ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND TUBES BY THE ELECTRONICS TRAINING STAFF OF THE CRUFT LABORATORY Harvard University (Wire Prowuzxs Appr) NEW YORK AND LONDON McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. 1947ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND TUBES Coprnicur, 1947, sy THE McGraw-Hit, Boox Company, Ine. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced ‘mn any form without permission of the publishers. xFOREWORD ‘This book has developed from the lecture notes of a special wartime training course given in the Graduate School of Engineer- ing, Harvard University. ‘The need for highly trained officers in the new uses of electronics was definitely appreciated even in 1941. In July of that year a course for officers of the Signal Corps who were graduate electrical engineers was established at Harvard University in the Graduate School of Engineering to give intensive training in the fundamentals of electronics and high-frequency circuits. Immediately after the United States declared war, the Navy also sent officers to the pre- radar course. ‘The rapid expansion of the course necessitated a greatly increased instructional staff. Professors and instructors from many educa- tional institutions were invited to Cambridge to aid the regular staff at Harvard in the field of communication engincering. Although the war training course was distinct from the regular graduate courses in communication engineering that have been given for more than two decades in the Cruft Laboratory, it was planned originally and patterned to a considerable degree on the lines of some of the Gruft Laboratory courses. Since the scope and the method of presentation of the material in this volume are not on a graduate level, they differ somewhat from corresponding course work in the Craft Laboratory. ‘The members of the wartime staff have brought to the work many excellent ideas from their teaching experience. More than thirty repetitions of the course gave opportunity to improve its character both as to lecture presentations and laboratory experi- ments. Considerable new material was injected into the course content. In short, this war training program presented a rare opportunity to develop and improve teaching methods in electronics. During the progress of the course, lecture notes were prepared mainly by twelve members of the lecturing staff. It was the original intention to publish the entire lecture material in a single volume. Because the single volume would be inconveniently large and also since a portion of the manuscript was completed early, that portion has been published in a separate volume “Transmission Lines, Antennas, and Wave Guides” by Associate Profs. R. W. P. King and H. R. Mimno and Dr. A. H, Wing, ‘The remaining and larger por- viiviii FOREWORD tion of the lecture material comprises the subject matter of the pres- ent book. Logically the material of this book precedes that of the book already published; thus, the present book is Volume I of a two-volume text. Eleven of the original twelve members of the wartime lecturing staff are authors of the present book. The text presented in this book has developed out of the intensive devotion, during a war emergency, of a group of men to a single purpose, that of imparting to the student officers in the most effi- cient manner a comprehensive and practical knowledge of electronics. ‘The material of the course was, however, fundamental in nature and not exclusively applicable to wartime training. For this reason, it is hoped that the text will be as valuable for peacetime courses as it was successful in its intended purpose. The treatment of the subject matter of this book is suitable for juniors or seniors of colleges and engineering schools, who are spe- cializing in the study of communication engineering or in electronics. A knowledge of mathematics through ealeulus, and of electricity and magnetism is assumed. The book may also be found to be of value as a reference for others. E. L. CuarrerPREFACE This book presents the basic theory of electronic tubes and elec trie circuits employed in conjunction with these tubes. The empha- sisis on the applications in the fields of communication and electronic control. Supplementary material on mathematics and electricity and magnetism is given in the appendixes, making the book useful to those needing preparation in these subjects. As stated in the foreword, the book has developed from the fee- ture notes of @ special wartime training course. Many chapters of the book contain more material than was given in the course. In the preparation of the notes and the book, there was much collabora- tion among the authors. In this work, each chapter has been the responsibility of one or two of the authors. Chapters I, II, III, IV, XXII and Appendix C were written by L. W. Morris; Chaps. V and VI by 8. P. Cooke; Chaps. VII, XIV, and part of Chap, XIX by B. L. Chaffee; Chaps. VIII, IX, XVIII and Appendix A by P. E. LeCorbeiller; Chaps. X and XI by R. O. Cornett; Chaps. XII, XV, and XXIV by H. R. Mimno; Chap. XIII mostly by G. R. Tatum, in part by H. Stockman; Chaps. XVI and XVII by J, D. Cobine; Chaps, XIX and XX by 8. Githens, Jr. and A. H. Wing; Chap. XXIII by H. Stockman with the assistance of S. Githens, Jr.; Appendix B by P. E. LeCorbeiller and 8, Githens, Jr.; Chap. XXI and Appendix D by A. H. Wing. This is not to be construed as a list of exclusive authorship in all cases, as there were many interchanges of ideas. ‘There were also some modifications made in original versions in order to fit them into the general plan of the book. The book teaches fundamental principles clearly and rigorously and contains much new material and new methods of presentation. In the treatment of a-c circuits the behavior of circuit elements with respect to nonsinusoidal waveforms is described in such a way as to develop correct concepts of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. For sinusoidal waveforms the emphasis is more on the magnitude and angle of the impedance rather than on resistance and reactance. Curves or loci are used extensively to describe circuit behavior. The treatment of resonance is rigorous and more complete than usual, There is a new presentation of the bridged-T and paraliel-T networks. In the chapter on networks and impedance matching, the subject ixx PREFACE of equivalent four-terminal networks is discussed quite fully. Net- work theorems are presented, with more emphasis on ‘Thévenin’s theorem than on any of the others. The action of the tank circuit as an impedance transformer is clearly explained. The chapter on transients is fully illustrated with diagrams. The effect of the time constant in LR and CR circuits is stressed. ‘The analysis of initial and final conditions is explained effectively. Much hitherto unpublished material is given in Chap. VII. ‘The method of correlating response curves of coupled circuits by means of space models and contour diagrams is unique and results in an understanding of these circuits surpassing that conveyed by the ordinary response-curve type of presentation. There is new material on the band widths of magnetically coupled circuits. ‘A new approach to filters is given in Chap. VIII, with added material on delay networks. A rigorous yet simplified presentation of Fourier analysis is given in Chap. IX; the effect of waveform discontinuities on the magnitude of the harmonic components is explained. ‘The analysis of periodic phenomena is extended in Chap. XVIII to nonperiodic pulses, again by a simplified method. In view of the increased use of pulses, this material should be of con- siderable value to the undergraduate student. In Chaps. X and XI the action of the vacuum tube as a device is emphasized, rather than the quantitative theory of electron emis- sion. The explanations are given both graphically and analytically. Chapter XIT contains a very complete but qualitative description of the cathode-ray tube. The effects of various combinations of magnetic and electrostatic focusing and deflection are discussed. There is an unusually clear and complete description of the modern cathode-ray oscillograph. Chapter XIII is the longest in the book and includes a complete discussion of wide-band amplifiers. The effect of feedback on the response characteristics and the output impedance is derived. ‘The cathode follower is treated very fully. Extensive new material on power tubes is to be found in Chap. XIV. Contour diagrams are used to describe the behavior of the Class C stage. Many forms of coupling the load to the tube are analyzed. ‘There is new material on methods of tuning and meth- ods of neutralization. Oscillators are given comprehensive but qualitative treatment in Chap. XV, The drag loop, a phenomenon commonly neglected butPREFACE xi of considerable importance where tuned systems are connected to oscillator tubes, is adequately explained here and in Chap. XIV, ‘The newer types of oscillator circuits are also described. The chapter on gas-filled tubes covers the use of these tubes as rectifiers and control elements. A complete example of a rectifier design is worked out in Chap. XVIL Voltage-regulated power supplies are covered more fully than usual. The treatment of modulation is divided into two parts, one on principles and the other on methods. The principles are thor- oughly discussed to facilitate the understanding of methods or devices, which in practice are being continually improved. ‘The treatment of angle modulation will, it is hoped, save the student from pitfalls which have caught many in the discussion of this subject. Linear and square-law detection are treated qualitatively and quantitatively in Chap. XXI. Oscillograms are used to show elip- ping in the diode detector. Rectification diagrams are given for all the important large-signal detectors. The more common dis- criminator circuits are qualitatively treated. This material ties in with Chap. XXIII in which radio receivers are classified by type and their operation described. The operation of mixer and converter tubes is explained with a new terminology. Receivers are not presented in this organized fashion in most text books, and this chapter fills a need for showing how circuits previously dis- cussed separately are joined together to make a complete piece of equipment. Chapter XXII on test instruments supplies needed and prac- tical information. Too often the user does not appreciate just what an indicating instrument measures. New material on the behavior of vacuum-tube voltmeters is included. A complete description of control and timing cireuits is given in the last chapter. Synchronization of relaxation oscillators is discussed more clearly than usual. A new and accurate description of the blocking oscillator is given, The assembly of complete waveforming circuits from their simple elements is featured, and several circuits are worked out as examples or exercises. Great credit is due to the members of the armed forces who were students and instructors in the Cruft courses. Their con- structive criticism and hard work has been of immeasurable aid to the authors in making their work more effective. Many of thexii PREFACE Cruit electronics staff contributed time and effort toward the prep- aration of the course notes and the present book. In the prepara- tion of the book manuscript the authors are deeply indebted to Prof. Harry E. Clifford for his valuable assistance and his helpful editing, AvExanpen H. Wine September, 1947.CONTENTS FoREWORD... +... Ce vl Pre Chapter I ALTERNATING CURRENT THEORY 1. VaRYING Vouraces anp CURRENTS 1. Description of a Sinusoid . Fe 2. Addition of Sinusoids. . ie Beas 3 8. Peak, Average, and RMS Values... 2... 7 ee 3 4, Instantaneous and Average Power... 2... - oe ee u. Ipea Cincurr Enewents 5. Capacitor Bo et 6. Resistor, Pe oo ee 1. 9 Gia au. Serres Circuits 8, Voltage and Current in a Series Combination... . 10 9, Kirchhofi’s Voltage Law in an A-c Cireuit. 2 2... 2. 1. 2. 12 10. Series Circuits with Dissipative Reactors... . . ie 11, Matuat Inductance in a Series Cireuit . 2... if wv. Parauuen, Crncurrs 12, Voltage and Current in a Parallel Combination... 2... ie 18. Impedance of a Parallel Circuit... 2... ee oo 15 14. Equivalent Representations of Dissipative Reactors. 2... . 16 15. Current and Voltage Relations in # Parallel Circuit... 0... 18 16, Electrical Representation of an A-c Generator = 19 Chapter IL CIRCUIT RESPONSE 1. Response oF Simpie LR anp OR Untrs 1. Variations of Z and ¥ for Cireuits of Constant & . aL 2. Variations of Z and Y for Simple LR and GR Unita... . . . 22 3. Variation of Load Voltage with Constant-current Generator. = a5 4, Voltage-divider Response... ee 86 5. Generator of Intermediate Resistanve. . . . . . oF 6. Compensated Voltage Divider, 2... ss. a 7 Plant chilling Networks apxiv 10. wu. 12. 13, 14, 15, 16. we Bee eee Neooe eye 1 CONTENTS a. Serims Resonanon Circuit Relations at Series Resonance. Fe oe 6 Energy and Power Relations at Series Resonance... ss. ‘The Frequency Response of a Series LOR Circuit. cae Calculation of Z and Y for a Range of Frequencies... 2. Variation of Capacitance in a Series LCR Circuit... 2... mn, Parattzt Resonance Conditions at Parallel Resonance... .. . : Response of a High-Q Parallel Circuit near Resonance Response of Intermediate and Low-Q Parallel Circuits... Fractional Values of Q@. 6. 6 0 eee Division of Resistance between Branches in a Parallel Cireuit, Chapter IIE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS The Use of Equivalent Circuits to Deseribe the Hlectrieal Properties of Circuit Hlements. 2... 2... : Electrical Representation of an Isolated Inductor or Resistor - Frequency Dependence of Inductor Characteristics... 2... . Frequency Dependence of Resistor Characteristies. . . 2 2... SinBiot Blectrical Representation of a Capacitor |)... sl. Capacitor Characteristics... . fee : Typo Cantos BlsirolyneCapsutors aoe fers Moers Siddng Relation of Electrical Measurements to the Circuit Representation of Colleen Chapter IV MEASUREMENT OF CIRCUIT ELEMENTS ‘Theory of A-e Bridge. ao Simple Types of Bridges... eee Application of Bridge Methods Precautions at High Frequencies. . Bridged T and Parallel-T Measurements Single-circuit Resonance Methods... . 2... 2 ee Evaluation of Equivalent Circuit Constants from Measurements Chapter V ‘TWORKS AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING pinmoduetn Network Notation and Equations . 31 282 33 36 40 45 46 48 52 53 54 62 65 6 67 as ree 72 76 79 80 84 87 90 93 99CONTENTS xv 8. Inductive Coupling... 0... ee ee 4, Equivalent Networks, . 5. Network Theorems. : 6. Impedance Transformation... ee 113 7. Radiofrequency ‘Transforming and Matching Networks. 1. dt 8. Mechanical Analogies in the Impedance-matehing Problem... . 124 Chapter VI TRANSIENTS i ineoduodon 126 2. Resistance-Inductance Cireuit. ee 126 8. Capacitance-Resistance Circuit... ee 138 4, Applications of CR Circuits. ©... ee 145 8. Series LOR Cireuit. ee 153 6. Mechanical Analogues of the LOR Circuit... 6.22... 165 7, Square-wave Testing. ©... ee 167 Chapter VIT COUPLED CIRCUITS Uineoducton + 176 2 Coefficient of Coupling... ee ee wz 1, TRansient Osctntattons 3. General Considerations. ©. ee ie 4. Frequencies of Transient Oscillations. 2... . is 5. Derivation of Frequencies of Free Oscillation of Magnetically Coupled ren Se 181 nt. Forcsp Oscritarions 6. General Considerations... ee 182 7. Equivalent Impedance of Coupled Circuits... iss 8. Magnitude of Secondary Current... 2... iss 9. Models for Secondary Current... 2... 2. ee 186 10. Conditions for Partial Resonance... 2... iso cece Ga AMRe tO Pg gee ccacarereeeeeceatt tet tcceceaecaien: Geaeceeeececae see: 12. Critical Coupling... 2... 2.2 ee ee 195 13, Value of [Inman . 5. ios 14, Recapitulation. . . . . a ice 15, Variation of al withw. 2... 2. ee ee eae 16, Resonance Curve when fi = fa fe eee . + + 199 17. Value of \Z2|/|L2|max for Optimum Coupling... . ee. 202 18, Band Width for Optimum Coupling . . . . 20 19. Band-width Curves for keand k,. 2-2. 0 205 20. Parallel-fed Coupled Systems... 2... : 204 21. Power Transfer in Coupled Circuits... . 206xvi ey RENE 9. 10. i 12, 13. 14. 15. 16. Ww. 18, 19. . Thermionie Emi : . Other Types of Emission CONTENTS Chapter VIL FILTERS isn reccgeeee cag . Low-pass Filter . . . . Ladder-type Low-pass Filter Characteristic Impedance of Low-pass Filter... Attenuation and Phase Lag of the Low-pass Filter . . . . . Low-pass Filter of Several Identical Sections, Low-pass Filter as Delay Network. High-pass Filter... Properties of Two-terminal Nondissipative Networks Inverse Two-terminal Networks . . Constant-k Filters . . Band-pass Filter. Band-stop Filters... U-section Filters. . . . Lattice Structures . . . Effect of Losses... Other Types of Filter Circuits, Low-pass Composite Filter . Applications... . . . . Periodic Function . . ~ - » 209 - . 209 . 212 213 216 . 219 219 - . 220 . 222 223 . 24 Attenuation Constant and Phase Lag of Constant-k Filters... 225 227 229 229 230 231 » 231 «232 Chapter IX, FOURIER ANALYSIS Object of Fourier Analysis dd and Even Components (C and $ Components) - Analysis of an Even Function C(®) Odd Funetion S(?). Complete Fourier Analysis . . Amplitude and Phase of Each Harmonie Component Quarter-wave Symmetries... . Absence of Even Harmonies . Examples of Fourier Developments. Waves Having Discontinuities. . . : ‘Vso of Fourier Series in Transmission Problems . . . Example of an Integrator... . Example of Negligible Distortion... Analysis of a Simple Spe ion . Conditions of Nondistortion. . . . | A Numerical Methad of Fourier Analysis. fie Case Chapter X ELECTRON EMISSION AND THE DIODE 1 284 236 236 237 +. 239 . 240 240 241 243 244 244 . 248 249 251 = 252 253 255 . 260 264pee . Phase Relations at Low Frequency . Constant-current Form of the Equivalent Plate Cireuit . Interelectrode Capacitances and Input Impedance oe . Input Impedance with ResistiveLoad ... 2... 2. - . Input Impedance, General Case... j. Tetrodes and Pentodes........- . fe eeeeees oe . Special and Multipurpose Tubes a . Focusing, Blectrie . Intensity Control... oN eg eye SNoe REN CONTENTS Current-Voltage Characteristics of Diodes (Static Characteristics) - Spate Charge . Potential Distribution in a Plane Diode... ee Chapter XI MULTIELEMENT TUBES . The Control Grid... . . eee we . Characteristic Curves... ee ee . Operating Point, Path of Operation... 2 2. ee Power Relations in the Pla Cathode Bias . . . Nonlinear Operation... 2... 2... . Vacuum-tube Symbols... . Tube Coefficients . . . Equivalent Plate Circuit. Chapter XIT CATHODE-RAY TUBES Introduction... 2 ee Deflection of the Beam by an Electric Field... 2. Applications of Cathode-ray Tubes... es Deflection of the Beam by a Magnetic Wield Focusing, Magnetie-lens Method . . Cathode-ray Oscillograph. 2... 0... Chapter XTIT AMPLIFIERS—CLASS A AND CLASS B ‘The Vacuum Tube as an Amplifier... . Classification of Amplifiers . - Fe Distortion Amplifiers Cascading of Amplifier Stages... 0... 2... ee Direet-coupled Amplifiers... . eee Ressteucecoupled Ampliicrs Polarizing Potentials in a Resistance-coupled Stage... ... Equivalent Plate Circuits of Resistance-coupled Amplifiers . . 265 268 269 272 273 + 275 . + 279 = 280 281 . 282 283 286 + 288 = + 289 + 291 + 293 . . 293 = 295 - 301 304 ~ 805 308 311 314 318 325 - 326 328, 332 332 334 335 = 336xviii CONTENTS 9. Voltage Amplification at Mid-frequencies.. 2... 1... 237 10, Voltage Amplification at Low Frequencies... 2... . B39 11, Voltage Amplification at High Frequencies 2. 0. 348 32. Special Case, Ry X rp and Ry K Re. « oe 846 13, Universal Amplifeation Curve for a Resistance-coupled Stage. . | | 346 14. Choice of Circuit Flements. 0... 2... ' oe 15. Effects of Variations in Ky and fy... 2 ee 349 16. Impedance-coupled Amplifiers... 2... . ee - 350 17, Wide-band (Video) Amplifiers. 2.2... 0.00. 350 18, Shunt-peaking Compensation at High Frequencies. | |) |. |. | 352 id Figucot Met . 856 20. Example of High-frequency Design Procedure of a Single Btage . . . 357 21. Low-frequency Compensation . on 22, Untuned Transformer-coupled Amplifiers . . . vee. 860 23, Single-tube Class A Audio-frequency Power Amplifiers. 371 24, Push-pull Amplifiers... 0.2... : 382 O6 Pia inverters fe 897 26, Tuned Radio-frequency Amplifiers Ae 398 27, Tuned-secondary Transformer-coupled Amplifiers... . +. 402 28. Tuned-primary Taned-secondary Transformer-coupled Amplifiers . _ 405 29, Feedback in Amplifiers. . . | 0 30. Current- and Voltage-controlled Feedback |. 2... . =) ain G1: Cathode Derenciaion 0 416 82 The Cathode Wollwers 417 So Morbosung 421 Chapter XIV POWER TUBES 1. Definition of Power Tubes... . Se ee 423 2, Structural Features of Power Tubes... 2... ee 423 a Scat el Mamet 426 a: High tequency Wubed - 427 iB ha Reece cee ceea ea caeesiseecceareeeeeasan 428 6. Genoral Principle of Operation of & Pow 429 7. Quantitative Relationships in Narrow-band Operation... . . 433 8, Testing and Operation of Power Tubes... - 22... 1 437 9, Static Characteristic Curves of Power Tubes... . 2... . . 438 10; Path of Operation Se 11, Caleulation of the Operation Condition. . 2. 448 12, Selection of Path and Contour Diagrams for Fixed @ Point... . 445 1g, Neutralization... ee os 450 14, Practical Circuits and Tuning... 2.1.2.2... os aie 15. Calculation of Output Circuits of a Power Amplifier... . - 462 10 Chun CAmpliie 404 17 Ces A omplte 404 18, Grid-modulated Power Amplifier... 0... eee eee 466 19, Plate-modulated Power Amplifier... . 2... 4. 8 20 Onis . + 47CONTENTS xix 21, Secondury Emission from the Grid... 02... ATT 22, Wide-band Power Converters, Nonsinusoidal Operation... . . . 478 23, Froquency Multipliers... 2... I eg Chapter XV OSCILLATORS 1, Introduction . . ee a ticgancmsive copie & Oscillator Cironita 6 eee 4, Practical Considerations, Plate-voltage Supply... s+... 5. Practical Considerations, Grid-voltage Supply... 2... + 6. Practical Considerations, Power Output. : 7, Coupled-cireuit Oscillators, Drag Loop... ee ieee oe a: ORC ccc eseccce en naeersoucasuarassduessugeeumieaaas 9. Other Flectromechanieal Oscillators, Magnetostrietion . . . 10, Beat-frequency Oscillator. ©. ee ee di ee Ocdlioe 12, Wien Bridge Type of RC Oscillator... . 0... oe 13, Negative-resistance Oscillators. ©... ee ee Chapter XVI GAS-FILLED TUBES 1. Blectrieal Discharges in Gases... 2. eee ee 52, 2 Goes 523 S! Gascour Thermionio Diode 525 4, Are Rectifiers . pe 526 5. Gaseous Thermionie Triode, or Thyratron. .. - ss. « oo: 529 iG Current Matings ohare Tubes 532 Chapter XVII RECTIFIERS AND POWER SUPPLIES 1, Introduction... . «584 2. Half-wave Rectifier Circuits. - . 536 3. Full-wave Reetifier. - . = 546 4. Voltage-doubling Rectifier Cirevits. |.) 2. ee 549 5. Polyphase Rectifiers... ee ee 553 6. Harmonie Content of Rectified Voltages... . 2... 6s. - 556 7, Transformer Utilization Factor... . Ree ee 559 S Powe: li 562 9. Critical Inductance. 565 10, Design of a Power Supply. 367 11, Capacitor-input Filters . 570 12. Resistance-capacitance Filter... 2.0.2.0... . . 570 13, Voltage-regulated Power Supplies. . 2... 1... axx 18, 19, 20, 21 23, 24, 25. , Transmission of Nonperiod Sees he CONTENTS Chapter XVII SIGNAL ANALYSIS . Statement of the Problem... 2... ee Fourrsn ANazysis or SysanerricaL Puse. Voltage... Rectangular Pulse : Symmetrical Voltage Pulse : Nominal Signal Duration and Nominal Cutoff Spectra of Various Symmetrical Pulses Frequency Band for Transmission of Signal, Energy Spectrum Character of Pulse and Width of Its Spectrum Effect. of Deercasing Duration of Pulse . Smoothing a Signal fe E Unk Punetioniand Un Puke Analysis of Antisymmetrical Pal . Spectra of Various Antisymmetrical Pulses Signal Consisting of a Finite Number of Sinusoidal Cycles - Cole [Mone DesorPis Fourier Transform. ©... ee Distortion oF Stenat Gorne THroven a TRanspucer Fourier Analysis of Output Signal Deprivation of Output Signal from Input Signal. Response of Network to Unit Pulse . . Interdependence of Attenuation and Phase Charneteristies of Network Conditions for No Distortion Different, Types of Distortion ffect of Linear Distortion on Symmet trieal Pulse Sight... Lee ee Chapter XIX PRINCIPLES OF MODULATION, ‘The Modulating Signal and Types of Modulation, Amplitude Modulation Side Frequencies and Side Bands Due to Amplitude Modulation Power during Amplitude Modulation Ropresentation of an Amplitude-modulated Wave hy Rotating Vectors Angle Modulation Phase Modulation . . Frequeney Modulation Frequeney Modulation from Phase Modulation Method for Obtaining Shape of Output Signal When Distortion 1s 601 602 604 609 612 - 615 617 619 621 623 625 630CONTENTS xsi 10, Alteration of Modulated Wave by @ Correctly Tuned Cireuit 640 11. Distortion of a Modulated Wave by an Off-tune Circuit 645 12. Distortion of a Modulated Wave from Other Causes... . 645 13, Spectra of Typical Signals... . 2... 0... : 645 Chapter XX METHODS OF MODULATION 1. Meriops or AMPLITUDE MopuLation 1, General, . . 2, Plate-modulated Class (’ Amplifier - oa 3, Grid Modulation of a Class @ Amplifier... . . 4, Other Methods of Modulation of a Class C Ample. 5, Amplitude-modulated Oscillator 6. Production of an Amplitude-modulated Wave by Use of a Nonlin fopedance : 7. Triode Square-law Modulator . . 8, Balanced Modulator... . . u, Merions or ANGLE MopuLation 9 General... — : 661 10. Reactance-tube Modulation of an Oscillator. ss + 664 11. Production of Frequency Modulation by Phase Modulation. - 668 Chapter XXT DETECTION 1. Introduction... . ere 2. Square-law and Linear Detection. a aie Beate we. OTB Laron-stGNaL (Linear) Drovg Dernction 0 lerecmenal Recunesion Gro 4. Diode with RC Load... . Cee 678 ib; Rechcestion Digi 681 6. Graphical Solution... . Pane 682 7. Distortion and Maximum Allowable Modulation... - oes) 8 Automatic Volume Control... . CS 690 9, R-f Filtering . . . Baaeeae Bea . peer . 691 10, Analytical Solution, Equivalent Cireuit. : 692 Saut-stanat (SquaRE-LAW) Drove Derserios 11. Difference between Linear and Square-law Diode Detection... . . 693 12, Square-lew Rectification . . : 604 13. Square-law Detection, By-passed Resistive Loud. |...) . . 696 14, Equivalent Cireuit. osxxii CONTENTS 15. Square-law Detection, Amplitude-modulated Signal . . 2. 2... 699 16. Detector-circuit Impedances,... 2... 4.002. -. . 708 17. Selective Fading. ©. 2 2... ee 0d 18. Carrier and Side-band Suppression. ... ..... 1 - fea Derecrion iy Murrierement Tours 19. Grid-cireuit Detection... ee +6. 705 20. Plate-circuit Detection... 2.2... ee ee ee OT Derection oF Frequency-MopuLatmp SiaNais 21, Tuned Circuit as a Discriminator . . i see eee 22. Double-tuned Center-tapped Discriminator Circuit...) . . . TU Chapter XXII TEST INSTRUMENTS 7 Daectcument Aumetes 0 _ 17 os Diectcurant Voluneless iy, ie AOR eee eae eae cs ete RRM eee oeraed eee eae sm seen 721 5. Ace Voltmeters and Ammeters. 2... . i ‘Vacuust-rung, Vourmrers 6, Die Measurements... 2... Dees 724 7. Acc Measurements. . . 727 8. Characteristies of Typical Commercial Vacuum-tube Voltmeters, | . 732 9, Interpretation of Yacuum-tube Voltmeter Reading for Nonsinusoidal Wee 34 AO SinalGencmire 9 a Chapter XXIIT RADIO RECEIVERS CGn a ‘Teves Nor Exrroyvina Frequency Conversion 2. Regenerative Detector Receiver. 2... ee ee TH 3. Superregencrative Detector Receiver... 2... 2 2. ss 7AM 4, Tuned-radio-frequeney Receivers... 2... . Pe Sureruererovrne Receivers 5, The Superheterodyne Principle... es 780 6, Superheterodyne Frequency Conversion... 22. se 788 7, Superheterodyne Converter Circuits... 2... ee se 75810. Lu. 12, 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 21. 22. 23. CONTENTS ‘The Intermediate-frequency Amplifier... . . . Image Interference and Its Reduction . . Preamplifier, Detector, Low-frequency Amplifier Automatic Volume Control... 2... 6 ee Automatic Frequency Control... 2 2... Suort-wave Receivers General Short-wave Superheterodyne |. ss ae Frequency-modulation Receivers... 5. ss Disturnance To Rapro RecePs10n Fluctuation Noise... eo ee Impulse Noise... ee ee Interference... 0 ee ee ee Other Disturbances... 0 0 ee ee Radiation from Receiver XXiti Trcziver MeasurmMents anp Sunvicina Measurement of Sensitivity, Selectivity, and Fidelity... . 2. . Measurement of Signal-to-noise Ratio... . « Fundamentals of Servicing and Alignment Chapter XXIV TIMING CIRCUITS Clippers... Roose oda: Reetangular-wave Generators... ss = Damping Tubes... 2... --.4- oe Gael Remake . Simple Relaxation Oscillator, 6... 2. . Frequency Adjustment... 2-2... 20% Spuciromeator . Oscilloscope Synchronization... 1. 1. Pulse Synchroniustion.. 2... ee es i Wequaney Divion 0 Frequency Multiplication. ©. 2... . Frequency Addition and Subtraction... 1. . ‘Thyratron Sweep Cirenits. 2.2... 4. . Improvement of Linearity... 0. . Thyratron Pulse Circuits... 2... 0. . High-vacuum Discharge Tubes... 0. ss Blocking Oscillator... 2.0... ae . Saw-tooth Voltage System... 6... 2. ee . Saw-tooth Current Wave... 2... - 761 762 - 763 - 764 - 767 768 - 769 774 714 +. 7 . 776 778 - 778 78 779, . 780 - . 783 . 784 787 788 791 791 - 792 . 794 . 795 = 795 . 797 799 or) 810 . 813 819 . 821xxiv CONTENTS Comping tubes, aos 21. “Differentiators,” or “Peakers”. . . . . oo aor 22, “Integrators”... . 0 23. Saturable-core Reactors al 24. Keyers, or Electronic Switches eee 25. “Mixer” Tubes, or Adding Tubes 2... aoe 26. Simple Applications and Combinations... 5.0... e800 of Tagen Cuaie a 28, Multivibrators. 2.2... 0. ae 7 op APPENDIXES A. Raview or Mavamuamics . 62.2... | Blo B. Brier Review or Burermicity anp Macwetism 2... . . 08 ©. Dascrition or A Dirncr-current Source i Turws or Exnernicar, Consrante 0 ee ss. 925 DD, SyMmors AND ABBREVIATIONS 6.6 ee ee 2 OD PRopueMs . . . . . se eeeae ae cacasamaa: Beceeeesseeaeeeec semen Susyect Inpex. . 0... Boe ee O81