Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375

Parametric temperature}time curves of medium

compartment "res for structural design
Zhongcheng Ma, Pentti MaK kelaK inen*
Laboratory of Steel Structures, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Helsinki University of Technology, P.O. Box 2100, FIN-02015 HUT, Finland
Received 24 May 1999; received in revised form 11 January 2000; accepted 24 January 2000

Abstract

A parametric temperature}time curve for structural "re design purposes is developed for
small and medium compartment "res. This method may be used, with reasonable precision, to
estimate the temperature history of a fully developed compartment "re. It concerns mainly
cellulosic (wood-based) "res. This method has three main characteristics: (1) the temper-
ature}time curves are determined by two key parameters of "re severity: maximum gas
temperature (intensity) and "re duration; (2) the maximum gas temperature and "re duration
are determined by the "re load density (or surface area of fuel), opening factor, geometric shape
and thermal properties of compartment boundaries; (3) both ventilation- and fuel-controlled
"re are explicitly distinguished in this method. Comparisons of the predicted curves with the
test results and computer simulation show the applicability of this method.  2000 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

In modern "re safety engineering, the design of structures is moving from the
traditional prescriptive method to the performance-based methodology [1,2]. In
performance-based structural "re-resistant design methods, natural "re curves are
used instead of the standard "re curve [2,3]. The performance of structures will be
studied under natural "res.
A typical compartment temperature evolution is illustrated in Fig. 1. From the
point of structural "re-resistant design, most structural damage occurs during
the fully developed "re phase. So the phase of "re growth is often neglected and only
the fully developed "re phase and the decaying phase are taken into account. It is

* Corresponding author. Tel.: #358-9-451-3780; fax: #358-9-451-3826.

E-mail address: pentti.makelainen@hut." (P. MaK kelaK inen).

0379-7112/00/$ - see front matter  2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 9 - 7 1 1 2 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 0 8 - 4
362 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375

Nomenclature

A #oor area of "re compartment, m


A surface area of the fuel bed, m

A total surface area of compartment boundaries (openings included), m

A area of openings, m

A (h ventilation factor, m

b thermal property of compartment boundary, ("(ojc) J/m s K
c speci"c heat of boundary material, J/kg K
D depth of "re compartment, m
g acceleration due to gravity, "9.81 m/s
G total mass of fuel, kg of wood

h height of the opening, m
k conversion factor

O opening factor, ("A (h/A ) m
 
q "re load per unit #oor area, kg of wood/m
R rate of burning, kg of wood/min
t time, min
t time corresponding to the #ashover, min

t time corresponding to the maximum gas temperature, min
¹ reference temperature, 3C

¹ "re temperature, 3C

¹ maximum "re temperature, 3C

¹ maximum "re temperature in the critical region, 3C
 
= width of the wall which contains the opening, m
d shape constant of the temperature}time curve
g inverse of opening factor, ("A /A (h) m\
 
g the value of g in the critical region, m\

u surface area ratio of fuel, m/kg
i ratio of #oor area (A ) to the total surface area (A ) ("A /A )
   
j thermal conductivity of compartment boundary, W/mK
o density of the compartment boundaries, kg/m
o density of air, kg/m
q "re duration, min

convenient to regard t as the origin of the temperature}time coordinate system,


corresponding to the point of #ashover.
There are numerous ways to model the "re scenario in a building compartment,
such as zone-modelling and computer #uid dynamic (CFD) modelling. These models
have a high accuracy in calculating the temperature history. However, these models
are sophisticated and the appropriate software package is very large. They are not
very convenient tools for structural design purposes, which need only the temperature
history of the fully developed stage.
 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375 363

Fig. 1. Typical compartment "re evolution.

An approximate method to describe the temperature evolution of a fully developed

compartment "re has been considered desirable since the earliest studies. Kawagoe and
Sekine [4] in their pioneering work presented an iterative, graphical technique for
obtaining approximate solutions. Pettersson et al. [5] developed a series of design curves
for ventilation-controlled "res, based on the conventional mass and energy balance
equations, using the heat release rate as input and solving the equations iteratively by
computer code. Babrauskas [6] gave an approximate method by "tting the formulae with
the calculated results using computer code COMPF2. This method requires a detailed
information of the fuel as input. Lie (1974) presented an expression based on a series of
temperature}time curves computed by Kawagoe and Sekine, which could be used as an
approximation for the most severe "re that is likely to occur in a particular compartment
[7]. His work formed the basis of Annex B of Eurocode 1 Part 2.2.
The purpose of the present research is to produce a simple calculation procedure
which will, to a suitable degree of precision, estimate the temperature history in a fully
developed compartment "re. It is this kind of procedure which becomes useful for
making quick "re design calculations, without using computer code.

2. Basic idea

The past theoretical and experimental studies have revealed that the following
variables determine the "re temperature:
E Fire loads.
E Ventilation opening.
E Geometric size and shape of the "re compartment.
E Thermal properties of compartment boundary.
The primary e!ect of "re on a structure depends on the "re intensity (maximum
temperature) and "re duration. These two parameters may be used as the controlling
parameters of the fully developed temperature}time curve. Then a simple and general
shape function can be selected to de"ne the temperature history. The maximum
364 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375

temperature and "re duration are dependent on the "re loads, ventilation conditions,
geometry and material properties of the compartment. To identify fuel-controlled and
ventilation-controlled "res, the conditional equation of the burning region also has to
be determined.
Keeping the above in mind, a shape function will "rst be established, after which the
expressions for the maximum gas temperature and "re duration will be presented.

3. Development of this model

To determine a general shape function of the temperature}time curves, some

measured results from the past "re tests are collected. A total of 25 complete gas
temperature}time curves are collected, including BISF/JFRO (1966}1967) (11)
[8}10], Underwriters Laboratory Inc. (1967) (7) [11], BSC/FRS (3) [12], Research
Institute of Japanese Constructional Ministry (2) [13], Sonderforschungsbereich148
(SFB 148) (1) [14], and BRE "re tests in Cardington (1993) (1) [15,16]. The data set
from CIB small-scale "re tests [17,18] will be used to determine the maximum gas
temperature for ventilation-controlled "re. The data mainly from BISF/JFRO will be
used to determine the maximum gas temperature and "re duration for fuel-controlled
"re. The curve of the recent BRE "re test is not used in the derivation. It is used only
for comparison purposes.
Due to the fact that the published or measured data of past "re tests are insu$cient
in a single "re test, the comprehensive information will be used in the following
derivation of the new parametric equations.

3.1. The shape function

The 25 complete gas temperature}time curves collected from di!erent laboratories

are non-dimensionalized by the maximum gas temperature and the time to reach the
maximum temperature, are illustrated in Fig. 2. The time is measured from t instead


Fig. 2. Non-dimensionalized temperature-time curves.

 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375 365

of zero, where t is the time corresponding to the #ashover. For all of these curves, the

"re load density is 10}40 kg/m, the ventilation factor A (h is 5}16 m and the
U
thermal properties of compartment boundary (ojc is 555}1800 J/m s K. The
#oor area of the compartment is less than 100 m and the maximum height is 4.5 m.
The shape of the compartment (ratio of depth to width) for the full-scale tests is 0.5}2.
It can be seen that these temperature}time curves are of similar shape. A non-
dimensional expression based on curve-"tting procedure can be given by the equation


¹ !¹ t t B
  " exp 1! , (1)
¹ !¹ t t
 
where ¹ is the gas temperature (3C), ¹ the maximum gas temperature (3C), ¹ the
  
room temperature (203C), t the time (min), t the time corresponding to the maximum
gas temperature (min), and d the shape constant of curve. For the ascending phase and
the decaying phase, d has di!erent values. The constant for the descending phase is
approximately twice that for the ascending phase. Fig. 2 shows that the shape
constant d"(0.8, 1.6) has the best "t with the data, and d"(0.5, 1.0) gives a fuller
curve shape. Since choosing d"0.5 for the ascending phase and 1.0 for the descending
phase gives an approximate upper envelope for these measured curves, these values
could be used for design purposes.

3.2. Critical region for ventilation-controlled and fuel-controlled xres

For a fully developed compartment "re, the rate of burning is dependent on the
opening size if the air supply from the openings is insu$cient (ventilation-controlled);
the rate of burning is dependent instead on the surface area and burning character-
istics of the fuel if the air supply is ample (fuel-controlled). It is found that the
transition from ventilation to fuel control depends predominantly on the surface area
of fuel and the opening size [7].
Harmathy [19] analysed many experimental data and developed a semi-
empirical equation to determine the critical region of compartment "res, which can be
written as

o gA (h
 "0.263, (2)
A

where o is the density of air (kg/m), and g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s).
A is the area of windows (m) and h is the height of the windows (m). A is the
 
surface area of the fuel bed (m). The surface area of the fuel bed is a variable which is
somewhat di$cult to use in practical applications at this moment, because di!erent
fuels exist in the actual compartments. For this reason, A is expressed as

A "nG , (3)
 
where G is the total "re load of equivalent woods (kg), and u is the surface area ratio

of fuel (m/kg). For general furniture, the fuel surface area ratio is between 0.1 and
0.4 m/kg. The most common value of u is between 0.12 and 0.18 m/kg.
366 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375

Taking o "1.205 kg/m as the density of air and g"9.81 m/s as the acceleration
due to gravity, Eq. (2) can be expressed in parameters of the "re load density and the
opening factor as
O/q"0.07 iu, (4)

where O"A (h/A (m) is the opening factor, q is the "re load density per unit
 
#oor area (kg of wood/m), and i is the ratio of #oor area (A ) to the total surface area

(A ) in a "re compartment.
R
Eq. (2) for the critical region can also be written as
g "14.34/inq, (5)

where g is the inverse of the opening factor in the critical region (m\).

3.3. Determination of the maximum gas temperature

For ventilation-controlled "re, it is well known that the compartment temperature

depends mainly on ventilation conditions. CIB "re tests provided about 25 data
points of the maximum temperature [17]. Data points from the Research Institute of
Japanese Constructional Ministry (brie#y referred to as Japan in the "gures) (2 points)
and BISF/JFRO (2 points) are also proved to be ventilation-controlled according to
Eq. (5), and are shown in Fig. 3.
Using the least-squares method, the maximum temperature for a ventilation-
controlled "re can be given by the expression
¹ "1240!11g, (6)

where g"A /A (h is the inverse of opening factor (m\).
 
For fuel-controlled "re, the main complete data are from BISF/JFRO tests. The
main results are listed in Table 1. The surface area of fuel bed A is about


Fig. 3. Maximum temperature ¹ versus g for ventilation-controlled "re.


 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375 367

Table 1
Results and analysis of "re tests by BISF/JFRO

Reference Inverse of Total fuel Fire load Critical value g Critical Max. value ¹

letter of opening G (kg) per unit g (m\) g max. of measured
  
¹
 
tests factor #oor area temp. average gas
g (m\) q (kg/m) ¹ temp. (3C)
 

A 12.75 218 7.5 48.6 0.262 705 315 0.447

B 12.75 218 7.5 48.6 0.262 705 340 0.482
D 6.40 436 15 24.3 0.262 973 465 0.478
E 6.40 872 30 12.2 0.524 1106 755 0.683
F 6.40 872 30 12.2 0.524 1106 800 0.723
G 12.75 436 15 24.3 0.524 973 700 0.720
H
12.75 872 30 12.2 1.04 1106 1040 0.940
I
12.75 872 30 12.2 1.04 1106 1035 0.936
K 6.40 218 7.5 48.6 0.13 705 275 0.390
L
6.40 1744 60 6.1 1.04 1173 1055 0.900
P 6.40 218 7.5 48.6 0.13 705 272 0.386
O 12.75 218 7.5 48.6 0.262 705 488 0.692
N 6.40 872 30 12.2 0.524 1106 645 0.583
R 6.40 872 30 12.2 0.524 1106 816 0.738
M
12.75 872 30 12.2 1.04 1106 1027 0.929
Q  12.75 872 30 12.2 1.04 1106 1060 0.958
X 12.75 436 15 24.3 0.524 973 580 0.596
U 12.75 1744 60 6.1 2.10 1173 1160 0.989
V 27.5 1744 60 6.1 4.20 1173 1115 0.951

The side dimension of the square cribs is 45 mm, the length is 1.1 m and the density is 500 kg/m; size of
compartment is 7.7;3.7;3 m; A "0.131 m/kg.


Fire in critical region.
With linings of mineral wool slab.
Ventilation-controlled "re.

0.131 m/kg. The heat loss through the part of the #oor covered by the fuel bed is
thought to be negligible due to the shielding of the fuel bed. The area of the #oor was
thus not included here in the calculation of the total surface area of the compartment.
From Fig. 4 it can be seen that the ratio of ¹ /¹ has a good correlation with
  
the ventilation ratio g/g . Using the least-squares method, the maximum gas temper-

ature of fuel-controlled "re can be expressed as

¹ /¹ "(g/g , (7)
   
where ¹ is the maximum temperature in the critical region, which can be obtained
 
by substituting g into Eq. (6). g is the value of g in the critical region, which can be
 
determined by Eq. (5).
Fig. 5 shows the possible maximum "re temperature in a compartment in the whole
region. It can be seen that the maximum "re temperature declines with increasing
g (i.e. decreasing ventilation) for ventilation-controlled "re, while it increases with g for
368 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375

Fig. 4. Non-dimensionalized maximum temperature for fuel-controlled "re.

Fig. 5. Max. temperature of fully developed "re versus ventilation and "re load.

fuel-controlled "re. The peak value of the maximum "re temperature in the case of
speci"ed "re loads occurs in the intersection of fuel and ventilation-controlled regions.

3.4. Fire duration and time to reach the maximum temperature

Assuming a constant burning rate R during the entire period of primary burning,
the "re duration can be given by
q"G /R, (8)

where R is the burning rate (kg of wood/min), which can be given by

R"10.8(1!exp(!0.036g))A (h=/D (9)


for ventilation-controlled "re [20], and
R"0.372uG (10)

 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375 369

Fig. 6. Distribution diagram of q/t .

for the fuel-controlled "re [19], where = is the width of the wall which contains
opening (m) and D is the depth of the "re compartment (m).
Eqs. (8) and (10) show that for fuel-controlled "re, the "re duration is dependent
only on the fuel surface area ratio. For a general o$ce building, u is 0.12}0.18 m/kg
and the corresponding duration of fuel-controlled "re is about 15}22 min.
The time to reach the maximum temperature can be obtained from the "re duration
q, which is illustrated in Fig. 6. It can be seen that q/t is mostly between 1.4 and 2.0,
mainly distributed between 1.4 and 1.7. On the basis of Fig. 6 and the sensitivity
analysis in Section 4.2, the following formula is approximately valid:
q"1.6t or t "0.63q. (11)

3.5. Inyuences of thermal properties of the xre compartment

The heat loss through the compartment boundaries (such as walls, ceiling, #oor) is
about 10}30% of the heat release, according to the BISF/JFRO "re tests [10]. It is
also an important factor in#uencing the gas temperature}time history of the compart-
ment.
An approximate way to consider the in#uence of the thermal properties of compart-
ment boundaries is to convert the actual "re load and opening factor into the
equivalent "re load and the equivalent opening factor, respectively [5]. These equiva-
lents can be obtained by multiplying the actual "re load density q and the opening
factor O by the factor k , respectively. Ref. [5] gives the proposed values for several

common types of compartment boundaries.

4. Sensitivity analysis

4.1. Surface area ratio of fuel

To show the e!ect of the surface area ratio of fuel in this method, some calculations
are performed. Since the surface area ratio of fuel only has e!ects on fuel-controlled
"res, it makes sense that the calculation parameters for fuel-controlled "res are
370 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375

Table 2
Sensitivity study : e!ect of fuel surface on fuel-controlled "res

g q u"0.09 u"0.12 u"0.15 u"0.18 u"0.21

5 15 (221, 28) (305, 21) (374, 17) (434, 14) (488, 12)
30 (834, 28) (894, 21) (950, 17) (1002, 14) (1053, 12)
8 15 (279, 28) (385, 21) (473, 17) (550, 14) (617, 12)
30 (1055, 28) (1130, 21) * * *
16 15 (395, 28) (545, 21) (669, 17) (777, 14) (873, 12)

Fig. 7. Relation between surface area ratio u and the size of wood fuel.

desirable. The calculation results are shown in Table 2. The numbers in brackets
represent the calculated maximum "re temperature (3C) and duration q (min). It can
be seen that the fuel surface ratio has a signi"cant in#uence on the "re curve. If the fuel
has a low value of surface area ratio, the "re has a lower maximum temperature and
a longer "re duration; accordingly, for the fuel with a high value of surface area ratio,
the "re has a higher maximum temperature and a shorter duration.
Fig. 7 shows the relationship between the surface area ratio of wood and the size of
wood pieces. For general o$ce buildings, as mentioned in Section 3.2, the most
common value of fuel surface ratio is between 0.12 and 0.18 m/kg, which corresponds
to an average furniture thickness of 15}25 mm. Fig. 7 can be used as a direction for the
evaluation of u.

4.2. Ratio of t and xre duration

The ratio of the time to reach the maximum temperature t and the "re duration
q is between 0.5 and 0.7 (Fig. 6). Two values of "re load density q are taken so that fuel-
 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375 371

Table 3
Variables of the sensitivity analysis for t /q

t /q"0.5, 0.6, 0.7, q"15, 60 kg of wood

g"16 m \, u"0.15 m/kg

Fig. 8. (a) Sensitivity analysis: in#uence of t /q (fuel-controlled "re). (b) Sensitivity analysis: in#uence of
t /q (ventilation-controlled "re).

and ventilation-controlled "res are produced. The other parameters are listed in Table
3. The calculated temperature}time curves are illustrated in Fig. 8. It can be seen that
the resulting di!erence appears mainly in the decaying phase, and it is also not so
signi"cant. An intermediate value of 0.63 is desirable.
372 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375

5. Comparisons with 5re tests and computer simulation

5.1. JFRO xre tests

Relatively complete data about the "re curves were published in BISF/JFRO "re
tests [9], which will be compared with the new procedure. It may be argued that since
the data from these tests have been used in the previous derivation of this method, the
comparisons may not be valid. As noted above, the comprehensive information is
used in the derivation of this method. No single piece of test data was used through the
whole derivation. In fact, the data from the BISF/JFRO tests were only used in the
derivation of Eq. (7).
The curves calculated by this method and the measured curves are compared in
Fig. 9. In the "gure, the dashed lines show the predictions by the new method and the

Fig. 9. (a) Comparisons with JFRO tests * fuel-controlled "res. (b) Comparisons with JFRO tests *
ventilation-controlled "res.
 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375 373

Fig. 10. Comparisons with BRE "re tests.

solid lines show the average measured curves. A good agreement between the mea-
sured curves and the predictions by this method can be seen. The related parameters,
such as the inverse of opening factor g, the "re load G and the size of compartment

are presented in Table 1.

5.2. BRE xre tests

One of the "re curves from recent Cardington "re tests by BRE (Building Research
Establishment) in the UK was published in Ref. [15]. The BRE "re test was conducted
in one corner of the building, simulating the dimensions of a typical o$ce room. This
room measured 9 m long, 6 m wide and 4.185 m high. The #oor of the "re compart-
ment was constructed of concrete with corrugated steel decking, which is covered by
sand. The external end wall was made of lightweight concrete blocks. The remaining
internal walls of the "re compartment were formed using plasterboard. The window is
9 m long and 2.685 m high with double glazing. The "re load consisted of 40 kg/m of
timber distributed uniformly over the compartment #oor.
The comparisons between measured and calculated curves are made in Fig. 10. The
measured curve is treated according to Fig. 1 so that only the fully developed phase
and the decaying phase are presented. It can be seen that the calculated curve from the
proposed model agrees well with the measured curve.

5.3. Computer simulation

A comparison between the predictions by this method and the results of computer
simulation in Ref. [21] is also made (Fig. 11). The one-zone model is used in the
simulation and the combustion model used in this program (Ozone) can independently
de"ne the burning region (fuel or ventilation-controlled). In Fig. 11, the "re load is
33 kg/m and the values of the opening factor represent three speci"ed "res: 0.02 for
ventilation-controlled "re, 0.06 for "re in the critical region and 0.2 for fuel-controlled
374 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375

Fig. 11. Comparisons with "re curves by computer modelling in Ref. [21].

"re. In this comparison, the fuel surface ratio u is taken as 0.15 m/kg in the
calculation of fuel-controlled "re and the ratio of width to depth of compartment
(=/D) is 1/2.
The thermal property b of the compartment boundary is 1500 J/m s K, which is
considered to be close to compartment type A de"ned in [5]. According to Pettersson
et al. [5], the value of k is taken as 1.0. Consequently, the equivalent opening factors

and "re loads are the same as the actual values. Fig. 11 indicates a fairly good
agreement between the curves calculated by this method and the computer simula-
tion.

6. Conclusions

A new method to estimate the temperature}time curve in a fully developed "re

compartment for structural design purposes, without using computer code, is de-
veloped in this paper, on the basis of extensive test results and increasing knowledge of
"re engineering science. This method can provide a quick calculation of natural "re
curves for use in structural "re-resistance design.
A general shape function was derived, so that the two "re severity parameters can
describe the temperature}time curve in combination with this function. The "re loads,
opening factor, geometry and thermal properties of the compartment determine the
maximum gas temperature and "re duration. A sensitivity analysis was also carried
out to investigate the e!ects of the surface area ratio of fuel and the ratio of the time to
reach the maximum "re temperature and the "re duration in this method. The results
show that the surface area ratio of fuel u has a signi"cant in#uence on the temper-
ature}time curve. A method to estimate the value of fuel surface area ratio is also
suggested. The ratio of the time to reach the maximum "re temperature and the "re
 Z. Ma, P. Ma( kela( inen / Fire Safety Journal 34 (2000) 361}375 375

duration t /q does not have a signi"cant in#uence on the "re curves. The proposed
value t /q"0.63 provides su$cient precision for practical use.
The predicted results are compared with experimental and simulated results. The
good agreements show the applicability of this method.

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