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    Chemosphere 307 (2022) 185089 Contents ist available a SclenceDirece ‘Chemosphere Chemosphere Px journal homepage: ww clsovier.comilocatalchemosphere ® Composting and green technologies for remediation of phthalate eae (PAE)-contaminated soil: Current status and future perspectives Huu-Tuan Tran‘’, Minh-Ky Nguyen‘, Hong-Giang Hoang‘, Justin M. Hutchison’, Chi Thanh Vu" {et Eonmana an Archer EngeingDrpermen, Unter of Koss, Leet, KS. 6045, SA * Pog Marte Since nd Teor Nate! Kal Urry of Sete a Tel, Kash 81157, Tawar Fay tnt and Mal Ru gan Uno Ho Mah ym i ran War a Dv Da He CA hy 70000, Vt ‘acl of Meine Dang No Tecan nts, en es ang Nat 76100, ie Ne “cil and Brome Ener Deere Vevey of Alana Rr nil, AL 95899, A {PAE contaminated sil x an envio ‘Composing is robust and efetve for the remediation of PAE contaminated i. fo The vices and diversity of the mi Becteria with thelr specie enzymes play Key roles ia PAE degradation. ‘dling tr: De Yeomin Yoo Palate ers (PAES) ave hnzatdons organic compounds tat ate widely added pastes 1 eave dhl Alexi, temperature, and ele tolerance, The increase in global consinpion andthe corresponding en eyo ramet pelluton of PAE has eaused bad publi eoneetas As most PAES accumulate in sol de ote high Phe wes Iytophobity, composing i a robust remediation technology for PAE-contaminated soll (eicleney 25% Orga water obi commancy 100%), where microbial activity pays an imporcant roe. This review sunmarized the roles of the mlrobal ‘community, biodegradation pathy, an specific enzyes involved in the PAE degradation. Aso, other green technologies, including boca adsorpin,bioaygmentation, and phytoremetato, for PAE degraaton were nko presented, compared, and ecised. Composing combined with these technologie sgifcnyenbanced Temoval eficieney jet, the properties nd roles ofeach Bacterial sin in the degridation, upscaling, ate cone easily shouldbe led in fate vserc. Bal adres cvntranek-ea (HL. Taw, Inup//éoLorg/10.1016/ chemosphere 2022-13598 Received 19 April 2022; Received in revised form Angst 2022; Accepted 6 Angus 2022 Aine online 18 Ags 2022, (0045 6535/Crown Copyright © 2022 Pablsied by Revie Lid. Al igs eserve, 1. Introduction In plastic manufacturing, phthalate esters (PAES) are often used 10 enhance the flexibility and durability of plasis. PAES are widely devected in many industrial residential, and even agricultural arexs worldwide because of the ubiquitous use of plastics (Abdel daiem etal, 2012; Ferreira and Morita, 2012; Kaewlaoyoong etal, 2018; Nguyen tal, 2022b). As the global production of plastics is over 150 milion tons year 4, dhe annual consumption of PAES i around 6-8 million tons {Gao etal, 2018; Linnstedt and Ekl6y, 2016; Net et al, 2015). With this ‘widespread use and subsequent environmental contamination, PAE has heen found in every environmental media, including sil, sediment, ‘water, and even air (Dargnat etal, 20095 Lee et al, 2019b; Ln etal 2009). Yet, with high hydrophobicity, PAE contamination mainly occurs {in soil (Loe et al, 201035 Wei etal, 2020), Infect, PABS are one ofthe ‘mest frequently detected persistent organic polluants (POPs) in sol ‘with half-lives varying from 3 to 2000 years under natural conditions (Gao and Wen, 2016). DAES are endocrine dsrupting chenulcals (EDC) and potential ear iogens. The impart on normal physiological hormones Function has been previously reported (Diamant Kandarahis et al, 20095 Kars Janta et al, 2016; Mankidy eta, 2019), and exposure to PAES is linked to an increased risk of breast eancer (Hiseh et aly. 2012; LLipez Carillo et al, 2010). Additionally, PAES have shown adverse effects onthe reproductive system (Slicer, 2006; Wang eal, 20190. Due to their high toxicity, specitie PAS, dit butyl phthalate (DaBP), icthy! phthalate (DEP), diethylhexy! phthalate (DEHP), disononyl phthalate (DINP), are listed as EDCs by WHO/IPCS (2002) and ‘WHO-UNEP (2013) (Kay et al, 20143 Kay etal, 2013; WHO-UNED, 2015). Therefore, in recent years, the remediation of PAE-contaminated soil has been a focus of environmental engineering, especially when the “hot” topic of micropollutants is etrcting broad public interes. ‘Several treatment technologies are recommended for the remedia. tion of PAK contaminated soll, Including biochar adsorption (Zhang etal, 2016), eleetrokinetic and nano oxidation processes (Yang el. 2015), chemical oxidation (Wang ets, 201), and eomposting ¢Pran rl, 20210). Among then, composting i @ promising blodegedation technology due tots high biodegradation efficiency, low environmental impacts, and cost feasibility (Iran et al, 2018), There are two main ‘composting techniques, erobie aad anaerobic, Aerobie composting has shown higher removal effceney and shorter incubation time than anaerobic composting (Tra et al., 2020), For instanee, Yuan et al (2011) reported 919-969 DEHP removal initial concentration 50-250 ing kg") in soil after 30 days of aerobic incubation, whereas only 55%— {6936 DEHP (initial concentration 100 mg kg") was removed after 12 days of anaerobic composting (He et al, 2018). In the composting biodegradation process, microblal activity plays a critical role in determining the removal efleiency and rate (Hoang et al, 2022) “Amiong the mieroorgantsms inthe compost mixture, bacteria ate key t0 biodegradation since their enzymes (eg, hydrolase, esterase, proto catechuse) vastly accelerate biodegradation. Numerous studies have evaluated bioremediation strategies for PAE- contaminated sol (Ca et al, 20080; Das etal, 20215 Xiang eal 2020), ‘he role ofthe microbial community and the overall mechanism of PAE. biodegradation have also been reported. However, a knowledge gap ‘exists for the microbial community's structure and dynamic response luring the composting process. Also, the role of bacterial strains and their specific enzymes in PAE degradation remains ambiguous. There fore, this study aims to comprehensively discuss composting degrada tion of PAE-contaminated sil, Current knowledge on the variation of ‘microbial community structure, the role of bacteria and ther specific ‘enzymes, and biodegradetion pathneays were also provided. Further, ‘ther green technologies, including biochar sdsorption, phytor relation, snd biomugmentation were summarized, compared, and discussed. Finely, research gaps were identified and recommendations for fuure research were accordingly provided, Chena 307 (202) 195989 2. Methodology The database ofthis review was created wsing Google Scholar, NCBI, PubMed, and Web of Sclence (Table Si and Fig. Si). We pald more arcention to the publications between 2010 and 2022 since they pro Vided upo-date information. Reflecting the concern of PAE eontani- ‘ation, the number of publications has inereased more than 10 times from 2010 to 2020 (Fg. 1). Meanwhile, the number of publications on the composting remediation of PAE contaminated soi has displayed a sna increasing trend. 3. Overview of PAES 3.1. Physicochemical properties of PABS “The fate and transport of PABS inthe environment depend mich on their physicochemical properties, especially Koy (octanol-water part tion coefficient), Koy (Octanol air partition coefficient), Kyy (air-water partition cooffiient, Kec (organic earbon partion coefficient) and ‘vapor pressure (Kashyap and Agarwal, 2018) (Table 1). For example, {Cousins el. (2003) reported that high Koye values mean essy sorption ‘nto surfaces and organic matters, and the Log (Ko) increases with Ineeasing sky chan length, which also means greater hydrophobicity ‘Vapor pressure (at 25 °C, in mm Hg) decreases with Ineeasing molar volume (gol 1) oF alkyl chain length. In genera, low molecular ‘weight (LMW) PAES (eg, DEP and DBP) ae easier ro biodegrade than high molecular weight (MW) PAES(e.., DEP and DuOP) (Tuan Tran etal, 2022) 312. Main sources of PAE xopogente(residentil, agricultural, and especially industrial) activities ae the main PAE sources (ig. 2). Currently there are about 60 diferent PAE categories used for various types of industries sch as personal care products (eg, cosmetics, aie sprays, gels), material packaging, plastic manufacturing, Iubriants, insecticides, paint ad lives, aul adhesives (Eichler ets, 2019). Moreover, agricul ae lites Ce, irigation, Diosolid fertilization, and. sewage sludge dlscharge) with the use of agricultural film mulching, pesticides, and fertlizers contribute significantly to PAE-comtamination in soil (Cai et al, 2007; Guo and Kannan, 2012; Li et al, 2018 Net et al, 20155 ‘Tran etal, 2022a; Wang eta, 2013; Weschler etal, 2008; Yang etal, 2013; Zn et al, 2010). Residential activities can generate urban dust that contributes to sll contamination through deposition. Dry and wet ‘deposition contributes to PAE contamination in sol in highly indus alized areas (Wi et sl, 2015). Lan et al. (2012) found that bod fo ® fe Pig. 1. Grow i seve! publetions of bioremediation of plates i sll nd tat of bioemedaton of pats in sll using composting fom 2010 ‘Tablet Chena 307 (202) 195989 Characters of various commercial PAES (data were nosy obtained fom the US National Library of Medicine. Rite Conpowde Formula ‘ere op Lope Vaporpremue Sob —Maing—aing pO. i) ae omg 25) occ) 0760 mm) Pate Mn 19485 phalate Ma 202245 : Deru crerz204 aso 1g ama? nae <0 oo fhimine Marae w B8P Bugiemst Cte an sax sami 29 <0 a0 phim Matas w Padalste” 39080 mo wo DIP Disennyt ate sy a2 suo? azar Piumine Minas DIOP Disedeyl Catt a= 1oa5 601 Sane? oa s6 ae Hiding * oP Does conason m = aux 19010? ae 250 00 pale 39080 go * w Phdoise 33440 go? wo InP Disobuyl ——_cst204 = a tax 47610 at 0 amo Pine 7834 galt w wastewater sludge and urban dust inereased PAE levels in soi, 3.3. Current sams of worldwide PAE conaminared sil PAE contamination in soil has been found worldwide, including Asia (©. China and Taiwan), Europe (eg, Netherlands, Scotland, United ‘Kingdom, and France) and Africa (eg, South Africa) (ig. 3) (Brodskiy| ‘etal, 2019; Gibson etal, 2005; Hse a, 2003; Pesjnenburg and Stralis, 2006; hind et al, 2013; Zeng etal, 2008). AS@ result of urbanization ‘and industrinlization, PAE concentrations are higher in urban areas (Zheng eal, 2014) than eoncentetion in rural areas (Huo eta, 20165 Liver al, 2018 zhang el, 2015) High PAE levels are often found in ‘urban areas. For instance, Tvs eal. (2015) reported that the total PAE ‘oncentetions in French urban and rural soll were 1.089 and 0.154 yg 7, respectively. In rural areas, high PAE contamination was found in agricultural elds (4 eal, 20085 Zeng etal, 2008). ASO, due to rapid industriliation and wrbanization, PAE concentrations in China were higher than those in other countries (Li et l., 2018). Among PAES, _DEHP and dimethyl phthalate (DMP) are the most frequently detected in the soi since they are the min constients of plastic products (, hhouseware, household appliances, and agricultural equlpmend. 3.4. Toxicity and risk assessments ABS are regarded as hazardous organ contaminants due fo their adverse effects on the endocrine system, erythrocytic fanetions, and reproductive system of organisms (Li etal, 2018 Skrbié etal, 2016; "Tan et al, 2017), He otal. (2015) also reported that PAES were highly toxic to microbes in soi, PAES' toxicity is determined by their physi coehemieal properties (Gilani etal, 2020). HMW DAES (e.., DEHD ‘and DnBP) can cause hormonally mediated diseases and are considered potentil carcinogenic agents (Adeniyi etal, 2008; Fukwatar eta. 20025 eke eta, 2004). Thus, the United States Environmental Pro tection Agency (USEPA) has listed DEHP 95 high priority pollutant (US.EPA, 2018). PAE exposure negatively Impacts human heath via Pathways like inhalaon of eontaminated aerosols and consumption of contaminated food. Dally vegetable consumption 1s the mixin intake souree of PAES (Cheng et a, 2015; Nive a, 2014 Wang etl, 2015a, 20185 Nise ll, 2011) The risks of PAES exposure are assessed via & reference das, which is related to the tolerable dally intake (Gilians tal, 2020) with elevated risks for sensitive subpopalat fetuses and breasticeding infants (Pari e Industrial activities © Material packaging © Electonie manufieturing © Plasticizers © Personal care products QQ Additives, adhesives, lubricants, ete. © Film mulching Q Airpolietion Urban dust Eecaad Residental sources Chena 307 (202) 195989 Agricultural activities > Pesticides, insecticides > Fesilizers > Biosolid fertilization > Wastewater ¥ WIPsudge Sewage sludge Others Bb mente i ee ee Semen tc Leta aor) Wei etal (2020) Zhang ea. (2018) Gitson etal 2005) Tran etal. (2015) Wuctal 2015) Huta. (2003) hind etal. (2013) Brodsky eta. (2019) Tran etal. (2018) Skrbica 1.0016) Ade tl. (2008) eee & Masia 2012) AES concentration im ko") ig, 3. The situation of PAE contaminated soil wodwide ated soit 4. Composting remediation of PAE-contam 4.3. Overview of composing remediation of PAES in sit ‘Composting has been reported asa promising treatment for PAKS in soll (Amie ets, 20055 Pakow et sl, 2009). Aerobie and anseroble composting with different seales (e.g, pllt (10-110 L) (Solano etal 2022) and fel (1800-5000 1) (Cli el, 2022) could remove 2086- 100P% PAKS in sol CTble 2). Various types of organic Wastes (., sewage sludge, manure, fruit, and vegetable waste) have been used 28 compost terial Bulking agen (eg, sawdust, wood wast, rice straw) hhave been used 10 adjust the moisture of the compast mixture. Com posting biodegradation can (1) decrease moisture content due 10 Inetabolsm and volatilization mechanisms, (2) Inerease pit due to the release of organle acids, and (3) derease C/N ratio de 0 the decrease ‘of substrates via microbial activity (Chany et, 2009; Lin etal, 2017). Ths, in order to achieve high PAE biodegradation, composting cond tions aze often maintained as follows initial moisture content of 5085 {608, and C/N ratio of 20-30 (Li a, 2021; Ten a, 20219) 1 general, aerobic composting (oxygen content >108) results in ‘Tabled ‘Summary of aerbic/anarobic composting remediation of PAE-contaminated si Chena 307 (202) 195989 PA Compost macsale Tealcenansates Cendons (nab ncabton ‘Sele Tenor Reb (ae) soe) tine 6) cetiecy Toul waaeaed aan ‘Aerbienimam 56 PlotsaleQ0u3 WaEw 7ORR- Ginga reed wate ‘nym eel of 128) Haex2en2im) Sram (202i) Dead pits bamboo, and 100 esate m Labs Soom Heetal, (2018) mpesed shpat om Tool Slog pgmanure and) 255, eo © Borestar(eotume =201) 747¥- Fetal 2015) Tal Sonngerhdge svéue, 48-116 AeoieGolanaton 56 Fallcalecompa lex SRR Gata, ‘abe ted rod chip cteay) Heteise20%20m) soo (2012) goss Go) DEH Somapesgeand yard at etic ” Fattclecompont let 645 Polen caput wane Betntszceom) Seer 2010) De Sewagesgeandsbegp at erotic @ Borer V=28LD= 97% ho al manne osm (2009) bar Syutanaoom compont 500 partie » ble om Ganga, sedan mane (2005) Shige ce and sdast 200-900 eoig at yung 018 BowacarV=101)— ASH-85H Chung etal, ata) (2000) ‘id (200%) oa tudgeandwhest 3637 ansaabie 1a Plotsale Stam WL ea Roaxeeise bop Fit and vegetable wae 10-109000, erie a . som s00% snark eet Dene Laon spend sone 625 aoe 180 Compose (25cm) ons ‘ia gon sedge and ss 28.7 15 ons (eons) Dow Seuageshdgeand 82.99 Ansatie 2 campose (083) 2m ago eal, (005) eH sewngesudgeand wee 77 ee os mm Stone ak and pest (aoe) ‘odes pate (aos) eH Manca bowaste nd 25, ethic oa Boxcar V=180,D= 85 ari eta teed dey isa) ant) higher PAE removal and reguiresa shorter incubation time compared 10 anaerobic composting (Amir etal, 2005; Liang etal, 2008). Aerobie ‘composting could remove DEHP at 919%-97% alter 30 days, wherens anaerobic composting removed 55%-70% after 112 days (He et al. 20185 Yuan etal, 2011). During the composting process, the biodes ‘adation rate at the thermophilic phase i significantly higher chan that of other phases (mesophilic, cooling, and maturation) (Ft et al, 20135 ‘Tran et al, 20210). Ror instance, Tran et al. (2021b) showed that composting biodegradation renioved was 98% of DOTP, with the nia Jorty ofthe degradation (764%) occurring nthe thermophilic phase The thermophilic phase also had the highest degradation rate (0.149 day). Similary, the thermophilic phase accounted for 60% of DEHP degra ation compared f0 the toral removal of 889% (Cheng etl, 2008). "Thermophiic phase degradation is higher for two reasons. Fist, high Temperatures (55-70 °C) accelerate milerobial growth, especialy PAE degrading strains. Second, at higher temperatures, the viscosity of the PAES significantly decreases, enhancing oxygen penetration and interaction between PAES and the bacterial commit. 42. Roles of microbial comunity ‘The microbial community is key to PAE degradation in composting (Liang et a, 2008; Wang ec al, 20150) Next-generation sequencing has heen used to identify microbial strains and their fanetion in. PAE degradation (Tran etal, 20216). High throughput sequencing technol ‘gles have increasingly been used to study the succession and characteristics of microbial communities during composting of PAE. contaminated sol inching bacteria, fang, algae, and yeast (Fang ct al, 2017; Wang etal, 20196). Various bacteria (eg, Rhodococcus yridinivorans XB, Bacilus subtilis No.66, Gordonia sp. QH 11), fungi (e. 12, Aspergillus niger, Tranmets versicolor, Pleurotsoxreatus), algae (©, Chlorella pyrentdose, Clsterium lina) and yeast (e., Rhodetorula rubra, Saccharomyces cerevisiae) have been reported as PAE degraders (Genjamin er a, 2015; Liang ee el, 2008). Among these mieroorgan- tums, bacteria are the most abundant and play major roles in degrading ABs (en el, 2018). The characterises and function of the bacterial ‘omni ae feted by both internal (initial compost materials, substrates, pt, and G/N ratio) and external factors (e.g, operational conditions, including: aeration, moisture content, and temperature), ‘The richness and diversiy ofthe bacterial comunity are expressed via parameters like OTUS, Chao 1, Shannon diversity and shannon ‘evenness indexes (aie al, 2020), The richness and diversity vary composting phases. Often, without PAE, the indies increase from the mesophilic phase to the maturation phase (Wang et al, 2017, 2019a). For instance, Wang etal. (2017) indicated that after 29 days of food ‘waste composting, the Chao 1 and Shannon index increased rapidly fom 22010 411 and 3.31 10 3.85, respectively. However, with the presenee of high levels of PAKS (eg, DEHP and DOP), the richness and diversity decrease (Bai etal, 2020; Zing et al, 2017). Ror instance, at DOP concentration of 1000 mg kg, the bacterial diversity dramaticelly reduced from 2.6 (ay 2) 01.7 (day 12) Zina ec 2017). Simian, Ata DEHP concentration of 40 mg kg, themeasured Chao 1 (1293) and ‘Shannon index (5.88) were lower than those a concentration of 10 mg kg" (1411 and 5.97, respectively) (Gio el, 2020). The toxicity of PAGS can dsrupt cell membrane Muldity and integrly, causing growth abnormalities and thus adverse effects onthe structure ofthe bacterial ‘omnnunity (Cartiright eta, 2000) Distinet shits In bacterial community structure were observed Oe 8-o1cny 7 so CHalCHaleCH O(CH eat OCH t oe ” — OCH. ' ‘CHe(CHahCHa 'GrOcHaors 'G-OCHCHs 7 C . Sono y 8 “beta-oxidation Betooxidation J *hthalates with long alkyl Phthalates with shorter _Dibutyl phthalate _Diethyi phthalate Dimethyl phthalate side-chain alkyl side-chain (DBP) (DEP) (DMP) De-estertication | : occ OH ' Trans-esterification ° Phthalic acid (PA) Aerobic pathway ‘ ‘ ! Sena ona en ' 1 cis-4,5-dihydro-4,5- ae 1 cnydrnyohtalate “ t ' 1 syd eu ‘ N coon ' LY prtcstecnate ' orto cleovge | metwcleovge ' (rcnensa er t re coo secondary depdaton pathway“ oes! Anaerobic pathway 623,34 itydroxyphthalate ee a ns 4-carboxy-2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde Chena 307 (202) 195989 rng the composting process (Bl ts, 20205 He ets, 2018). Fie cites, Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Bacteoidetes play a vital role in PAE biodegradation. Among them, Firmleutes were the most Abundant a¢ the phylum level (Ba el, 20205 Zang. et a, 2017). The relative abundance of Firnicutes declined remarkably with increasing temperanute during composting (Wang etn, 2019). For example, on 5 | Monotype OF 1; Trans-esterification © De-esterfication | Qf Pale sed —_Mono-methy phthalate ig. 4 Proposed (a) pray and (b) secondary pathways for PAE biodegradation under aetobe an anaerobic conditions. Adaped fs (Saja e al, 20155 ang ea, 2008) ‘ay 1 (mesophilic phase), Finmleutes were the most abundant (76.798) ‘bt gradually declined ro 609% on day 10 (thermophilic phase, > 56 °C) {Wie et al, 2018). The thermophilc phase may Ime bacterial growth and even eliminate some mesophilic members. Lactobacilaes (phylum Firmiewtes) were reported to dominate during the thermophilic phase, ‘while Brellales dominated the bacterial community dung the meso philic phase (Graca eta, 2023). During the thermophilic phase, Proteobacteria were also found in high abundance (60.89) (Huang etal, 2021). Pseudoxathonomas sp. ‘phylum Proteobacteria) could use PAES as the sole carbon and energy source for metabolism (Meng et al, 2015). Likewise, the relative abundance of Bacteruidetes dramatically increased (to 12.4%) during the thermophilic phase since they can break down macromolecules (eg, cellulose, lipid, and protein) for energy production (Hang et al, 2021). In contrast, Acidobacteria dominated the maturation phase, indicating the maturity of compost. Some gram-negative (e.g, Shingomonas _yanoiknyae, Comanonas acidavorans and Dela sp.) and gram positive bacteria (eg, Artabacter sp., Grdonia sp., and Rhodococcus sp.) have ‘been Identified ns key PAE degrades, 4.3. Blodegradaton patway Complete PAE biodegradation requires primary and secondary pathways (Fig. 4). The primary pathway includes beta oxidation, de ‘esterification or dealkylation, and rns esterifiation or demethylation PAE with along alkyl chain are converted co shor alkyl eatin (sich as ict phthalate (DEP)) via beta oxidation. Then, the shorter chain is ‘oxidized to phthalic acid (PA) through either de-esterfication for DEP or ‘wans-sterification DMP. For DEP, the hydrolysis of each ethyl group ‘occurs in the de-sterification, producing mono-ethyl phthalate (SEP) and finally PA. For DMP, trans-esterification produces mono-methyl hinted finally PA. In the secondary degradation, PA is metabolized and minerlized ‘under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, Under aerobic conditions, PA's ring cleavage occurs diflerently sith gram negative and gram positive bacteria. Gram negative bacteria produce dioxygenase to catalyze Dhihalate 4,5: dioxygenase into cis45-dihyaroxy 4,5-dihyaroph Thalate, whereas grant postive bacterin convert PA via el 3,4-dihy. ‘roxy 34-ihydrophthalate, Both pathway produce protocatecha ‘which is further metabolized via ether ortho-oF- mera cleavage (by sing cleavage enzymes). Inthe orto cleavage, protocateliate i eleaved in the ring to form betacarboxy-cis, cis muconic acid, and finally beta etoadipate. Pseudomonas fluorescens and P. putida are known to sup ‘port this metabolism, Inthe mera-cleavage, protocatechuate is degraded nto 4carboxy-2hydroxymiconie and semi aldeayde, whic i finally ‘oxidized to pyrvate and oxaloacetate, These intermedinte prodacts are then oxidized and enter the tricarboxylic aid (TCA) eyele. Under anaerobie conditions, PA is converted to benzoate via decar Doxylation. The benzoate is futher degraded to acetate and methane Baceia with thes encoding specifi nzyues for PAE bigradation, Chena 307 (202) 195989 During the decarboxylation pathway, Imermediate products have been identified in some cases. Anaerobic degradation pathway is stil ambiguous due to the lack of some information on PAES bacteria degrading. So fat, Claridum sp. and methanogenic consortia were te ported as degrading phuhalae aerobically. 44, The specific enzymes involved in PAE biodegradation A list of bacteria and their specific enzymes for PAE biodegradation ‘was sunumarized in Table 9, Esterase and hydrolase play an important role in the primary pathway (conversion to PA), whereas proto catechuste 3,4 dioxygenase, eatechol 1,2, oxygensse, and phuhelate loxygensse are key to the Secondary pathway’ of PAE biodegradation ‘Niglet al. (2001) reported thatthe four isoesterases (BY1-4) from the cell free extract ofthe bacterium Bacillus sp. had the ability co utilize DMP as a carbon source. Thelt results slso indicated that isoesterases 1-1 and Et showed a significantly higher preference for DMP hydro. lysis compared to Et2 and Et, which played a vital role in the deescerificaton, Hydrolase, purified from cell extracts of Gordonia sp. strain P8219, was reported to effectively hydrolyze DEHP (Nishioka ft aly, 2006). Serine hydrolases were reported to be able to perform neta cleavage of intermediates of the PAE metabolism process (iabe etal, 2003; Omori et al, 1986), Rhodococcus sp. strain DKI7 was reported tobe able to oxidize and subsequently delydrogenate PAEs to form protocatechuate through the ‘genes encoding protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase (ring cleavage enzyme) (Choi etal, 2005). A similar nding revesled that nwo bacteri strains Acinetobacter sp. and Androbacter sp. could take Butyl Benzyl Phihalate (BBP) asthe carbon source and the degradation occurred Vs protoeatechnte 3,4 dionygenase that vns prodiced by these bacteria (fang et a, 20130). Moreover, eatechol 1,2 dloxygenase and eateehol 2,8-dioxygenase could help in cleaving the benzene ring, and the ae tivity ofthe former was reported fo be higher than that of the later (Sanahis eal, 2003), Chen et al. (2007) indicated that Mlrobacteriam sp. strain CQO110Y contained both catechol 1,2-dioxygenase and cate hol 2,3-dioxygenase, which helped accelerate DEHP degradation via Iiydroxylation of the benzoic acid. Then, the oxidation occured 10 produce eatechol nnd muconic acd, which finally entered the TCA cycle 5. Green technologies for remediation of PAE-contaminated soil recent yeas, various promising green technologies such as biochar adsorption, bioaugmentation, and phytoremediation have successfully ‘een employed in PAE removal (Tables 4-6, respectively), Thee ad ‘vantages and disadvantages are discussed below. Se Biochar adsonpion Dochar, with a large surface area and high porosity, has been ‘cmon Goran pin 219 yérotee bare Nobo a, 2006) iodo drops ere Dar ure, 1997) Meco ease DAP. Maps ate, 2001) ‘etebace sp Gam pte arse romeelate dlosypente ae ang at 200) hodcoc pein DRY? Gram poative aeober_ rotate dypeve Terephalte Che (205) Movdatansp. in CQOHIOY Gram postive aiobs bol Leaver pe ‘hem eal (2007) (Catcel 23aenygeme ee) ox Tetra ta (206) tongs YrsoeDOSOL Gram eae serber oa (Geeta 2009) ‘amare cnr DA Sram neg eroes ate tt ta 0998) ‘taco Gram aepve sree eae er Wiser, 2011) ‘aeneabace Sram eye sede Eee Hyalse ar asa ta (2002) ‘up HENS ram ep sever rae Palate eygene Ba Peal, 206) ‘Table Remediation PAE contami ed sl by bcs Chena 307 (202) 195989 ocr compere Maducion ‘edocs PA) Gotan permcers——Inparant facta on option cpaciy Ha Temperature CO) ae ww) Gps Grewal equation) (eee Tunic wd eae RO ones ‘Ber Sogo) hot aay verdad matin pal Came 0 eres 051 096 temperate pet boca anda Se 2014) Isz2252180 ‘gmc eon ees Wonder grt 450 NA bee aa 034 097 Preeeof Ca cold arate (ata sorpoe oo concenraine DBP (20 0 os, Der AseaSo2=085 967 099 Sutaigmiccaton lees end aeng Ce Hs-2isi + 040 086 pocemesotectar seat G01) tambon sitet nde 500 20 per wa NVA N/A OGeonteats Geeta ‘ie coe) Pipsndbamoc char 650 os pew wa NVA NVA rune amendient api andthe ew a rg eaton conte (om Senedd Mache 660 Lose per ost saaz oe oe Ottceents he pare aae of Resa (an a (20a) Went sem boc 450 001,002,005 oMP 243 125099 Bachar ation Cram ant ‘oa (Gea) phar oo 05.10 De 12782018 055 092 Becher ope, apiaton dane ane! [Ce Hetil #017 092 94 orpaiecabon Guay ‘Now HS high exganic carbon; LS low organic carbon: Ky -eundlich sorption coeficent, N (dimensiones) —wolneaty index; N/A Not Avalable Tables Bacterial ane PAs Inia ence ig ts) Renorl ene Bet Rind prnoaraa x ——DENP—_—a>100 er 5.0% To ca (018) Penna op OND SI bor 5 Sasi. erat 020) ota cord (C3) Dene 100 a3 (ise, 200) ots) ‘ria ee 2 bao Sas hag et a, (220) Sardis ap 17 me to 00% ag a (2019) iodo op 4 Dene 3000 S736 Wong ta (20185) ‘Agonres sp TO Dew 100, fat io tay (2018) Nystcurtn sp. YCRLE ba aw eum emetal (2016) Garni ap Den 100 na Wong ta (20198) io ier YOY bee toa z 737609290 Yonge a. (2018) ‘examined for the removal of many organic contaminants, Including AEs (Hung et l., 2018; Lap etal, 20215 Tran eal, 202245 Vi and Wu, 20195 Yang et al, 20138). Like other carbonaceous adsorbents, hydro phobic interaction, «x coordination, and hydrogen bonding are the ‘main adsorption mechanisms of biochar for organie pollutants (Vs ad ‘ya, 20225 Zhang et sl, 2013). Punedonal groups on the surface of carbonaceous adsorbents lke biochar might improve the adsorption capacity via ion exchange, complexation, co precipitation, and electro static interaetion (Chen etal, 2021; Vuand Wu, 2022; Wu et al, 2019). reundlich isotherm is often used to describe the biochar adsorption of PPABS, Zang etal. (2016) amended PAE-contaminated soll with 0.5% bamboo biochar and achieved relatively high N values (sorption in tensity) of 0.67-0.8. Similarly, Zang etal. (2014) added rice straw Diochar with 0.1-0.5 (w/w) to remove DEP and achieved N values of osi-1.01, ‘The adsorption efficiency is affected by the physicochemical prop ceties of contaminated soll (eg, organic matter and soll texture) and Diochar (guyen et al, 202255 Zhang, eta. 2016). High organic carbon soll (1S) may ineease adsomptve removal more than low organle er ‘von soll (LS), For example, reported Ky values for LS and HS with the Amendment of 0.5%-1.0% pig manure derived biocars were 2.78 (0.18 and 4.11 + 0.17 mg" L%ig respectively (Chen et al. (2021)- US contains more functional groups, whit help bind PAES via electrostatic, Iiydrophobie interactions, and hydrogen bonds (Zhang et sl, 2019). ‘Also, high mineral-nuspus complexes in HS inerease its aint for PAES (Chen et al, 20195 Wu et sl, 20195 Zhang et al, 2016). Xiang e a. (2020) investigated. the effects of paddy soil on DBP sorption sing Dioehar. The findings shossed that the positive effects on DBP sorption ‘were brought about by high aerobic surface paddy sol, whieh further helped enhance DBP biodegradation via aerobie bacterial metabolism (Gin et als, 2014), On the other hand, Qin el. (2018) investigated the _DBP sorption by pig biochar (PB) and bamboo biochar (BB). The higher clficiency of PB was attributed to its higher surface are, surface alka Linty, an mineral content (lin et al, 2014 Zhang et al, 2010). ‘Biochar can also reduce the bioavailability of PAES and improve the properties of soil (Zhang etal, 2016). Chen etal. (2019) reported that boca significantly reduced the bioavalabity of DEHP and enhanced microbial ctivity, reducing DEHP uptake in contantinated soil. He tl. (2016) revealed shat organic matter was key to reducing DEHD bioavailability in contaminated soil Moreover, biochar plays an Important role in soil amendment through immobilization and adsorp tion of organic contaminants, which significantly enhanced the prop: erties of contaminated sol (Chen etal, 2021) In so blochar increases Ht by allowing hydrogen fons to form due to Its negatively charged funetional groups (Zsa etl, 2013) and through the potential release of alkali salts (es Ca, Mg. ana Na, For instance, Dai etal. (2014) indiated that adding 19 biochar derived fom swine manure increased the sol pit by 83-19%, Chena 307 (202) 195989 Tables Phytoremediation of PAE-contaminatd si especies PAB ‘oconeatin —Expienal Remus Teleco ‘acre BCR) erton (6) We spinach (pmo Agua) ‘Da, BHF, oo1o7ee » Paar apake PAs hy oy, (ala wien Poo (aoe) ee egeble pie (Bra 001-068 win Thehighe Pax wee ound ia (hse ootinnae ree Cnt, a Bepmene snd poche (20) Tremors Agate rae ames, DED, ec) Al Mea stn) eww w7assamg

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