ETH101

WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY ETHICS AND THE IMPORTANCE OF

RULES: MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Rules
• Rules are important in social beings.
• Rules are not meant to restrict your freedom. They are meant to help you grow in freedom, to
grow in your ability to choose and do what is good for you and for others.
• Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct within a
specific activity or sphere.
• Rules are usually coupled with means to impose consequences on those who violate them.
• Rules are considered essential for a healthy economic system.
• Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings.
• Rules are meant to set order in society.
• Rules are intended for human persons. They are not meant to limit a person's freedom which
is the ability to choose and do what is good. Rather rules are meant to help persons choose and
do what is good.
• Those who do what is good don't even feel the presence of a rule that prevents them from
doing what is not good. It is those who intend to do the opposite of what is good that feel the
suffocating and limiting presence of a rule.
• When society is ideal, i.e. when all persons are good and do only what is ideal then there will
be no more need for rules and laws according to Lao Tzu.

WHAT IS ETHICS?
As a branch of Philosophy, ethics stands to queries about where there is reason to do. Dealing
with human actions and reasons for action, ethics is also concerned with character. In fact, the
word ethics is derived from the Greek “ethos”, which means “character”, or in plural “manners”.

Ethics
• Ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies morality or the rightness or wrongness of human
conduct.
• Morality speaks of a code or system of behavior in regards to standards of right and wrong
behavior,
• Ethics evaluates moral concepts, values, principles, and standards. It is concerned with norms
of human conduct.
• Ethics is considered a normative study of human actions

Etymology and Meaning of Ethics

The term "ethics" comes from the Greek word "ethos" meaning"custom" used in the works of
Aristotle, while the term "moral" is the Latin equivalent. Based on the Greek and Latin
etymology of the word "ethics", ethics deals with morality. When the Roman orator Cicero
exclaimed, "O tempora o mores" (Cicero, 1856) (Oh, what time and what morals), he may
have been trying to express dismay of the morality of his time. Ethics or moral philosophy, is. a
branch of philosophy which deals with moral standards, inquires about the rightness or
wrongness of human behavior or the goodness or badness of personality, trait or character. It
deals with ideas, with topics such as moral standards or norms of morality, conscience, moral
values and virtues. Ethics is a study of the morality of human acts and moral agents, what
makes an act obligatory and what makes a person accountable.

"Moral" is the adjective describing a human act as either ethically right or wrong, or qualifying
a person, personality, character, as either ethically good or bad.
Some questions that are ethical in nature are: What is the good? Who is a moral
person? What are the virtues of human being? What makes an act right? What duties do we
have to each other?
Also called moral philosophy, ethics evaluates moral concepts, values, principles, and
standards. Because it is concerned with norms of human conduct, ethics is considered a
normative study of human actions.
Understanding your moral compass in order to develop better judgment is the aim for
studying Ethics. Ethics gives a sense of justification in one’s judgment, and helps ensure that
decisions at work are not made based on purely subjective factors. Without the study of ethics,
the practice of one’s profession will fall prey to vastly conflicting individual interpretations.

MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS

What are moral standards?
Moral standards are those concerned with or relating to human behavior, especially the
distinction between good and bad (or right or wrong) behavior. Moral standards deal with
matters that the person thinks have serious consequences. However, these standards are not
hinged on external authorities or rules, but based on good reason and impartial considerations
overriding self-interest. Feelings of guilt and shame are often associated when the person goes
against his or her moral standards.

What are non-moral standards?

Non-moral standards can be considered as relative standards by which something or
someone is judged as either good or bad. The rules of non-moral standards vary because
these rules depend on the guidelines agreed by a particular group. These refer to rules that
are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily
linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense.

Moral Standards or Moral Frameworks and Non-Moral Standards

Since ethics is a study of moral standards, then the first question for the course is, what are
moral standards. The following are. supposed to be examples of moral standards: "Stealing is
wrong." "Killing is wrong." "Telling lies is wrong." "Adultery is wrong." "Environment preservation
is the right thing to do". "Freedom with responsibility is the right way." "Giving what is due to
others is justice". Hence, moral standards are norms or prescriptions that serve as the
frameworks for determining what ought to be done or what is right or wrong action, what is good
or bad character.
In the Activity phase of this Lesson the following can be classified as moral standards:
• Do not lie.
• Don't steal.
• Don't cheat others.
• Don't kill.

Moral standards are either consequences standards (like Stuart Mill's utilitarianism) or non-
consequence standards (like Aristotle's virtue, St. Thomas' natural law, or Immanuel Kant' good
will or sense of duty). The consequence standards depend on results, outcome. An act that
results in the general welfare, in the greatest good of the greatest number, is moral. To take
part in a project that results in the improvement of the majority of people is, therefore, moral.
The non-consequence standards are based on the natural law. Natural law is the law of God
revealed through human reason. It is the "law of God written in the hearts of men." To preserve
human life is in accordance with the natural law, therefore it is moral. Likewise, the
non-consequence standard may also be based on good will or intention, and on a sense of duty.
Respect for humanity, treatment of the other as a human person, an act that is moral, springs
from a sense of duty, a sense of duty that you wish will apply to all human persons. On the other
hand, non-moral standards are social rules, demands of etiquette and good manners. They are
guides of action which should be followed as expected by society. Sometimes they may not be
followed or some people may not follow them. From time to time, changes are made regarding
good manners or etiquette. In sociology, non-moral standards or rules are called folkways. In
short, non-moral actions are those where moral categories cannot be applied.
Examples of non-moral standards are rules of good manners and right conduct, etiquette,
rules of behavior set by parents, teachers, and standards of grammar or language, standards
of art, standards of sports set by other authorities. Examples are "do not eat with your mouth
open;" "observe rules of grammar," and "do not wear socks that don't match."
In the Activity phase of this Lesson, the following are non-moral standards:
• No talking while your mouth is füll.
•Wear black or white for mourning; never red.
• The males should be the one to propose marriage not females.
• Observe correct grammar when writing and speaking English.
• Submit school requirements on time.
• If you are a male, stay by the danger side (roadside) when walking with a female.
• Go with the fashion or you are not "in."

Classification of the Theories of Moral Standards

Garner and Rosen (1967) classified the various moral standards formulated by moral
philosophers as follows:
1) Consequence (teleological, from tele which means end, result, or consequence)
standard states that an act is right or wrong depending on the consequences of the
act, that is, the good that is produced in the world. Will it do you good if you go to
school? If the answer is right, because you learn how to read and write, then going to
school is right. The consequence standard can also be a basis for determining
whether or not a rule is a right rule. So the consequence standard states that the
rightness or wrongness of a rule depends on the consequences or the good that is
produced in following the rule. For instance, if everyone follows the rule of a game,
Everyone will enjoy playing the game. This good consequence proves the rule must be
a correct rule.
2) Not-only-consequence standard (deontological), holds that the rightness or wrongness
of an action or rule depends on sense of duty, natural law, virtue and the demand of
the situation or circumstances. The rightness or wrongness of an action does not only
depend or rely on the consequence of that action or following that rule.
Natural law and virtue ethics are deontological moral standards because their basis for
determining what is right or wrong. does not depend on consequences but on the natural law
and virtue. Situation ethics, too, is deontological because the rightness or wrongness of an
act depends on situation and circumstances requiring or demanding exception to rule.

What Makes Standards Moral?

For theists, believers in God's existence, moral standards are commandments of God
revealed to man through prophets
For non-theists, God is not the source of morality. Moral standards
are based on the wisdom of sages like Confucius or philosophers like Immanuel Kant.

Characteristics of Moral Standards that set its part from Non-moral Standard
1. Moral standards involve behaviors that seriously affect other people’s well- being. It
can either profoundly injure or benefit a person or persons.
2. Moral standards take a more important consideration than other standards, including
self-interest.
3. Moral standards do not depend on any external authority but in how the person
perceives the reasonableness of the action
4. Moral standards are believed to be universal. Thus, when you truly believe an act is
wrong you also will not agree or consent when other people commit what you consider
a wrongful act. On the other hand, if you believe an action is morally right, then you will
also support other people doing such acts.
5. Moral standards are based on objectivity.
6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that depicts emotion or feelings.
7. Deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the
environment;
8. Not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies:
9. Overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standar and considerations,
especially of self-interest:
10.Based on impartial considerations;
11.Associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

➢ MORAL DILEMMA
A moral dilemma is a problem in the decision-making between two possible options, neither of
which is absolutely acceptable from an ethical perspective. It is also referred to as ethical
dilemma. The Oxford Dictionary defines ethical dilemma as a "decision-making problem
between two possible moral imperatives, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or
preferable. It is sometimes called an ethical paradox in moral philosophy. Moral dilemmas are
situations where two or more moral values or duties make demands on the decision-maker,
who can only honor one of them, and thus will violate at least one important moral concern, no
matter what he or she decides to do. Moral dilemmas present situations where there is tension
between moral values and duties that are more or less on equal footing. The decision-maker
has to choose between a wrong and another wrong.

Meaning of a False Dilemma

On the other hand, a false dilemma is a situation where the decision-maker has a moral duty
to do one thing, but is tempted or under pressure to do something else. A false dilemma is a
choice between a right and a wrong. For example, a lawyer or an accountant can face an
opportunity to prioritize self-interest over the client's interest.

➢ THE THREE LEVELS OF DILEMMA

A. Individual
This refers to personal dilemmas. It is an individual's damn-if-you-do-and-damn-if-you-don't
situation.

B. Organizational
An organizational dilemma is a puzzle posed by the dual. necessities of a social organization
and members" self-interest. It may exist between personal interests and organizational welfare
or between group interests and organizational well-being. Organizational dilemmas arise due to
different opposing concerns between various groupings in an organization.

C. Structural
The case of the principal whether to be participatory or non-participatory in school affairs but
due to her not so favorable experience of attempting to be participatory ended up to one-woman
rule is an example of a structural dilemma.

Gap Versus Overlap

There may be gaps and overlaps in roles and responsibilities. If key responsibilities are not
clearly assigned, there may be gaps or overlaps in important tasks. If there are gaps,
organizations end up with no one doing the responsibility. If there are overlaps, things become
unclear and may lead to more confusion and even conflict and worse wasted effort and perhaps
even resources because of the unintended overlap.

- The gaps leave an important thing in an organization undone.

- The overlap results in unnecessary and counterproductive, redundant procedures which
ultimately lead to waste of resources.
Lack of Clarity Versus Lack of Creativity.
If employees are unclear about what they are supposed to do, they often tailor their roles
around personal preferences instead of system wide goals, frequently leading to trouble.

Flexibility versus Strict Adherence to Rules

You accommodate by bending rules to help someone or you stick strictly to rules no matter
what and so unable to help someone who is thrown into a helpless situation. Or you may
become being too accommodating that all rules are no more.

Excessive Autonomy Versus Excessive Interdependence:

This refers to being too isolated versus too much coordination.

Structural dilemma is the dilemma arising from conflicting concerns among various sectors of
society.

Centralized versus Decentralized Decision Making

In decentralized decision making, organizations can respond to change more rapidly and
effectively because the decision makers are the people closest to the situation. However, top
managers may lose some control. This is the dilemma of tight overcentralization or diffusing
authority which is loose

➢ FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION OF MORAL ACTS

Ethics Applies Only to Human Persons
Unlike the lower forms of animals, human persons have a choice or freedom, hence morality
applies only to human persons. Ethics, therefore, applies only to human persons.

Freedom and Moral Choice

Without freedom it is impossible to make a moral choice."
If we are to have free will we must have the ability to make a decision that is unhindered.
Kant believed that we must have free will if we are. to be held morally responsible for our
actions.

To be Ethical: Own Not Merely Abide by Moral Standards

Having free will or freedom to choose among alternatives, which implies prior analysis
and study, is coming to terms with what you finally affirm or deny. When you arrive at a
personal conviction and self-affirmation, you begin to own the moral standard. The moral
standard begins to be integrated, internalized. You follow the norm not because it is imposed
by others, not because others say so or authoritatively impose it on you. On the other hand,
merely abiding by moral standards means applying them as basis to resolve a moral problem
without necessarily having internalized them. Merely abiding by them means once the
the enforcer is not around, the moral standard is not followed.

- Owning moral standards means internalizing them, making them part of your conviction.
Internalized or embodied moral standards are being followed with or without anyone
telling you.
- You internalize a rule after using reason to understand. When you are persuaded of its
wisdom, it becomes your basis of resolving an ethical problem. You decide to do
something not because the law says so but because you yourself say so.
- This may be termed as the embodiment of the moral standard in you. The moral
standard becomes one with the moral agent. As the moral agent, this moral standard
becomes your natural and immediate basis in your ethical decision making.
- The presupposition is that you have come to own the moral standard after having been
convinced of its wisdom, having chosen it among other principles or standards. Any
dilemma regarding the standard has been resolved.
Culture: How It Defines Moral Behavior
What is Culture?
Culture "is the integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors. This
consists of language, ideas, customs, morals, laws, taboos, institutions, tools, techniques,
and works of art, rituals and other capacities and habits acquired by a person as a member of
society." (Taylor as quoted by Palispis, 1997)

Sociologists categorize culture into material and non-material culture.

- Nonmaterial culture consists of language, values, rules, knowledge, and meanings
shared by members of society.
- Material culture is the physical object that a society produces tools, streets, homes and
toys, to name a few."

The Human Person and Culture

As a moral agent you are born into a culture, a factual reality you have not chosen. You are not
born with nothing.
It may be said that the Aristotelico-Thomistic tradition is one dominant, if not the most dominant
culture. This Aristotelico-Thomistic culture is a Greco-Roman culture, which has influenced and
shaped the moral life of those who have been exposed to it. 'Those who were born into this
culture, educated under this culture, are persuaded that there is God, that a divine order and
law keep and govern the world, which includes you.

Enculturation, Inculturation and Acculturation

Enculturation
- an anthropological term, was coined by J.M. Herskovits Margaret Mead has, however,
was the one who defined the term as "the process of learning a culture in all its
uniqueness and particularity.
- Enculturation is a process of learning from infancy till death, the components of life in
one’s culture. The contents of this learning include both the material and non-material
culture
- A person grows into a culture, acquires competence in that culture and that culture
takes root in that person and becomes the cognitive map, the term of reference
or acting.

Inculturation
- is a two way process:
- it roots the Gospel in a culture and introduces that transformed culture to Christianity.

Acculturation
- It is the "cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to or
borrowing traits from another culture

How Culture Shapes the Moral Agent

Culture definitely affects the way we evaluate and judge things.Culture has a very long lasting
hold on an individual. A person may have become highly educated, may have even obtained a
doctorate degree, educated with Christian values of forgiveness, but if he comes from a society
with a culture of vengeance (*an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth").

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Relativism says "what is true for you is true for you, and what is true for me is true for me."
Analogously, cultural relativism would say, "what you believe, value or practice depends on your
culture while what I believe, value and practice, depends on my culture." In other words, cultural
relativism is "the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based
on that person's own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another." Cultural
relativism is the view that moral or ethical systems, which vary from culture to
culture, are. all equally valid and no one system is really "better" than any other.

Cultural Relativism vs Cultural Perspective

However, what the cultural relativist fails to see is the difference between cultural perspective
and cultural relativism. A perspective is a standpoint or viewpoint of something. For instance,
there are as many perspectives of a building, a house, as there are standpoints. You try to
appreciate the design of a house considering its various perspective, but you never judge the
design based on only one perspective. Trying to understand one's culture, having a perspective
of one's culture, is needed to understand people. But it does not follow that morality must be
based only on said culture.

The problem with moving from cultural perspective to cultural relativism is the erosion of reason
that it causes. Rather than simply saying, "we need to understand the morals of other cultures,"
it says, "we cannot iudge the morals of other cultures. regardless of the reasons for their
actions. There is no longer any perspective, and it becomes literally impossible to argue that
anything a culture does is right or wrong, If we hold on to strict cultural relativism, it is not
possible to say that human sacrifice is "wrong," or that respect for the elderly is "right." After all,
those are products of the culture. This takes any talk of morality right over the cliff, and into
meaningless gibberish.

Likewise,logical analysisof cultural relativism yields contradictory implications: Relativism in

general breaks down when examined from a purely logical perspective. The basic premise is
that "truth is relative." If every truth statement is valid, then the statement "some truths are
absolute" must be valid. The statement "there are no absolute truths" is accurate, according to
relativism - but it is an absolute truth itself These contradict the very concept of relativism,
meaning that absolute relativism is self-contradictory and impossible.