Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 229–234

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Forensic Science International

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/forsciint

The fate of human remains in a maritime context and feasibility for

forensic humanitarian action to assist in their recovery and
identification
Sarah Theresa Dorothea Ellinghama,* , Pierre Perichb , Morris Tidball-Binza
a
International Committee of the Red Cross, Protection Division, Forensic Unit, 19 Avenue de la Paix, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland
b
APHM, CHU Timone, Service de Médicine Légale et droit de la Santé, 13385 Cedex 5, Marseille, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history:
Available online 7 August 2017 The number of annual maritime fatalities reported in the Mediterranean has more than doubled in the
last two years, a phenomenon closely linked to the increase of migrants attempting to reach Europe via
the Mediterranean. The majority of victims reportedly never gets recovered, which in part relates to the
Keywords: fact that the mechanisms and interaction of factors affecting marine taphonomy are still largely not
Forensic humanitarian action understood. These factors include intrinsic factors such as whether the individual was alive or dead at the
Maritime taphonomy time of submergence, the individual’s stature and clothing, as well as extrinsic factors such including
Submerged remains ambient temperature, currents, water depth, salinity and oxygen levels. This paper provides a
Maritime body recovery
compilation of the current literature on factors influencing marine taphonomy, recovery and
Disaster victim identification
identification procedures for submerged remains, and discusses the implications for the retrieval and
identification of maritime mass fatalities as part of the humanitarian response, specifically humanitarian
forensic action, to the consequences of the current migration phenomenon.
© 2017 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

1. Introduction Whilst the majority of maritime fatalities are related to

Recent years have seen an unprecedented humanitarian
tragedy due to a loss of human life at sea in the Mediterranean.
This is particularly linked to the upsurge of migration, including
through maritime routes such as those crossing the Mediterra-
nean; whilst the sea route to the EU is not a new one, the number of
individuals commencing on this journey is exponentially growing,
as is the death toll attending this increase, as the vessels utilized in
the crossings are frequently of low quality and filled way above
their capacity [1]. Between 1988 and 2013 a reported 14,309 people
died in an attempt to cross the Mediterranean [2], in 2014 and
2015 combined, 7191 people were reported to have lost their lives;
the actual number is likely even higher. 2016 alone has seen
4913 casualties [3]. Many victims never get recovered or identified.
However in an unprecedented operation, in June 2016 the Italian
Navy recovered a sunken fishing boat believed to have held more
than 800 migrants when it capsized in April 2015, and identifica-
tion efforts are underway at the time of writing.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ellingham.sarah@gmail.com (S.T.D. Ellingham).
migration, other recent prominent incidents resulting in a large
number of individuals finding death in marine bodies of water
include the crash of Yemenia flight 626 in 2009, the sinking of the
MS Spice Islander I off the coast of Zanzibar killing up to 1500 people
in 2011, the crash of Air France flight 447 in 2009 with 228 fatalities,
the 2014 sinking of the Sewol ferry in South Korea, causing the
death of 304 individuals, Egypt Air flight 804 killing 66 when
crashing into the Mediterranean in early 2016 as well as most likely
Malaysian Airlines flight 370 which vanished off the radars over
the Indian Ocean with 239 people on board in 2014. The increasing
number of mass fatalities in the maritime context poses particular
challenges for the recovery and identification of the dead.
Every human being has the right not to lose his or her identity
after death [4], and the necessity to retrieve and identify the
deceased for humanitarian, judicial and administrative reasons, is
not only universally recognized, but also perpetuated in domestic
and international law, such as the 1949 Geneva Conventions [5],
and their 1977 Additional Protocols [6]. Under International
Humanitarian Law (IHL), the dead from armed conflict are a
distinct category of victim with the right to having their dignity
protected; though the matter of management of the dead is not yet
specifically addressed in the evolving body of International
Disaster Response Law (IDRL), with the exception of situations

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.07.039
0379-0738/© 2017 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.
230 S.T.D. Ellingham et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 229–234
in which death was caused by negligence of a State, the adequate
management and identification of disaster victims is equally
important [7,8]. Nonetheless, for many individuals who lose their
life at sea, this does not materialize for a variety of reasons [1].
Despite their relevance in the recovery and identification efforts
of human remains from the sea, the mechanisms and factors
affecting marine taphonomy are still largely not understood, as
research in this area to date has been scarce. There are multiple
factors affecting the fate of human remains in the marine context,
including intrinsic factors such as whether the individual was alive
or deceased at the time of submergence, stature and clothing, as
well as extrinsic factors including ambient temperature, currents,
water depth, salinity and oxygen levels. Much of the current body
of knowledge concerning marine taphonomy is derived from case
observations and some experimentally conducted research off the
coast of British Columbia.
It is the aim of this paper to provide a compilation of the current
body of knowledge relating to the fate of human remains in a
maritime context. This includes processes of marine taphonomy,
recovery and identification procedures for submerged remains,
and the implications for the retrieval and identification of
maritime related mass fatalities, in particular in light of the
current migration phenomenon and humanitarian efforts, partic-
ularly forensic humanitarian action, to properly manage and
identify the dead from these events.
The following sections will discourse upon the factors playing a
role in the successful retrieval and identification of human
remains, such as water drift, the intrinsic and extrinsic factors
influencing the decomposition rate and pattern, as well as
technical approaches to the detection and recovery of human
remains from a maritime environment. Finally, identification
methods will be discussed.
2. Drift
There is a number of factors influencing a body’s horizontal and
vertical displacement in water after drowning [9]. Vertical
movement is dependent on the body’s gravity and the relationship
of its density to the density of the water; the average density of
males and females is 0.98 and 0.97 g/cm3 respectively, the density
of salt water is 1.024 g/cm3 [10]. This results in the fact that less
dense human bodies have a tendency to float, however even small
variations have a severe influence on buoyancy [11,12]. This, in turn
has a direct impact on horizontal displacement. Particularly in
cases of drowning an increase in body specific gravity and
subsequent decrease in buoyancy due to increased lung weight
through water inhalation or increased stomach weight through
water ingestion, leads to a sinking of the body [11]. Once sinking
commences, the hydrostatic pressure, which increases by 1 atm.
for every 10 m depth, compresses gas containing cavities in the
body, causing it to sink to the bottom. The settling of remains on
the bottom of a body of water is dependent on factors such as the
water currents and the type of substrate [10]. The increased
frictional forces at the bottom of maritime environments in
combination with the decreased velocity of the water current at
greater depths result in the drag forces frequently not being able to
overcome gravitational forces and less horizontal body displace-
ment to occur [11]. Significant horizontal displacement therefore
only occurs after the body resurfaces if it is not immediately
recovered. In cases in which the individual entered the water
already dead, died of reasons other than drowning or was wearing
a flotation device, it is possible for it to not sink at all [13] and drift
of up to 380 km in 60 h [14].
Sunken bodies resurface once they enter the bloating stage of
decomposition, the putrefactive gases decreasing the body specific
gravity and increasing buoyancy. The exception to this are bodies
which are trapped in a structure at the bottom or if they have sunk
to depths greater than about 60 m [13,15]. The main factor affecting
the rate of decomposition is the ambient temperature, the process
thus slowing down in lower water temperatures. Another factor
influencing decomposition rate is hydrostatic pressure, with low
hydrostatic pressure being more conducive to decomposition. It is
therefore not uncommon for sunken bodies to resurface in coastal
regions during low tide, as the decrease in water column lowers the
hydrostatic pressure on the body [11].
Oceanic currents and particularly drift currents, which are
dependent on atmospheric changes, can be highly variable,
however there are several numerical oceanographic forecast
models which can be accessed, such as the Mediterranean Forecast
System Pilot Project (MFSPP), the Princeton Ocean Model (POM)
[16] or the US Navy’s Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVO) which
runs the Shallow Water Analysis and Forecast System (SWAFS),
operational models for marginal seas around the world [17–20].
Predicting body displacement in marine environments is highly
complex and the collaboration of forensic and operational
oceanographic expertise, such as accumulated by the agencies
mentioned above, is paramount for such investigations.
3. Decomposition and taphonomy
The process of decomposition in water generally progresses
slower than on land, which is due to the cooler temperatures as
well as the absence of necrophagous insects. When comparing the
differing aqueous environments, salt water decomposition pro-
ceeds at an even further decelerated rate than that in fresh water.
This can be attributed to the fact that in the latter water is absorbed
into the circulatory system, causing organs to swell and rupture,
whereas in the former, fluids are drawn out of the blood and
thehigh salinity slow bacterial activity [10]. The decomposition of
remains in the marine context also heavily depends on many other
factors, including whether the remains sink or float. In floating
remains disarticulation of the appendages through current and
wave action weakening the soft tissue connection of the joints is a
common factor [21]. The generally observed sequence of disarticu-
lation occurs at major joints, from distal to proximal; on the upper
limbs the first to disarticulate are the wrist joints, the elbow and the
shoulder joints. On the lower limbs loss of the feet at the ankle joint
is followed by the knee joint. The mandible disarticulates around
the same time as the hands, and the cranium is lost parallel to
disarticulation of the forearms [21]. This pattern, however can be
altered through the presence of clothing, which may preserve the
soft tissue and inhibit disarticulation (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1. Differential decomposition after 70 days of submersion, due to the body
being protected by clothing; note disarticulation of the mandible.
 S.T.D. Ellingham et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 229–234
Fig. 2. Differential decomposition of a drift corpse washed ashore, exhibiting
skeletonization in the cervico-cephalic region whilst the remainder of the body is
virtually intact.
Researchers at Simon Fraser University have monitored the
decomposition process at various depths (7.6 m, 15.2 m, 94–99 m
and 300 m) experimentally in the Pacific Ocean off the Coast of British
Columbia, by utilizing pigs as human proxy [13,22,23]. At the shallow
depths of 7.6 m and 15.2 m the remains, 50% of the carcasses were still
floating despite having been deceased prior to their placement in the
water. The remains which had sunk showed more severe scavenging
and skeletonization than those floating [23]. The remains deployed at
depths of 94–99 m were found to sink immediately. After 14 days the
carcasses were partially skeletonized due to scavenger activity (mainly
lysianassid amphipods); all soft tissue and most of the cartilage was
removed by day 42. All tissue loss at these depths was entirely due to
animal feeding and not related to decomposition [13]. Anderson [13]
further noted that in instances in which the oxygen levels dropped to
hypoxic levels of below 2.0 mL/L, virtually no scavenger activity took
place, leaving the remains intact. Remains placed at a depth of 300 m
immediately attracted lysianassid amphipods, which first consume
the internal organs followed by the skin, and completely skeletonized
the remains within 4 days. It was noted that after skeletonization
bones were rapidly covered by silt, with black discolorations forming
both on the skeletal elements and the surrounding silt, which was
observed from day 23 post deposition [22].
Dumser and Türkay [24] reported the location and recovery of
skeletal human remains at a depth of 580 m, 89 days after a mid-air
jet aircraft collision off the Namibian coast. The skeletal elements
were in the immediate vicinity of the plane wreckage and although
disarticulated, still in anatomical order and partially clothed. In
another incident involving a helicopter accident over the
Mediterranean Sea, partially decomposed and fully clothed
remains were recovered at a depth of 540 m after 34 days. It is
to be noted that this incident occurred in an ecological environ-
ment devoid of the highly scavenging lysianassids [24].
Following the crash of Yemenia flight 626 into the Indian Ocean
in 2009, which cost the lives of 152 individuals (leaving one sole
survivor), 24 bodies were washed ashore 300 nautical miles away,
7 days after the crash and 70 were recovered from a depth of
1280 m after 70 days of submergence [25]. The remains displayed a
highly differential decomposition, with parts of the remains still
fully fleshed, while others, particularly in the cervico-cephalic
region being skeletonized. Over 60% of the victims recovered from
the sea bed exhibited circular lesions attributed to scavenging by
cookiecutter sharks (Isistius), while victims who were found
drifting on the surface displayed large classical shark bites.
(Examples of shark and Isistius scavenging can be seen in
Figs. 3 and 4).
231
Fig. 3. Cookiecutter shark (Isistius) predation.
Fig. 4. Shark (Selachimorpha) predation.
It has been possible to successfully recover and identify 154 of
the 228 victims of the 2009 Air France Flight 447 crash into the
Atlantic Ocean. Fifty were floating on the ocean surface in the
immediate aftermath of the crash, 104 were recovered from a
depth of 4000 m after 21 months of submergence [26]. Differential
preservation of the remains was observed, with remains in contact
with the sediment having been mostly skeletonized and remains
suspended in the debris still having been virtually intact. A
remarkable protection of soft tissue through clothing was observed
[26]. Predation occurred by amphipods as well as squat lobsters
(Galatheae), which were observed to gnaw on bone epiphyses and
leaving bone lesions on cancellous bone as well as the external
table of the crania. Examples of Galatheae scavenging can be seen
in Figs. 5–6. There was no predation from Isistia or larger sharks.
Observed polytrauma of the remains was associated with the
crash. Skin and bones in direct contact with the sediment exhibited
black discolouration.
Decomposition patterns are further altered in instances in
which the remains are in an enclosed environment not permitting
access to scavengers, in which cases adipocere formation is often
observed. Adipocere is a waxy byproduct of decomposition which
is formed by the hydrolysis and hydrogenation of tissue fat, which
typically forms in anaerobic, moist environments, and once formed
has been observed to remain unchanged for at least 150 years,
inhibiting skeletonization [27]. Depending on factors such as the
type of fatty acids, the temperature, immersion depth and clothing,
adipocere can either be hard and crumbly, or soft and paste like
232 S.T.D. Ellingham et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 229–234
Fig. 5. Galatheae scavenging marks on a cranium.
Fig. 6. Galatheae scavenging marks on a femur.
[10] (Fig. 8). Adipocere formation has been reported as early as
38 days post submergence in remains recovered from a ship wreck
in the East China Sea from a depth of 85 m [27]. In the case of the
Air France Flight 447 crash, an incomplete saponification of fats,
Fig. 7. A crab scavenging a bone.
Fig. 8. Adipocere formation.
leading to easily dislodgeable white flaky deposits on the skin were
observed, which is most likely due to the very high pressure of
400 bars [26].
4. Detection and recovery
In deep sea environments, typically remotely operated vehicles
(ROV) equipped with a colour video camera are deployed [24]
(Fig. 9). Ideally the video images should be monitored by forensic
personnel, as was the case for the recovery of the Air France Flight
447 recovery. In some instances sonar exploration of the sea bed
can be deployed prior to the sending of an ROV.
Recovery dives need to be carefully planned and diver’s safety is
of paramount importance. For handling cadavers in underwater
recovery operations specific training is required, as recognizing
human tissue in different states of preservation and under
different circumstances such as poor visibility and/or confined
spaces requires specific knowledge and experience [28,29]. The
psychological impact of such recoveries on divers also has to be
taken into consideration. During the recovery of the victims of the
Fig. 9. Remotely operated vehicle (ROV) for underwater searches.
 S.T.D. Ellingham et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 229–234
Air France Flight 447 crash, a psychiatrist and a psychologist were
on board at all times to offer support to the crew.
In order to facilitate optimal prerequisites for identification,
remains need to be bagged in a consistent manner and the area
surrounding the remains need to be carefully examined and
documented, including the recovery depth. In order to allow for a
re-visiting of the scene if necessary, a marker should be placed
[28]. Remains should be bagged under water in order to minimize
the loss of physical evidence [28]; special water recovery bags
made out of vinyl coated polyester mesh are available, which allow
for easier recovery while submerged and quick drainage once
removed from water. Once on deck bodies can be transferred into
conventional, leak proof bags.
In deep sea recoveries the bagging of remains under water is not
feasible. In these instances ROVs equipped with robotic arms have
been deployed in past operations. Using visual control, intact
remains are gripped by the robotic arm at belt level, by the lower
limbs or shoulder and placed into a metal collection basket
(Figs. 10–12). Individual body fragments can be picked up and
placed into the collection basket separately. In case of the AF
447 Flight, the basket was towed to the surface by a 4000 m long
cable with an ascent time of approximately 3 h at a speed of 20 m/
min [26].
Prior to recovery, a detailed description and positioning of the
remains as well as associated items need to be recorded, and
visibility permitting, photographs of the body and surroundings
should be taken. All associated items need to be recorded, bagged
and recovered. This is particularly crucial as, particularly in deep
Fig. 10. ROV robotic arm deployed in deep sea recoveries of remains.
Fig. 11. ROV robotic arm placing human remains into the metal recovery cage.
233
Fig. 12. Metal cage deployed for deep sea recovery of remains.
sea recoveries, bodies can undergo multiple changes during the
ascent, including a stripping of clothing, loss of soft tissue, frequent
joint disjunctions and detachment of appendages even at very slow
ascent speeds. In addition the rapid increase in temperature
accelerates decomposition [26].
Recovered remains need to be adequately stored aboard the
vessel, requiring refrigeration until they can be transferred to land.
5. Identification
According to Winskog [28], around 60% of victims of maritime
disasters are identified through odontology, this however being
heavily dependent on the availability of ante-mortem records. In
well preserved remains, deep muscle tissue can be sampled for
DNA analysis, however even after removal of all soft tissues, DNA
can be successfully extracted from submerged skeletal remains for
decades [30], depending on the skeletal element. Goodwin et al.
[31], were able to identify the remains of an individual who had
been submerged in a Scottish Loch for 35 years based on his mtDNA
profile and the amplification of nuclear DNA from a tibia.
Fredericks et al. [32], who analyzed the remains of individuals
which had been submerged in sea water for 2 and 4 years, observed
the successful DNA amplification rate to be dependent on the
skeletal element as well as the duration of submergence, and found
a higher allelic dropout to occur in “low load” bearing bones. They
noted the highest successful amplification rate from foot bones. It
is paramount that the method of identification must not be
decided before the body has been recovered from the water and
have been examined by a forensic expert.
Additionally it has to be noted, that although visual identifica-
tion and circumstantial identifiers such as tattoos or scars are
undoubtedly useful, they are not always recognized as legally valid
identifiers in every country. Under some jurisdictions, only
primary identifiers (DNA, fingerprints and dental records) are
accepted means of identification. If possible, remains should
always be brought back to land to enable repatriation; however, in
cases in which burial at sea is the only option, the remains need to
be thoroughly documented and biological samples enabling future
identification through primary identifiers need to be taken. For this
purpose the use of FTA1 paper or other biological storage cards
should be considered, as these contain contain chemicals which
break the cellular material, binding the DNA and thus allowing for
the long term storage of biological samples at room temperature by
protecting the DNA from microorganisms, UV light and oxidative
damage [33].
234 S.T.D. Ellingham et al. / Forensic Science International 279 (2017) 229–234
6. Discussion and conclusion
Over the last two decades, knowledge regarding the effect of
maritime environments on human remains has significantly
increased, which contributes to the improvement of the effective-
ness of humanitarian forensic action aimed at optimizing their
recovery and identification.
Whether a body will decompose or be scavenged depends
partly on its position in the water column. Remains in shallow
water go through the stages of fresh, bloat, active decay and
advanced decay and sometimes exhibit soft tissue for considerable
periods of time, whereas cadavers in the deep sea have been found
to exhibit differential preservation; they might not display any
signs of decomposition, but rather be rapidly scavenged, or remain
in a remarkable state of preservation for months and even years, if
their position does not allow for scavenger access [13,22,23]. This
knowledge is not only important for recovering divers to know
what they are searching for, but also in order to manage next of kin
expectations.
Deep sea searches are best carried out utilizing remotely
operated vehicles equipped with a video camera, the footage being
evaluated by someone with the necessary expertise. Remains need
to be recovered in appropriate underwater body bags, and then be
transferred to body bags allowing for potential subsequent
analyses (such as CT scans). Provisions for the appropriate storage
and cooling of remains after recovery need to be made, and a
thorough analysis to determine identity, and in some instances
cause of death, has to be carried out; this can take place aboard the
vessel, provided a qualified professional is available, or transferred
to an external medical examiner [26,28,29].
Although previous cases demonstrated that a recovery of
victims even after prolonged periods of time and great depths is
possible, the reality is that recovery efforts vastly depend on the
circumstances, the profile of the case and the financial means and
willingness of the responsible party. Most sunken vessels carrying
undocumented migrants are never recovered. However, in an
unprecedented operation, in June 2016 the Italian military has
recovered a boat which sunk in April 2015 and which was believed
to contain more than 800 deceased migrants from a depth of
370 m, which may set a positive impulse for future operations.
Identification efforts are underway and will undoubtedly contrib-
ute to increasing the understanding of taphonomic factors
affecting submerged remains. In the case of aviation disasters,
determining the victim’s identities is made easier by the fact that
they are closed incidents with fixed passenger manifests. Finding
the next of kin for appropriate ante-mortem data is therefore a
relatively straight forward task. With regards to sea fatalities
resulting from migration, however, the fact that there is no record
of the migrants departing on the journey across the Mediterranean,
obtaining accurate statistics on related fatalities is challenging, and
determining the identity of the majority of casualties is exceed-
ingly difficult [1].
Nonetheless, locating and identifying the dead is a universally
recognized value underpinned by domestic and international laws
and humanitarian principles. Better insights into the marine
taphonomical processes, as well as advances in technology are
crucial to lay the foundation for improved forensic humanitarian
action for the location, recovery and identification of individuals
who lose their lives at sea, even from substantial depths and
decades after death.
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