VIRGINIA CENTURIONE BRACELLI SCHOOL Early Thinkers
DAUGHTERS OF OUR LADY ON MOUNT CALVARY
POCTOY, ODIONGAN, ROMBLON
A. Y.2022-2023
UNDESRTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS
II. Topic: Culture and Society: The Perspectives of Anthropology and
Sociology
OBJECTIVES
1. Appreciate the value of disciplines of Anthropology, Sociology, and
Political Science as social sciences.
2. Understand the shared concerns of Sociology, Anthropology and
Political science
A. The Holistic Study of Humanity: Anthropology Definition and
Scope of Anthropology
Anthropology is derived from two Greek words anthropos and logos,
which intensively studies human and the respective cultures where
they were born and actively belong to.
It is considered the father or even grandfather of all social and
behavioral sciences like sociology, economics and psychology, to name
a few. The discipline had its humble beginnings with early European
explorers and their accounts which produced initial impressions about
the native peoples they encountered in their explorations.
The father of American anthropology, Franz Boaz, a physicist,
strongly believed that the same method and strategy could be applied
in measuring culture and human behavior while conducting research
among humans including uniqueness of their cultures. Two American
anthropologists Alfred Kroeber and William Henry Morgan, became
prominent in their field since their specialization included the
championing of indigenous rights like traditional cultural preservation
and ancestral domain of the American Indian tribes they intensively
studied.
Historical Beginnings
Ruth Benedict became a specialist in anthropology
and folklore and authored the famous book Patterns
of Culture.
The field of anthropology offers several topics for relevant research
and discussion in various academic fields since its distinct way of data
gathering from their respondents applies participant observation which
is central to ethnography. Bronislaw Malinowski is the founding father
of this strategy.
B. The Study of the Social World: Sociology
Sociology and the Sociological Perspective
Sociology is the study of society, social institutions, and social
relationships. Sociology is interested in describing and explaining
human behavior, especially as it occurs within a social context
(Merriam- Webster).
Studying sociology is practical and useful. A social beings, we gain
understanding of how the social world operates and of our place in it
Sociology’s point of view is distinct from other sciences. Peter
Berger explains that the perspective of sociology enables us to see
“general patterns in particular events” (Macionis, 2010). This means
finding general patterns in particular events.
History of Sociology as Science
Sociology emerged with the two of the most significant social and
political revolution in the history. The French Revolution of 1789, along
with the Industrial Revolution in England during the 18 th century,
tremendously changed people’s lives.
August Comte (1798-1857) is the person who “invented” sociology in
1842, by bringing together the Greek word socius or “companion” and
the Latin word logy or “study”. He originally used “social physics” as a
term for sociology. Its aim was to discover the social laws that govern
the development of society. Comte suggested that there were three
stages in the development of societies, namely the theological stage,
the metaphysical stage, and the positive stage.
The founding mother of sociology is Harriet Martineau (1802-1876), an
English writer and reformist. In her accounts in her book How to
Observe Morals and Manners (1838), the deep sociological insights we
call now ethnographic narratives are fully expressed.
Karl Marx (1818-1883), a German philosopher and revolutionary
further contributed to the development of sociology. Marx introduced
the materialist analysis of history which discounts metaphysical
explanation for historical development. Before Marx, scholars explain
social change through divine intervention and the theory of “great
men”.
Marx is the forerunner of the conflict theory. He wrote the
Communist Manifesto a book that is focused on the misery of the lower
class (working class) caused by the existing social order. He reiterated
that political revolution was vital in the evolutionary process of the
society, the only means to achieve improvement of social conditions.
Emile Durkheim (1864-1920) a French sociologist who put forward the
idea that individuals are more products rather than the creator of
society; the society itself is external to the individual. In his book
Suicide, Durkheim proved that social forces strongly impact on people’s
lives and that seemingly personal event is not personal after all.
Max Weber (1864-1920) Weber stressed the role of rationalization in
the development of society. For Weber, rationalization refers essentially
to the disenchantment of the world. As science began to replace
religion, people also adopted a scientific or rational attitude to the
world. People refused to believe in myths and superstitious beliefs.
C. The Study of Politics: Political Science
Political Science is part of the social sciences that deals with the
study of politics, power, and government. In turn, politics refers to “ the
process of making collective decisions in a community, society, or group
through application of influence and power” (Ethridge and Handelman
2010, p.8). Political Science studies how even the most private and
personal decisions of individuals are influence by collective decisions of
a community. “The personal is political.”
Politics
Generally, politics is associated with how power is gained and
employed to develop authority and influence on social affairs. It can
also be used to promulgate guiding rules to govern the state. It is also a
tactic for upholding collaboration among members of a community,
whether from civil or political organizations.
Concept of Politics
Politics is allied with government which is considered as the ultimate
authority. It is the primary role of the government to rule the society by
stipulating and transmitting the basic laws that will supervise the
freedom of the people. Each form of government possesses power to
attain order that should lead toward social justice.
Politics as Science
Science is commonly defined as the knowledge derived from
experiment and observation systematically done. Policy-making and
government decisions should be done through proper research, social
investigation, analysis, validation, planning, execution and evaluation.
Thus, politics is a science.

III. Topic: Theoretical Foundations of Culture, Society and Politics
OBJECTIVES
:
1. Understand the two important functions of concepts and principles.
2. Analyze the different sociological perspectives.
Humans seek explanations about why things happen. Each person has
ideas about the nature of existence, motion, and relationships. Our
ideas come from everywhere- from experiences, conversations,
materials we read, media we access, our teachers, family friends and
foes—all these are sources of ideas.
A. What is a Theory?
Theory explains how some aspect of human behavior or performance
is organized. It thus enables us to make predictions about that
behavior. The components of theory are concepts (ideally well defined)
and principles.
A concept is a symbolic representation of an actual thing - tree, chair,
table, computer, distance, etc.
Construct is the word for concepts with no physical referent -
democracy, learning, freedom, etc. Language enables
conceptualization.
A principle expresses the relationship between two or more concepts
or constructs. In the process of theory development, one derives
principles based on one’s examining/questioning how things/concepts
are related.
Concepts and principles serve two important functions:
1. They help us to understand or explain what is going on around
us.
2. They help us predict future events (Can be causal or
correlational)
Theories are crucial to science because they provide a logical
framework for making sense out of scientific observations. In sociology,
a theory is a set of general assumptions about the nature of society.
B. Theoretical Paradigms Macro vs. Micro view
Sociologists may study human society by focusing on the large
social phenomena or “the big picture”, such a social institutions and
inequality to see how it operates. This is the macro view. They can also
zero in on the immediate social situation where people interact with
one another or looking at the situational patterns of social interaction.
This is the micro view.
Three Major Perspectives in Sociology
Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from
different perspectives. From concrete interpretations to sweeping
generalizations of society and social behavior, sociologists study
everything from specific events (the micro level of analysis of small
social patterns) to the “big picture” (the macro level of analysis of large
social patterns).
The pioneering European sociologists, however, also offered a broad
conceptualization of the fundamentals of society and its workings. Their
views form the basis for today's theoretical perspectives, or paradigms,
which provide sociologists with an orienting framework—a
philosophical position—for asking certain kinds of questions about
society and its people.
Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical perspectives:
the symbolic interactionist perspective, the functionalist perspective,
and the conflict perspective. These perspectives offer sociologists
theoretical paradigms for explaining how society influences people, and
vice versa. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social
forces, and human behavior (see Table 1)
Sociological Level of Focus
Perspective Analysis
1. Symbolic Micro Use of symbols; Face –to-face
interactionism interactions
Relationship between the
2. Functionalism Macro parts of society; How aspects
of society are functional
3. Conflict Theory Macro Competition for scarce
resources; How the elite
control the poor and the weak
The symbolic interactionist perspective
The symbolic interactionist perspective, also known as symbolic
interactionism, directs sociologists to consider the symbols and details
of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how people interact
with each other. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to
Max Weber's assertion that individuals act according to their
interpretation of the meaning of their world, the American philosopher
George H. Mead (1863–1931) introduced this perspective to American
sociology in the 1920s.
According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, people attach
meanings to symbols, and then they act according to their subjective
interpretation of these symbols. Verbal conversations, in which spoken
words serve as the predominant symbols, make this subjective
interpretation especially evident.
The words have a certain meaning for the “sender,” and, during
effective communication, they hopefully have the same meaning for the
“receiver.” In other terms, words are not static “things”; they require
intention and interpretation.
Conversation is an interaction of symbols between individuals who
constantly interpret the world around them. Of course, anything can
serve as a symbol as long as it refers to something beyond itself.
Written music serves as an example. The black dots and lines become
more than mere marks on the page; they refer to notes organized in
such a way as to make musical sense. Thus, symbolic inter-actionists
give serious thought to how people act, and then seek to determine
what meanings individuals assign to their own actions and symbols, as
well as to those of others.
Consider applying symbolic interactionism to the American
institution of marriage. Symbols may include wedding bands, vows of
life-long commitment, a white bridal dress, a wedding cake, a Church
ceremony, and flowers and music. American society attaches general
meanings to these symbols, but individuals also maintain their own
perceptions of what these and other symbols mean. For example, one
of the spouses may see their circular wedding rings as symbolizing
“never ending love,” while the other may see them as a mere financial
expense. Much faulty communication can result from differences in the
perception of the same events and symbols.
Critics claim that symbolic interactionism neglects the macro level of
social interpretation—the “big picture.” In other words, symbolic inter-
actionists may miss the larger issues of society by focusing too closely
on the “trees” (for example, the size of the diamond in the wedding
ring) rather than the “forest” (for example, the quality of the marriage).
The perspective also receives criticism for slighting the influence of
social forces and institutions on individual interactions.
The functionalist perspective
According to the functionalist perspective, also called
functionalism, each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes
to society's functioning as a whole. The government, or state, provides
education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on
which the state depends to keep itself running. That is, the family is
dependent upon the school to help children grow up to have good jobs
so that they can raise and support their own families. In the process,
the children become law- abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn
support the state. If all goes well, the parts of society produce order,
stability, and productivity. If all does not go well, the parts of society
then must adapt to recapture a new order, stability, and productivity.
For example, during a financial recession with its high rates of
 unemployment and inflation, social programs are trimmed or cut.
Schools offer fewer programs. Families tighten their budgets. And a
new social order, stability, and productivity occur.
The conflict perspective
The conflict perspective, which originated primarily out of Karl
Marx's writings on class struggles, presents society in a different light
than do the functionalist and symbolic interactionist perspectives.
While these latter perspectives focus on the positive aspects of society
that contribute to its stability, the conflict perspective focuses on the
negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike
functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social change, and
believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists
challenge the status quo, encourage social change (even when this
means social revolution), and believe rich and powerful people force
social order on the poor and the weak. Conflict theorists, for example,
may interpret an “elite” board of regents raising tuition to pay for
esoteric new programs that raise the prestige of a local college as self-
serving rather than as beneficial for students.
C. Elements of Culture
To understand culture, it is necessary to understand the different
elements that compose it:
1. Knowledge – It refers to any information received and perceived to
be true.
2. Beliefs—The perception of accepted reality. Reality refers to the
existence of things whether material or nonmaterial.
3. Social Norms-- These are established expectations of society as to
how a person is supposed to act depending on the
requirements of the time, place, or situation.
Different forms of Social Norms
1. Folkways—The patterns of repetitive behavior which becomes
habitual and conventional part of living.
2. Mores—The set of ethical standards and moral obligations as
dictates of reason that distinguishes human acts as right or
wrong or good from bad.
3. Values—Anything held to be relatively worthy, important, desirable,
or valuable.
4. Technology—The practical application of knowledge in converting
raw materials into finished products.
Aspects of Culture
Since culture is very complex, there are important aspects of culture
that contribute to the development of man’s social interaction.
1. Dynamic, flexible and adaptive
2. Shared and contested
3. Learned through socialization or enculturation
4. Patterned social interactions
5. Integrated and at times unstable
6. Transmitted through socialization
7. Requires language and other forms of communication
IV. Topic: Cultural Variations
OBJECTIVES:
1. Understand the different cultural variations.
2. Cite some examples of cultures which make Filipino culture
unique.
The range of variations between culture is almost endless and yet at
the same time cultures ensemble one another in many important ways.
Cultural variation is affected by man’s geographical set-up and social
experiences.
Cultural Variation refers to the differences in social behaviors that
different culture exhibit around the world. There are two important
perceptions on cultural variability namely ethnocentrism and cultural
relativism.
1. Ethnocentrism- It is a perception that arises from the fact that
cultures, differ and each culture defines reality differently. Judging
another culture solely by the values and standards of one’s own culture.
2. Cultural Relativism- The attempt to judge behavior according to its
cultural context. The principle that an individual person’s
belief and activities should be understood by others in terms of that
individual’s own culture.
Other related concepts:
Xenocentrism refers to preference for the foreign. In this sense it
the opposite of ethnocentrism. It is characterized by a strong belief that
one’s own products, styles, or ideas are inferior to those which
originate elsewhere.
Xenophobia- is the fear of what is perceived as foreign or
strange.
Diversity of Cultures
Traditionally, many anthropologists believed that culture is a
seamless whole that is well-integrated with the rest of social system and
structures. Hence, many students of culture believed that within a given
society there is little room for cultural diversity. However it did not take
long for students of culture to realize that culture is not merely body of
well-integrated beliefs and symbols.
The culture in a given society is also diverse. There is no single
culture but plural cultures. In the sixties, the term “subculture”
is widely favored or well-liked by many people (Storey 2009). This
definition separates popular culture from “high culture” or the culture
that is shared only by an elite group within the wealthy echelons of
society. Hence, popular culture is often seen as inferior or a product of
mass production for people with bad artistic taste.
In the Philippines, those who patronize popular culture are often
labeled as jologs or bakya crowd. Their taste is supposed to be “baduy”
—originally referring to the promdi (a person from the province) way of
combining clothing style in a wrong way: Ang baduy manamit.
Popular culture is often equated with cheaply made box-office
movies, while better taste is reserved for those who watch Oscar-
winning films or movies shown in Cannes festival. So, somebody who
watches Vice Ganda’s movie is a jolog, but someone who wears green
shirt with red pants is baduy. So, popular culture is controversial.
But many students of media studies and culture now realize the
value and importance of popular culture. Many scholars believe that
popular culture cannot easily be distinguished from high culture. For
instance, many people from the lower class also enjoy the music of the
late Luciano Pavarotti, an Italian operatic tenor. And many middle class
persons enjoy popular culture. This is the postmodern analysis of
popular culture.
According to postmodern analysis of culture, the distinction
between what is low and high in culture cannot be rigidly established.
With the advent of mass production —music, spotifys, Netflix, used
clothing’s (ukay), Internet, YouTube, torrents, file sharing, etc.— many
elements and cultural styles once enjoyed by the middle and upper
classes are now easily accessible to the people from lower classes and
vise versa.
Prepared by: Ms. Arlene G. Francisco