ASSIGNMENT ON HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHY

Topic: Hypo And Hyper Secretions Of Endocrine System (Pituit

Submitted by: Nada Nadeer

II UG B.Sc. Nutrition and Dietetics
Dept. of CND
 INDEX

Sl. No. Content

1. Introduction
2. Hypo And Hyper Secretions of Pituitary Gland
3. Hypo And Hyper Secretions of Thyroid Gland
4. Hypo And Hyper Secretions of Parathyroid Gland
5. Hypo And Hyper Secretions of Pancreas
6. Conclusion
7. References
 INTRODUCTION

Overview of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a system of glands called endocrine glands that release chemical
messenger molecules called hormones into the bloodstream. Other glands of the body,
including sweat glands and salivary glands, also secrete substances but not into the
bloodstream. Instead, they secrete them through ducts that carry them to nearby body
surfaces. These other glands are called exocrine glands.
Endocrine hormones must travel through the bloodstream to the cells they affect, and this
takes time. Because endocrine hormones are released into the bloodstream, they travel
throughout the body wherever blood flows. As a result, endocrine hormones may affect many
cells and have body-wide effects. Endocrine hormones may cause effects that last for days,
weeks, or even months.

Glands of the Endocrine System

o The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain. It is controlled by the nervous
system via the brain structure called the hypothalamus, to which it is connected by a
thin stalk. The pituitary gland consists of two lobes, called the anterior (front) lobe
and posterior (back) lobe. The posterior lobe stores and secretes hormones
synthesized by the hypothalamus. The anterior lobe synthesizes and secretes its own
endocrine hormones, also under the influence of the hypothalamus. One endocrine
hormone secreted by the pituitary gland is growth hormone, which stimulates cells
throughout the body to synthesize proteins and divide.
o The thyroid gland is a large gland in the neck. Thyroid hormones such as thyroxine
increase the rate of metabolism in cells throughout the body. They control how
quickly cells use energy and make proteins.
o The four parathyroid glands are in the neck behind the thyroid gland. The parathyroid
hormone helps keep the level of calcium in the blood within a narrow range. It
stimulates bone cells to dissolve calcium and release it into the blood.
o The pineal gland is a tiny gland located near the centre of the brain. It secretes the
hormone melatonin, which controls the sleep-wake cycle and several other processes.
The production of melatonin is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light.
 o The pancreas is located near the stomach. Its endocrine hormones include insulin and
glucagon, which work together to control the level of glucose in the blood. The
pancreas also secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine.
o The two adrenal glands are located above the kidneys. Adrenal glands secrete several
different endocrine hormones, including the hormone adrenaline, which is involved in
the fight-or-flight response.
o The gonads include the ovaries in females and testes in males. They secrete sex
hormones, such as testosterone (in males) and oestrogen (in females). These
hormones control sexual maturation during puberty and the production of gametes
(sperm or egg cells) by the gonads after sexual maturation.
o The thymus gland is in front of the heart. It is the site where immune system cells
called T cells mature. T cells are critical to the adaptive immune system, in which the
body adapts to specific pathogens.

Endocrine System Disorders

Diseases of the endocrine system are relatively common. An endocrine system disease
usually involves the secretion of too much or not enough of a hormone. When too much
hormone is secreted, the condition is called hypersecretion. When not enough hormone is
secreted, the condition is called hyposecretion.
o Hypersecretion by an endocrine gland is often caused by a tumor. For example, a
tumor of the pituitary gland can cause hypersecretion of growth hormone. If this
occurs in childhood and goes untreated, it results in very long arms and legs and
abnormally tall stature by adulthood. This condition is commonly known as
gigantism.
 o Hyposecretion by an endocrine gland is often caused by the destruction of the
hormone-secreting cells of the gland. As a result, not enough of the hormone is
secreted. An example of this is type 1 diabetes, in which the body’s own immune
system attacks and destroys cells of the pancreas that secrete insulin. This type of
diabetes is generally treated with frequent injections of insulin.

HYPOSECRETIONS AND HYPERSECRETIONS OF PITUITARY GLAND

The pituitary gland, positioned at the base of the brain, is a remarkable organ often dubbed
the "master gland" because of its role in regulating various physiological processes. This
crucial gland manages the release of hormones, but when it misbehaves, it can lead to
hypersecretion, where it produces hormones in excess, or hyposecretion, where hormone
production falls short.

 Hypersecretion of Pituitary Hormones

Hypersecretion occurs when the pituitary gland produces hormones excessively. The
following are common examples:

 Growth Hormone (GH): In children, hypersecretion of GH leads to gigantism, causing

excessive bone and tissue growth. In adults, it results in acromegaly, marked by
enlarged hands, feet, and facial features.
 Prolactin: Hypersecretion of prolactin often occurs due to pituitary adenomas, benign
tumors. This leads to hyperprolactinemia, which can result in infertility, irregular
menstrual cycles, and even lactation in non-pregnant individuals.

 Hyposecretion of Pituitary Hormones

Hyposecretion, on the other hand, is when the pituitary gland fails to produce enough
hormones. Two primary hormones are affected:

 Growth Hormone (GH): In children, GH hyposecretion leads to stunted growth,

known as dwarfism. In adults, it causes adult growth hormone deficiency (AGHD),
which is characterized by fatigue, decreased muscle mass, and increased fat mass.
 Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Hyposecretion of ACTH results in adrenal
insufficiency, leading to weakness, fatigue, low blood pressure, and weight loss.
  Causes, Diagnosis and Clinical Implications

These conditions can have various underlying causes:

 Hypersecretion is often associated with pituitary adenomas, where benign tumors

stimulate excessive hormone production. Hypersecretion leads to uncontrolled growth
and hormonal imbalances.
 Hyposecretion may be due to structural abnormalities, head injuries, or genetic
factors. Hyposecretion results in growth impairments and metabolic disruptions.

Diagnosis typically involves hormone level tests and brain imaging, such as MRI, to visualize
the pituitary gland.

Both hypersecretion and hyposecretion of pituitary hormones have profound implications for
an individual's health. Hypersecretion leads to uncontrolled growth and hormonal
imbalances, whereas hyposecretion results in growth impairments and metabolic disruptions.

HYPOSECRETION AND HYPERSECRETION OF THE THYROID GLAND

The thyroid gland, a butterfly-shaped structure located in the neck, plays a crucial role in
regulating metabolism and maintaining overall health. However, imbalances in thyroid
hormone production can lead to hyposecretion (underactivity) or hypersecretion
(overactivity) of the thyroid gland, resulting in various health issues.

 Hyposecretion of Thyroid Hormones

Hyposecretion occurs when the thyroid gland produces insufficient thyroid hormones. The
primary condition associated with hyposecretion is:

 Hypothyroidism: Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by low levels of thyroid

hormones, leading to a variety of symptoms, including fatigue, weight gain, cold
intolerance, and depression.

 Hypersecretion of Thyroid Hormones

Hypersecretion refers to the excessive production of thyroid hormones. The main condition
associated with hypersecretion is:

 Hyperthyroidism: Hyperthyroidism results from the overproduction of thyroid

hormones, which leads to symptoms such as weight loss, anxiety, rapid heart rate, and
heat intolerance.

 Causes, Diagnosis and Clinical Implications

The causes of these thyroid conditions vary:

 Hypothyroidism: Common causes include autoimmune thyroiditis (Hashimoto's

disease), iodine deficiency, and certain medications.
 Hyperthyroidism: Common causes include Graves' disease, toxic nodular goiter, and
thyroiditis.

Diagnosis involves measuring thyroid hormone levels in the blood, particularly levels of
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Additional tests, such as thyroid function tests, may
be used to determine the underlying cause of the thyroid disorder.

Hypothyroidism typically leads to a slower metabolism, fatigue, and weight-related

problems, while hyperthyroidism results in an overactive metabolism, anxiety, and potential
cardiovascular issues.
HYPOSECRETION AND HYPERSECRETION OF PARATHYROID GLAND

The parathyroid glands, four tiny but mighty structures located adjacent to the thyroid gland,
play a crucial role in regulating calcium levels in the body. These glands maintain calcium
homeostasis through the secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH). Hyposecretion and
hypersecretion of PTH can lead to significant health issues. In this essay, we will explore the
implications, causes, and management of both hypo and hypersecretion of the parathyroid
glands.

 Hyposecretion of Parathyroid Hormone (PTH):

Hyposecretion of PTH occurs when the parathyroid glands do not produce enough of this
hormone, leading to the following condition:

 Hypoparathyroidism: In hypoparathyroidism, there is a deficiency of PTH, which

results in low blood calcium levels. Symptoms include muscle cramps, tingling
sensations, and even seizures due to neuromuscular irritability.

 Hypersecretion of Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Hypersecretion of PTH, on the other hand, involves excessive production of the hormone:

 Hyperparathyroidism: Hyperparathyroidism leads to elevated levels of PTH, causing

an increase in blood calcium levels. It can result from benign tumors on the
parathyroid glands or other factors. The condition can lead to symptoms like fatigue,
bone pain, kidney stones, and digestive problems.

 Causes, Diagnosis and Clinical Implications

The causes and diagnostic methods for these conditions are as follows:

 Hyposecretion: Hypoparathyroidism is often the result of surgical removal or damage

to the parathyroid glands during thyroid surgery. Diagnosis involves measuring
calcium and PTH levels in the blood.
 Hypersecretion: Hyperparathyroidism may be caused by parathyroid tumors, kidney
disease, or genetic factors. Diagnosis typically includes blood tests for calcium and
PTH levels, as well as imaging studies to locate potential tumors.

Hyposecretion causes low blood calcium levels, resulting in neuromuscular symptoms, while
hypersecretion leads to hypercalcemia, affecting multiple organ systems.

HYPOSECRETION AND HYPERSECRETION OF PANCREAS

Pancreas primarily functions as an exocrine and endocrine gland. The exocrine part secretes
digestive enzymes, while the endocrine part involves the secretion of hormones, mainly
insulin and glucagon, to regulate blood sugar levels. Hyposecretion and hypersecretion of
hormones from the endocrine part of the pancreas can result in specific conditions related to
blood sugar control.

 Hyposecretion of Pancreatic Hormones

Hyposecretion of pancreatic hormones typically involves insulin. When the pancreas does
not produce enough insulin or if the body becomes resistant to the effects of insulin, it can
lead to a condition called:

 Diabetes Mellitus (Type 1 and Type 2): In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas produces little
to no insulin due to an autoimmune reaction. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas may
 produce insulin, but the body's cells become resistant to its effects, resulting in
elevated blood sugar levels. Both conditions lead to symptoms like excessive thirst,
frequent urination, fatigue, and long-term complications if not properly managed.

 Hypersecretion of Pancreatic Hormones

Hypersecretion in the context of the pancreas is less common than hyposecretion. It typically
involves excessive insulin production, leading to:

 Hyperinsulinemia: This condition results from the overproduction of insulin by the

pancreas, often due to tumors (insulinomas). Hyperinsulinemia can lead to low blood
sugar (hypoglycemia) with symptoms like confusion, sweating, and fainting.

 Causes, Diagnosis and Clinical Implications

The causes and diagnostic methods for these conditions are as follows:

 Hyposecretion: Type 1 diabetes results from an autoimmune attack on insulin-

producing cells. Type 2 diabetes often arises from a combination of genetic and
lifestyle factors. Diagnosis involves blood tests measuring blood sugar levels and
other markers.
 Hypersecretion (Hyperinsulinemia): Hyperinsulinemia is typically caused by
insulinomas, benign tumors of the pancreas that produce excess insulin. Diagnosis
involves blood tests, imaging studies, and sometimes surgery to remove the tumor.

Hyposecretion of insulin, as seen in diabetes, leads to chronic high blood sugar levels and a
wide range of complications affecting the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and blood vessels.
Hypersecretion of insulin, or hyperinsulinemia, causes low blood sugar (hypoglycemia),
which can lead to neurological symptoms and even unconsciousness if severe.
 CONCLUSION

The endocrine system's delicate dance of hormonal balance is essential for maintaining
overall health and well-being. Disruptions, whether through hypo or hypersecretion, can lead
to a wide array of health issues. Timely diagnosis and appropriate treatment are crucial for
restoring hormonal equilibrium and preserving an individual's quality of life. Understanding
these conditions, their causes, and management options is vital for healthcare providers and
individuals who confront these imbalances. The endocrine system, with its multifaceted role
in maintaining metabolic equilibrium, reminds us of the body's remarkable capacity to adapt
and heal when its harmonious balance is restored.
 REFERENCES

 https://medlineplus.gov/
 https://bio.libretexts.org/
 https://my.clevelandclinic.org/
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/