funded the coup and ensured that it resulted

in the ousting of Mossadegh (Johnson, 2020). The project was still incomplete as there had to

be a suitable replacement that would stick to the plan and enforce policies that favored their

interests. Consequently, they funded the election of Fazlollah Zahedi as prime minister and

restored the shah's authority. Funding is an effective way of attaining political action since

political activities are usually very expensive. Providing politicians with the prospect of a

better political future with minimal financial investment is an opportunity that they will rarely

dismiss. The US understood this and harnessed it to the fullest.

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Political action also involves influencing political decisions in a certain direction

(Cormac, 2019). The US sought to attain this through the shah. Relations between the United

States and Iran improved after the coup. The shah's connection with the United States is

responsible for the prevailing favorable climate, not the happiness of the Iranian people at

large. After Britain and the United States had returned the shah to power, they thought they

had the authority to guide his activities, giving them sway over Iran (Alavi and Singh, 2022).

The shah, sometimes described as the "American puppet," rose to power with the help of the

United States and eventually became the dictator of Iran (Alavi and Singh, 2022). The shah

enjoyed significant benefits from the US and Britain and was always obliged to do as they

asked of him. Hence, he chose dictatorship as the appropriate way of meeting this objective.

A dictatorship is a form of leadership that does not take into account the opinions of others.

The shah only considered the interests of the US and Britain and acted upon them without

further consultations.

The US also employed paramilitary operations during the covert action in Iran.

Paramilitary operations comprise the efforts to strengthen the military to suit one's interests

(Cormac, 2019). These operations may include training them and offering intelligence. The

oppressive rule of Shah Reza led to increased hate from leaders and citizens alike. Such

situations meant that coups were a possibility. Thus, reinforcing the military would ensure

enhanced security. The US instituted the Iranian National Intelligence and Security

Organization (SAVAK) and utilized it to keep Mohammed Reza in power (Alavi and Singh,

2022). The organization employed 30,000 Iranians who were used to enforce the shah's tyrant

rule. The regime was involved in torturing, jailing, and even killing any opponents of the

shah. About 5,000 soldiers were tasked with such duties out of the population (Alavi and

Singh, 2022). The autocratic nature of the shah's rule meant that there was a disconnect

between official policy and popular sentiment.

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Paramilitary operations in Iran were depicted in the form of enhanced military

equipment. The United States not only enabled the shah to forcibly restructure and preserve

his nation but also assisted him in constructing and maintaining an army. Several US

presidents signed laws and supported diplomatic initiatives that maintained cordial ties with

the shah. Mohammad Reza gave in to American demands and rammed laws through

parliament designed to placate the United States. The Majles, a parliament handpicked by the

shah, authorized a proposal to borrow $200 million from the United States in 1964 to fund

the acquisition of military supplies and equipment. Opponents of the Shah in every part of the

world interpreted this pact as a sign of servitude to the United States. Together with the

United States, the shah successfully expanded his military might. US President Richard

Nixon and his cabinet gave Mohammad Reza the green light in 1971 to buy a limitless

quantity of the cutting-edge military hardware available at the time, with the exclusion of

nuclear weapons (Johnson, 2022). From 1974 until 1977, Iran received a steady stream of

military assistance from President Gerald Ford (Johnson, 2022). As a result, Iran's military

was the most sophisticated and well-trained in the Persian Gulf region by 1978.

The covert action led to numerous desired outcomes. In spite of widespread anti-

Israeli sentiment among the Iranian population, the country really supported Israel as a friend

owing to the US's commitment to preserving a peaceful relationship with the Jewish state.

Iran's economy was hamstrung in the 1960s by rampant inflation (Johnson, 2022). Many

wealthy families had ties to either the oil business or the shah. Such households were

unusually wealthy compared to the general public. This situation again portrayed the use of

financial backing in propagating covert action. The shah benefited from oil money as a result

of his alliances with the United Kingdom and the United States (Johnson, 2022). As a result,

he felt little compassion for his troubled country. Thus, oppression continued under his watch

as he continued to fulfill the desires of the US and Britain.

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Blowback of Covert Action

Blowback of covert action constitutes the unintended consequences of such an

operation. The unintended consequences include those impacts that were beside the original

plans. The US covert action in Iran led to several unintended consequences. One such impact

was the rise of revolutionaries. The covert action sought to strengthen the military to curb

coup attempts. However, the tough times of the 1970s led to an upsurge in revolutionaries.

Anger over the shah's rule sparked three major revolutionary groups in Iran: religious leaders,

students, and women (Rafique and Butt, 2020). Iranian women sought primarily to bring

down the oppressive rule of the shah. Women of the revolution fought back against

Mohammad Reza by staging demonstrations and guerilla operations (Rafique and Butt,

2020). University students at home and abroad were also active in revolutionary movements

alongside women's organizations. The Confederation of Iranian Students was by far the

biggest student group. There was a wide variety of political beliefs among these students, but

the vast majority identified with either the religious left or Marxism. They were dissatisfied

with Mohammad Reza on several fronts, including the government and the country's living

circumstances (Rafique and Butt, 2020). Thus, several places with universities, including

Tehran, saw demonstrations and revolutions spearheaded by students. Attempts by the shah's

troops to quell the protesters resulted in the deaths of numerous Iranians. Such incidences

only sparked further outrage from the general public. The increasingly hostile environment

created was undesirable for business and threatened the US and Britain, which had invested

heavily in Iranian oil.

Khomeini was the toughest revolutionary Mohammed Reza faced. Khomeini received

his education at the world's preeminent Shi'a scholarly center and became an Islamic

fundamentalist (Zahedi, 2018). His major points of objection were the enhanced

westernization of Iran and the rising American influence in Iran. Khomeini felt that the US
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and Israel were at war against Islam, which is why they were taking such actions in Iran. One

of the points utilized by Khomeini was based on the events of 1962 (Zahedi, 2018).

Mohammed Reza was coerced by the Kennedy administration to allow non-Muslims to vie

for political positions. This development was a starting point for Khomeini in his campaign.

Reza had also offered American protection against prosecution in Iranian courts, angering

Khomeini even further. The ideological standpoint of, Khomeini was his greatest attribute,

and he utilized it to influence other Iranians to protest the oppressive regime.

The covert action's objective to strengthen US-Iran relations failed. Instead, the long-

term outcome involved a worsening relationship between the two. Khomeini and other

Iranian officials cast the United States as a country motivated only by its own interests. As a

result, ties between the US and Iran worsened after the Islamic Revolution ended in 1979

(Milani, 2018). The American opposition to Khomeini's revolution was no secret to him. For

this reason, he fiercely opposed any kind of cooperation with the United States. Khomeini

said the United States was stealing Iran's wealth (Milani, 2018). He said that US exploitation

pushed the Iranian people into a bloody revolution. Khomeini was prepared to jeopardize his

financial future to eliminate western influence in Iran. The rejection of the US financial

backing was a blow to their previously established political action. Hence, it was difficult to

continue with positive US-Iran relations.

Another unintended consequence of the covert action was Iran's increased support for

the Soviet Union. The US had originally instituted the action to enhance neutrality in Iran.

They sought to ensure that Iran showed no support to the Soviet Union. However, this

quickly changed after the revolution in 1979. Khomeini made sure that the US no longer

influenced Iran (Bayandor, 2019). He then proceeded to allow the Tudeh party to exist in the

country. In addition to allowing this pro-Moscow party to resurface in Iran, he also took

actions that benefited the Soviet Union. When the United States needed to spy on the Soviet
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Union, Iran was a key location. The drop in CIA spying in Iran may be traced back to the

Islamic revolution (Bayandor, 2019). When Khomeini gained power, he shut down two CIA

facilities. One was located close to Bandar Shah, right on the border with the Soviet Union.

The second one was out in the middle of nowhere in Kabkam. US officials could not monitor

the Soviet nuclear and missile testing facility in Soviet Central Asia since Khomeini had

closed down the relevant infrastructure. These actions moved Iran from a neutral position to

the Soviet Union's side (Milani, 2018). Khomeini was doing everything to ensure that the US

gained no benefits from Iran. The US was increasingly weakened, with its military bases in

the country being destroyed. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, was granted various

benefits that allowed them to gain intelligence on the US military. This outcome was an

unintended consequence of the covert action.

The Iranian revolution led to reduced Western influence on the oil industry. The US

and Britain had made significant investments in the Iranian oil industry. Thus, the covert

action sought to cement the relationship and ensure that the US constantly gets a share of the

proceeds from the industry (Bayandor, 2019). However, the reign of Khomeini saw the

halting of all these transactions. Khomeini rejected any attempts to sway him by the West.

This stance meant that no Western nation could influence or even control how this sector of

the economy is managed. A fifth of OPEC's production capacity was halted as a direct

consequence of the Iranian revolution, validating these fears (Zahedi, 2018). The effect of

Iran's oil embargo on the market was significant. The American media immediately started

making predictions about the potential increase in the price of oil as a result of Iran's actions.

Around 200 million fewer barrels of oil were purchased by the United States in 1979. In

December, oil prices were around 50% higher than they had been when Iran initially reduced

oil production (Zahedi, 2018). Thus, the US enjoyed even fewer profits from the oil industry.

Conclusion
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The Iranian revolution remains one of the pivotal moments in the country's history.

The enhanced influence of the US in Iran led to numerous undesired outcomes in Iran. The

foregoing of Islam beliefs and undertaking American ideals influenced individuals like

Khomeini to resist Reza's regime. The forceful installation of Reza also had a significant

influence on the revolution but was not the main reason. The covert action implemented by

the US eventually crumbled when the uprising happened.

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References

Alavi, M. and Singh, A. 2022. Revolution Erupted in Iran Because of Mohammad Reza

Shah. Fair Observer.

https://www.fairobserver.com/region/middle_east_north_africa/revolution-

erupted-in-iran-because-of-mohammad-reza-shah/

Bayandor, D., 2019. The Shah, the Islamic Revolution and the United States (pp. 10-11).

New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96119-4

Cormac, R. and Aldrich, R.J., 2018. Grey is the new black: covert action and implausible

deniability. International affairs, 94(3), pp.477-494.

https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiy067

Cormac, R., 2019. Techniques of covert propaganda: the British approach in the mid-

1960s. Intelligence and National Security, 34(7), pp.1064-1069.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02684527.2019.1645434

Hartnett, L. A. 2022. Iran's Revolution: Influenced by Reza Shah's Reforms? Wondrium

Daily. https://www.wondriumdaily.com/irans-revolution-influenced-by-reza-

shahs-reforms/

Johnson, L.K., 2020. Reflections on the ethics and effectiveness of America's 'third

option': covert action and US foreign policy. Intelligence and National

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Johnson, L.K., 2022. The Third Option: Covert Action and American Foreign Policy.

Oxford University Press.

Milani, M.M., 2018. The making of Iran's Islamic revolution: from monarchy to Islamic

republic. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429494451

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Rafique, S. and Butt, P.D.K.M., 2020. Position of women in Iran: An analysis of pre and

post Islamic revolution 1979. South Asian Studies, 32(2).

http://111.68.103.26/journals/index.php/IJSAS/article/viewFile/3119/1317

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Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429496417