HAPP111: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

TOPIC: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

1ST SEMESTER | S.Y 2022-2023 Transcribed by: Janiah Maxene J. Ramirez
LECTURER: Sir Joshua Luigi D. Ramel, RMT
TOPIC
SUBTOPIC
SUB SUBTOPIC

I. INTRODUCTION TO MUSCLES
• “Muscles” – derived from the Latin word meaning
“mouse” (“mus”).
• Myology – Study of muscles
• Myocytes – Muscle cells
• Myogenesis – Development of Muscles in the body
• Mesoderm – Muscle originates from the
embryological tissue layer; middle embryological
layer
• Sarcolemma – Cell membrane and external lamina
• Sarcoplasm – Cytoplasm of muscle cells
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum – Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum of Muscle

➢ Recall from your lesson on Cells and Tissues

that muscles have 3 types: Skeletal, Cardiac and
Smooth Muscle (classified according to body
location, cell shape and appearance)

MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLES

MOVEMENT OF THE BODY
• responsible for major body movements

POSTURE MAINTENANCE
• constantly maintaining tone (sitting, standing)
Multinucleate/Striations – help with the contraction
(skeletal and cardiac) RESPIRATION
Intercalated discs – unique features of cardiac • contraction of muscles in the diaphragm when
breathing
 PRODUCING BODY HEAT II. SKELETAL MUSCLES
• heat released as by product of muscle contraction • Attached to the skeleton; covers bone and
(thermoregulation) cartilage framework
- more on cardiac and skeletal muscle; they - Also known as Striated Muscle (Visible
contract more frequently than the smooth striations or stripes in the muscle fibers; can be
muscles easily identified)
- the heat we are producing can maintain our - Primarily Voluntary control of contractions
temperature • Consists of muscle fibers, which are long, cylindrical
COMMUNICATION multinucleated cells with diameters of 10-100 μm.
• Elongated nuclei are found peripherally just under
• speaking (tongue), writing (hands), body language
the sarcolemma (more than one; elongated)
• Reserve Progenitor cells called satellite cells
CONSTRICTION OF ORGANS AND VESSELS remains adjacent to most fibers of differentiated
• helps propel food to digestive tract, excrete waste skeletal muscle.
material (smooth muscle) - Satellite cells – Immature forms of muscle cells
or muscle fibers; when a muscle fiber is
HEARTBEAT damaged, differentiation happens and replaced
the damage muscle cell
• Contraction of the cardiac muscle propels blood to
other organs
PARTS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES
• Layers of Connective Tissue present in all types
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE TISSUE of muscle; seen well in skeletal muscle:
CONTRACTILITY
• shortening forcefully

EXCITABILITY
• responding to electrical stimuli called Action
Potentials (created by our nerves; instructs our
body to move)
- Action potentials in muscles are referred to as
muscle action potentials; those in nerve cells
are called nerve action potentials.
- Autorhythmic electrical signals arising in the
muscular tissue itself. (involuntary)
- Chemical stimuli, such as neurotransmitters
released by neurons, hormones, or changes in pH

EXTENSIBILITY
• stretching beyond normal resting length but still
being able to contract

ELASTICITY
• springing back to its original resting length ENDOMYSIUM
• dense irregular tissue surrounding the external
lamina of individual muscle fibers. (endo-inner)
 PERIMYSIUM
• thin connective tissue layer that immediately
surrounds each bundle of muscle fibers termed a
fascicle

EPIMYSIUM
• external sheath of dense irregular connective
tissue, surrounds the entire muscle

OTHER PARTS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES

MUSCLE FIBER
• elongated, multinuclear cells composed
of several myofibrils

MYOFIBRIL
• long, cylindrical filament bundles in the sarcoplasm MYOFILAMENTS OR FILAMENTS
of myocytes. • small protein structures within the myofibrils
- Thick filaments - 16 nm in diameter and 1–2 m
SOMATIC MOTOR NEURON long and composed mostly of the protein
• stimulates skeletal muscle to contract. myosin.
- Thin filaments - 8 nm in diameter and 1–2 m
BLOOD VESSELS long and composed mostly of the protein actin
• Arteries • Filaments inside a myofibril are arranged in
• Veins compartments called sarcomeres
• Capillaries – supply oxygen to muscle fibers
SARCOMERES
• are the basic functional units of a myofibril
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF MUSCLE • Composed of thick and thin filaments
• Every time our muscle contracts, it happens in the
SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM sarcomeres
• membranous smooth ER in skeletal muscle fibers

TRANSVERSE OR T-TUBULES
• long fingerlike invaginations of the cell
membrane encircling each myofibril near the
aligned A- and I-band boundaries of sarcomeres

TERMINAL CISTERNAE
• expanded structures adjacent to each T-Tubule
 SARCOMERE MUSCLE PROTEINS

MYOSIN
• Main component of thick filaments and functions as
narrow, plate-shaped a motor protein in all three types of muscle tissue
regions of dense protein • Has a Head and Tail region:
material separate one
- Myosin Tail - points toward the M line in the
sarcomere from the next.
center of the sarcomere. forming the shaft of
Thus, a sarcomere
Z-DISCS the thick filament.
extends from one Z disc
- Myosin Heads - project outward from the shaft
to the next Z disc.
in a spiraling fashion, each extending toward
- Sarcomeres are the six thin filaments; the one attached to the
measured from one
actin filaments
Z disc to another
the darker middle part of
ACTIN
the sarcomere which
A BAND
extends the entire length • Individual actin molecules join to form an actin
of the thick filaments. filament that is twisted into a helix.
Is a lighter, less dense - Myosin-binding Site – where a myosin head
area that contains the can attach.
rest of the thin filaments
I BAND but no thick filaments
and a Z disc passes
through the center of
each I band.
located in the center of
each A band contains
H ZONE
thick but not thin
filaments.
so named because it is at
the middle of the
M LINE
sarcomere; at the center
of the H zone
 PROTEINS THAT MAKE UP THE ACTIN NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION:
MYOFILAMENT
• The point of contact of motor neuron axon
• G-actin – globular subunit of actin
branches with the muscle fiber.
• F- actin – fibrillary; chain of 200 G-actin
• Also called Synapse
• subunits
Remember:
• Tropomyosin – covers active sites (binding site of
Action Potentials – electrical signals carried by neurons
calcium; attached to myosin) of G actin; these open
that stimulate muscle fiber action
up during muscle contraction, and after, it covers
up again the G actin
• Troponin – has 3 Subunits
- Trop I (TnI) > regulates actin-myosin interaction;
made sure that the interaction will not be
longer or shorter than necessary
- Trop C (TnC) > binds to Calcium (important ion
or electrolyte that is essential for the
contraction of any type of cell)
- Trop T (TnT) > anchors troponin to actin
COMPONENTS OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR
JUNCTION

STRUCTURAL PROTEINS PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL

TITIN • Axon terminal

• Structural protein connecting Z Disc to M Line; SYNAPTIC CLEFT

stabilizes thick filament position
• Space between presynaptic terminal and the muscle
fiber
-ACTININ
• Structural protein of Z Disc; attaches actin to titin MOTOR END PLATE
• muscle plasma membrane
MYOMYSEIN
• Structural protein of M line of Sarcomere; connects SYNAPTIC VESICLE
adjacent thick filaments
• Spherical Sacs that contain the neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine
NEBULIN
• Part of the nerves, particularly the axons
• wraps around the entire length of thin filament;
anchors Z Disc to thin filaments *NEUROTRANSMITTER

DYSTROPHIN • molecule that is released allowing neuron to

communicate with its target
• links thin filaments of sarcomere to integral • Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter for the
membrane proteins in sarcolemma muscles.
 III. MUSCLE CONTRACTION 3. Calcium ions bind to troponin (Trop C)
- Troponin changes shape, moving tropomyosin
THE SLIDING FILAMENT MECHANISM on the actin to expose active sites on actin
• Muscle contraction occurs because myosin heads molecules of thin filaments.
- Myosin heads of thick filaments attach to
attach to and “walk” along the thin filaments at
exposed active sites to form cross bridges
both ends of a sarcomere, progressively pulling the
(pagdikit ng actin at myosin)
thin filaments toward the M line.
• Thin filaments slide inward and meet at the center
of a sarcomere, moving so far inward that their
ends overlap.
• Z discs come closer together, and the sarcomere
shortens.
• However, the lengths of the individual thick and
thin filaments do not change. Shortening of
the sarcomeres causes shortening of the whole
muscle fiber, which in turn leads to shortening of
the entire muscle.

STEPS OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

- Once the cross bridges are made, pumapasok
• Contraction occurs as the overlapping thin and thick na or umiikli ang actin filaments
filaments of each sarcomere slide past one another
4. Myosin heads pivot, moving thin filaments toward
the sarcomere center. ATP binds myosin heads and
is broken down into ADP and P.
- Myosin heads detach from thin filaments and
return to their prepivot position.
- The sarcomere shortens and the muscle
contracts
-

1. Nerve impulse triggers release of ACh from the

synaptic knob into the synaptic cleft. ACh binds to
ACh receptors in the motor end plate of the
neuromuscular junction, initiating a muscle impulse
5. When the impulse stops, calcium ions are actively
in the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber
transported into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
- Ang nagpapasimula ng contraction ay ang nerve
- Tropomyosin re-covers active sites, and
impulse; tini-trigger ng nerve impulse ang
filaments passively slide back to their relaxed
paglabas ni acetylcholine from the neuron,
state.
tatawid sa synaptic left at papasok na sa cell
membrane.

2. As the muscle impulse spreads quickly from the

sarcolemma along T tubules, calcium ions are
released from terminal cisternae (repositories of
calcium; keeping calcium stored) into the
sarcoplasm
 IV. ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
❖ DIRECT PHOSPHORYLATION
• ATP (Adenosine Tri-phosphate) is the only energy
source that can be used directly to power muscle
activity; ATP must be regenerated continuously if
contraction is to continue.
- There are ATP that are stored in the muscle (but
only for brief contraction); they must find a way
to generate ATP.
• Tropomyosin re-covers active sites, and filaments
passively slide back to their relaxed state.
• There are 3 pathways that working muscles use to
regenerate ATP:
1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP (Adenosine
diphosphate) by creatine phosphate ❖ AEROBIC PATHWAY
2. Aerobic pathway (done by the mitochondria of
our myocytes; the pathway that has the large
number of ATP products)
3. Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation

(A) DIRECT (C)

(B) AEROBIC
PHOSPHO- ANAEROBIC
PATHWAY
RYLATION PATHWAY
Coupled reaction Glycolysis
of creatine Aerobic cellular and lactic
phosphate (CP) respiration acid
and ADP formation
Energy source:
glucose, pyruvic
acid; free fatty ❖ ANAEROBIC PATHWAY
Energy
Energy Source: acids from
Source:
CP adipose tissue;
Glucose
amino acids from
protein
catabolism
Oxygen Use: Oxygen Use: Oxygen Use:
None Required None
Products: 2
Products: 32 ATP
Products: 1 ATP ATP per
per glucose, CO2,
per CP, creatine glucose,
H2O
lactic acid
Duration of
Duration of
Duration of energy
energy
energy provision: 40
provision: 15
provision: Hours seconds, or
seconds
slightly more
 V. CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
• Unique in the sense that it is only found in one
organ of our body; the walls of the heart are the
only part of our heart that has muscle tissue.
• The principal tissue in the heart wall
• Between the layers of cardiac muscle fibers, the
contractile cells of the heart, are sheets of
connective tissue that contain blood vessels,
nerves, and the conduction system of the heart.
• Cardiac muscle fibers have the same arrangement
of actin and myosin and the same bands, zones,
and Z discs as skeletal muscle fibers.
- Both are striated because of the abundance of
actin and myosin and the same bands.
• Intercalated discs are unique features our cardiac
muscle fibers. These are microscopic structures that
are irregular transverse thickenings of the
sarcolemma that connects the ends of cardiac
muscle.
- Almost act as the desmosomes of our cell
• Cardiac muscle tissue has an endomysium and
perimysium, but lacks an epimysium.
- Cardiac is more branching
- There are gaps because of the branching
configuration of the muscle fibers of cardiac
muscle
- Not as neat as our skeletal muscle
VI. SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE
• Visceral (single-unit) smooth muscle tissue (More
common type).
• Found in the skin, forms part of the walls of small
arteries and veins and of hollow organs such as the
stomach, intestines, uterus, and urinary bladder.
- Has no striations
• Like cardiac muscle, visceral smooth muscle is
autorhythmic (involuntarily controlled)
- Thin filaments containing actin, the smooth
muscle isoform of tropomyosin and 2 smooth
muscle specific proteins, caldesmon and
calponin
- Thick filaments containing myosin II molecules
are oriented in one direction on one side of the
filament.
- Tropomyosin is present in smooth muscle,
serving to enhance actin–myosin interactions.
- Calponin molecules may exist in equal number
as actin, and has been proposed to be a load-
bearing protein (resiliency of the muscle every
time the muscle contracts; not meant for fast
contractions)
- Caldesmon has been suggested to be involved
in tethering actin, myosin and tropomyosin, and
thereby enhance the ability of smooth muscle
to maintain tension.
FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF SMOOTH MUSCLE
• Specialized for slow, prolonged contraction
• Nerve terminals in smooth muscles are observed
only in the connective tissue adjacent to muscle
cells
• Smooth muscles also secrete connective tissue
matrix
 VII. INTERACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES VIII. NOMENCLATURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
• Muscles can’t push—they can only pull as they CRITERIA OF NAMING MUSCLES
contract
• Muscles are arranged so that whatever one muscle 1. Direction of Muscle Fibers (in Latin)
(or group of muscles) can do, other muscles can 2. Relative Size of Muscle (major or minor)
reverse 3. Location of Muscle (Latin)
4. Number of Origin
• In general, groups of muscles that produce opposite
5. Location of Muscle’s Origin and
movements lie on opposite sides of a joint.
6. Insertion
7. Shape of the Muscle
8. Action of the Muscle

ARRANGEMENT OF FASCICLES
CIRCULAR
• Fascicles arranged in concentric rings
• Generalized as “Sphincters”

CONVERGENT
PRIME MOVER
• Fascicles converge to toward a single
• muscle that has the major responsibility for causing tendon insertion
a particular movement
PARALLEL
ANTAGONISTS
• Length of fascicles run parallel to the long axis
• Muscles that oppose or reverse a movement
PENNATE
SYNERGISTS
• “Feather” pattern; fascicles attach obliquely to
• help prime movers by producing the same a central tendon
movement or by reducing undesirable movements

FIXATORS
• specialized synergists. They hold a bone still or
stabilize the origin of a prime mover so all the
tension can be used to move the insertion bone.
 IX. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM ❖ MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR THIGH, HIP AND
PELVIS
❖ SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND NECK
- They can be named depending on how close
they are to the bone.

❖ MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR SHOULDER, TRUNK

❖ MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR THIGH, HIP AND
AND ARM
PELVIS

❖ MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR SHOULDER,

TRUNK AND ARM

❖ SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF THE LEGS (ANTERIOR

AND POSTERIOR)
 X. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
EFFECTS OF AGING ON SKELETAL MUSCLE
SARCOPENIA OR MUSCLE ATROPHY
• Age-related reduction in muscle mass
and regulation of muscle function
• Loss of muscle fibers begins as early as 25 years of
age and, by age 80, the muscle mass has been
reduced by approximately 50%, due primarily to the
loss of muscle fibers
• Surface area of the neuromuscular junction
decreases;
• Number of motor neurons also decreases. Some of
the muscle fibers that lose their innervation when a
neuron dies, are reinnervated by a branch of
another motor neuron
MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
• Rare autoimmune disease that can affect muscles
during adulthood
• Characterized by drooping upper eyelids, difficulty
in swallowing and talking, and generalized muscle
weakness and fatigability.
- Medication: pharmacological interventions
• Shortage of acetylcholine receptors
at neuromuscular junctions caused by
antibodies specific for acetylcholine receptors
(genetics)
• Death usually occurs when the respiratory muscles
can no longer function, which leads to respiratory
failure.
MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
• Muscular dystrophy-dystrophin and dystrophin
associated proteins
• 2 types of dystrophies:
- Duchenne type
- Becker type
• No known cure for muscular dystrophies, treatment
is aimed at control of symptoms to maximize the
quality of life
OTHER IMBALANCES
CONDITION DESCRIPTION
Cramps Painful, spastic contractions of
skeletal muscle; due to multiple
causes such as dehydration and ion
imbalance
Fibromyalgia Non-life threatening, chronic,
widespread pain in skeletal muscle
with no known cure; also known as
chronic muscle pain syndrome
Hypertrophy Enlargement of skeletal muscle due
to an increased number of myofibrils,
as occurs with increased muscle use;
in cardiac muscle, usually a result of
other diseases, commonly
hypertension
Atrophy Decrease in muscle size due to a
decrease number of myofilaments;
can occur due to disuse of a muscle,
as in paralysis; can also occur in
cardiac muscle due to certain
pathologies such as chronic heart
failure
Muscular Group of genetic disorders in which
dystrophy muscles degenerate and atrophy;
usually effects skeletal muscle and
sometimes, cardiac muscle
Tendinitis Inflammation of a tendon or its
attachment point due to overuse of a
skeletal muscle
Fibrosis Scarring of damaged cardiac or
skeletal muscle due to deposition of
connective tissue
Fibrositis Inflammation of fibrous connective
tissue, resulting in soreness after
prolonged skeletal muscle tension;
not progressive.